1.
Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
2.
Wine color
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The color of wine is one of the most easily recognizable characteristics of wines. Color is also an element in wine tasting since heavy wines generally have a deeper color, the accessory traditionally used to judge the wine color was the tastevin, a shallow cup allowing one to see the color of the liquid in the dim light of a cellar. The color is an element in the classification of wines, the color of the wine mainly depends on the color of the drupe of the grape variety. The Teinturier grape is an exception in that it also has a pigmented pulp, the blending of two or more varieties of grapes can explain the color of certain wines, like the addition of Rubired to intensify redness. Red drupe grapes can produce white wine if they are quickly pressed, the color is mainly due to plant pigments, notably phenolic compounds. The color depends on the presence of acids in the wine, the use of a wooden barrel in aging also affects the color of the wine. The color of a wine can be due to co-pigmentation of anthocyanidins with other non-pigmented flavonoids or natural phenols. Rosé wine is made by the practice of saignée or by blending a white wine with a red wine, the presence of a complex mixture of anthocyanins and procyanidins can increase the stability of color in wine. As it ages, the wine undergoes chemical reactions involving acetaldehyde of its pigments molecules. The newly formed molecules are stable to the effect of pH or sulfite bleaching. The new compounds include pyranoanthocyanins like vitisins, pinotins and portosins, malvidin glucoside-ethyl-catechin is a flavanol-anthocyanin adduct. Flavanol-anthocyanin adducts are formed during wine ageing through reactions between anthocyanins and tannins present in grape, with yeast metabolites such as acetaldehyde, acetaldehyde-induced reactions yield ethyl-linked species such as malvidin glucoside-ethyl-catechin. This compound has a better stability at pH5.5 than malvidin-3O-glucoside. When the pH was increased from 2.2 to 5.5, the exposure of wine to oxygen in limited quantities can be beneficial to the wine. Castavinols are another class of colorless molecules derived from colored anthocyanin pigments, in model solutions, colorless compounds, such as catechin, can give rise to new types of pigments. The first step is the formation of colorless dimeric compounds consisting of two units linked by carboxy-methine bridge. This is followed by the formation of xanthylium salt yellowish pigments and their ethylesters, resulting from the dehydration of the colorless dimers, the loss of a water molecule takes place between two A ring hydroxyl groups of the colorless dimers. The main colors of wine are, Gray, as in vin gris, orange, as in orange wine, a white wine that has spent some time in contact with its skin, giving it a slightly darker hue
3.
Juice
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Juice is a beverage made from the extraction or pressing out of the natural liquid contained in fruit and vegetables. It can also refer to liquids that are flavored with these or other food sources such as meat. Juice is commonly consumed as a beverage or used as an ingredient or flavoring in foods or other beverages, juice emerged as a popular beverage choice after the development of pasteurization methods allowed for its preservation without using fermentation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimated the world production of citrus fruit juices to be 12,840,318 tonnes in 2012. The largest fruit juice consumers are New Zealand and Colombia, fruit juice consumption on average increased with country income level. The word juice comes from Old French in about 1300, it developed from the Old French words jus, juis, jouis, the Old French jus juice, sap, liquid. From Latin ius broth, sauce, juice, soup, from PIE root *yeue- to blend, the use of the word juice to meanthe watery part of fruits or vegetables was first recorded in the early 14th century. Since the 19th century, the juice has also been used in a figurative sense. Today, au jus refers to meat served along with its own juice, juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating fruit or vegetable flesh without the application of heat or solvents. For example, orange juice is the extract of the fruit of the orange tree. Juice may be prepared in the home from fresh fruit and vegetables using a variety of hand or electric juicers, many commercial juices are filtered to remove fiber or pulp, but high-pulp fresh orange juice is a popular beverage. Additives are put in some juices, such as sugar and artificial flavours, common methods for preservation and processing of fruit juices include canning, pasteurization, concentrating, freezing, evaporation and spray drying. After the fruits are picked and washed, the juice is extracted by one of two automated methods. In the first method, two cups with sharp metal tubes on the bottom cup come together, removing the peel. The juice of the fruit then escapes through small holes in the tube, the peels can then be used further, and are washed to remove oils, which are reclaimed later for usage. The second method requires the fruits to be cut in half before being subjected to reamers, which extract the juice. After the juice is filtered, it may be concentrated in evaporators, Juices are concentrated by heating under a vacuum to remove water, and then cooling to around 13 degrees Celsius. About two thirds of the water in a juice is removed, the juice is then later reconstituted, in which the concentrate is mixed with water and other factors to return any lost flavor from the concentrating process
4.
Winemaking
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Winemaking or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from fruits or plants. Mead is a wine that is made with honey being the primary ingredient after water, Winemaking can be divided into two general categories, still wine production and sparkling wine production. The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology, a person who makes wine is traditionally called a winemaker or vintner. After the harvest, the grapes are taken into a winery, at this stage red wine making diverges from white wine making. Red wine is made from the must of red or black grapes and fermentation occurs together with the grape skins, white wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice, the skins are removed and play no further role. Occasionally white wine is made from red grapes, this is done by extracting their juice with minimal contact with the grapes skins. Rosé wines are made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color or by blending red wine with white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the contained in the skins. To start primary fermentation yeast may be added to the must for red wine or may occur naturally as ambient yeast on the grapes or in the air, yeast may be added to the juice for white wine. During this fermentation, which takes between one and two weeks, the yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol. The carbon dioxide is lost to the atmosphere, after the primary fermentation of red grapes the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemakers discretion, the wine is kept warm and the remaining sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The next process in the making of red wine is malo-lactic conversion and this is a bacterial process which converts crisp, green apple malic acid to soft, creamy lactic acid softening the taste of the wine. Red wine is transferred to oak barrels to mature for a period of weeks or months. The wine must be settled or clarified and adjustments made prior to bottling, the time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for wine of good structure with high levels of acid, tannin or sugar. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year. Depending on the quality of grape and the wine style
5.
Stainless steel
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In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10. 5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its resistance, and it is widely used for food handling. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, however, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments. There are various grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure, Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present, unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by making it easier for more iron oxide to form, since iron oxide has lower density than steel, the film expands and tends to flake and fall away. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation and this layer prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and stops corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough, Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are made of stainless steel. This also influences its use in kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized. High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% chromium. The chromium forms a layer of chromium oxide when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous, the layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, when forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling. Galling can be avoided by the use of materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel. However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a voltaic pile, nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling, low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication
6.
Redox
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Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
7.
Fermentation in winemaking
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The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage. During fermentation, yeasts transform sugars present in the juice into ethanol, in winemaking, the temperature and speed of fermentation are important considerations as well as the levels of oxygen present in the must at the start of the fermentation. The natural occurrence of fermentation means it was probably first observed long ago by humans, the Latin fervere means, literally, to boil. The most common genera of yeasts found in winemaking include Candida, Klöckera/Hanseniaspora, Metschnikowiaceae, Pichia. Wild yeasts can produce high-quality, unique-flavored wines, however, they are unpredictable and may introduce less desirable traits to the wine. The cultured yeasts most commonly used in winemaking belong to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, the use of different strains of yeasts is a major contributor to the diversity of wine, even among the same grape variety. Alternative, non-Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeasts are being used more prevalently in the industry to add complexity to wine. After a winery has been in operation for a number of years, the use of active dry yeasts reduces the variety of strains that appear in spontaneous fermentation by outcompeting those strains that are naturally present. The addition of cultured yeast normally occurs with the yeast first in a dried or inactive state and is reactivated in warm water or diluted grape juice prior to being added to the must. To thrive and be active in fermentation, the yeast needs access to a supply of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus as well as access to various vitamins. These components are present in the grape must but their amount may be corrected by adding nutrients to the wine. Newly formulated time-release nutrients, specifically manufactured for wine fermentations, offer the most advantageous conditions for yeast. Oxygen is needed as well, but in making, the risk of oxidation. During this process, the carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide with the remaining components becoming acetaldehyde. The absence of oxygen in this process allows the acetaldehyde to be eventually converted, by reduction. During the conversion of acetaldehyde, an amount is converted, by oxidation, to acetic acid which, in excess. After the yeast has exhausted its life cycle, they fall to the bottom of the tank as sediment known as lees. The metabolism of amino acids and breakdown of sugars by yeasts has the effect of creating other biochemical compounds that can contribute to the flavor and aroma of wine
8.
Yeast in winemaking
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The role of yeast in winemaking is the most important element that distinguishes wine from grape juice. In the absence of oxygen, yeast converts the sugars of wine grapes into alcohol, the more sugars in the grapes, the higher the potential alcohol level of the wine if the yeast are allowed to carry out fermentation to dryness. Sometimes winemakers will stop fermentation early in order to some residual sugars. If fermentation is stopped, such as when the yeasts become exhausted of available nutrients. Despite its widespread use which often includes deliberate inoculation from cultured stock, grapes brought in from harvest are usually teeming with a variety of wild yeast from the Kloeckera and Candida genera. These yeasts often begin the process almost as soon as the grapes are picked when the weight of the clusters in the harvest bins begin to crush the grapes. For most of the history of wine, winemakers did not know the mechanism that somehow converted sugary grape juice into alcoholic wine and this history is preserved in the etymology of the word yeast itself which essentially means to boil. In the mid-19th century, the French scientist Louis Pasteur was tasked by the French government to study what made some wines spoil. His work, which would lead to Pasteur being considered one of the Fathers of Microbiology. The yeast species commonly known as Saccharomyces cerevisiae was first identified in late 19th century enology text as Saccharomyces ellipsoideus due to the shape of the cells. Throughout the 20th century, more than 700 different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were identified, some of these difference include the vigor or speed of fermentation, temperature tolerance, the production of volatile sulfur compounds and other compounds that may influence the aroma of the wine. The primary role of yeast is to convert the present in the grape must into alcohol. It is through this process of fermentation that ethanol is released by the yeast cells as a waste product and this includes glycerol which is produced when an intermediate of the glycolysis cycle is reduced to recharge the NADH enzyme needed to continue other metabolic activities. This is usually produced early in the process before the mechanisms to reduce acetaldehyde into ethanol to recharge NADH becomes the cells primary means of maintaining redox balance. This includes selecting yeast strains that favor glycerol production, increased oxygen exposure, other by-products of yeast include, Methanol – Caused by the demethylation of pectins in the must by enzymes of the yeast. More commonly found in red wines than white but only in small amounts between 20–200 mg/L. Fusel oils – Formed by the decomposition of amino acids by the yeast, succinic acid – Like glycerol, this is often formed early in fermentation. Usually found in concentrations of 500–1200 mg/L, it is an acid in the overall acidity of wine
9.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It has been instrumental to winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times and it is believed to have been originally isolated from the skin of grapes. It is one of the most intensively studied model organisms in molecular and cell biology. It is the microorganism behind the most common type of fermentation, S. cerevisiae cells are round to ovoid, 5–10 μm in diameter. It reproduces by a process known as budding. Many proteins important in biology were first discovered by studying their homologs in yeast, these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins. S. cerevisiae is currently the only yeast cell known to have Berkeley bodies present, antibodies against S. cerevisiae are found in 60–70% of patients with Crohns disease and 10–15% of patients with ulcerative colitis. Saccharomyces derives from Latinized Greek and means sugar-mold or sugar-fungus, saccharo being the combining form sugar, cerevisiae comes from Latin and means of beer. Refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains, in 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of S. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time, lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications. In nature, yeast cells are primarily on ripe fruits such as grapes. Since S. cerevisiae is not airborne, it requires a vector to move, queens of social wasps overwintering as adults can harbor yeast cells from autumn to spring and transmit them to their progeny. The intestine of Polistes dominula, a wasp, hosts S. cerevisiae strains as well as S. cerevisiae × S. paradoxus hybrids. The optimum temperature for growth of S. cerevisiae is 30–35 °C, two forms of yeast cells can survive and grow, haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth and this is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth. The rate at which the cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells. Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores and this is the sexual form of the fungus
10.
Pressing (wine)
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Pressing in winemaking is the process where juice is extracted from grapes. This can be done with the aid of a press, by hand, or even by the weight of the own grape berries. In white wine production, pressing usually takes place immediately after crushing or/and before primary fermentation, approximately 60-70% of the available juice within the grape berry, the free-run juice, can be released by the crushing process and doesnt require the use of the press. In practice the volume of many wines are made from 85-90% of free-run juice, the timing of pressing and the methods used will influence other decisions in the winemaking process. In white wine making, pressing usually happens immediately after harvest, here, the biggest decision will be how much pressure to apply and how much pressed juice the winemakers wants in addition to the free-run juice. Some grape varieties, such as Sémillon and Aurore have very liquidy pulps that releases juice easily without needing much pressure that could risk tearing the skins, other varieties, such as Catawba, have much tougher pulps that will require more pressing. In red wine production the timing of when to press is one of the most important decisions in the making process since that will be the moment that maceration. Some winemakers use the sugar level scale and press once the wine has reached complete dryness. Often winemakers will use taste to determine if the wine has extracted enough tannins to produce a balanced wine, in these years winemakers might press early, a process that the Australians call short vatting. Grape pulp contains a lot of pectins that create colloid coagulation with these solids that will make the difficult to stabilize. Some winemakers will use pectolytic enzymes during the process to help break down the cell walls to allow the release of more juice freely. These enzymes are used with white wines to assist in clarification. The type of pressing used and the amount of suspended solids plays a role in filtering decisions as a high amount of suspended solids can clog. The earliest wine press was likely the human foot or hand, the pressure applied by these manual means was limited and these early wines were likely pale in color and body. Eventually humans discovered that more juice could be extracted and potentially a better wine could be produced if they developed ways of pressing and it begin with the ancient Egyptians who developed a sack press made of cloth that was squeezed with the aid of a giant tourniquet. The ancient Greeks and Romans developed large wooden wine presses that utilized large beams, capstans and that style of wine press would eventually evolve into the basket press used in the Middle Ages by wine estates of the nobility and Catholic Church. There are many records that showed feudal land tenants were willing to pay a portion of their crop to use a landlords wine press if it was available. This was likely because added volume of wine that pressing could produce versus manual treading was substantial enough to justify the cost, winemaking text began recommending the use of mechanical pressings over feet treading in lagars
11.
History of the wine press
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The earliest wine press was probably the human foot or hand, crushing and squeezing grapes into a bag or container where the contents would ferment. By at least the 18th dynasty, the ancient Egyptians were employing a sack made of cloth that was squeezed with the aid of a giant tourniquet. The wines produced by these presses were usually darker, with more color extracted from the skins, in the 17th century, French traveller Sir Jean Chardin would describe a similar practice still in use thousands of years later in Georgia. The earliest evidence of deliberate winemaking is from excavation at sites like Areni-1 winery in what is now the Vayots Dzor Province of Armenia. This site, dating back to around 4000 BC included a trough that measured about 3 by 3 1/2 feet, a modified version of this sack press had the sack hung between two large poles with workers holding each pole. After the grapes were loaded into the sack, the workers would walk in opposite directions, squeezing the grapes in the bag and capturing the juice in a vat underneath the bag. This early wine press not only had the benefit of exerting pressure on the skins and extracting more juice than treading. One of the earliest known Greek wine presses was discovered in Palekastro in Crete, like most of the earlier presses, it was mainly a stone basin for treading the grapes by feet with a run off drain for the juice to flow. However, there is evidence that some of the later Cretan winemakers would use a pressing method similar to how olive oil was extracted from olives. This press would entail laying the grapes out underneath several planks of wood, the wine made from these rudimentary pressing wasnt held in high esteem by the Greeks, often tainted with impurities and having a short shelf life. Much more prized was the produced from free run juice that was released by the grapes under their own weight before any treading or pressing. This wine was believed to be the most pure and was used for medicinal purposes. In the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder wrote a vivid and detailed account of the workings of early Roman wine presses, the press would consist of a large horizontal beam held up by two upright fixtures in the front and on upright fixture in the front. The grapes were placed under the beam with pressure was applied by a windlass that was affixed by rope to the front of the beam, rope would also be used wound around the cake of the pressed grape skins to help keep it in place. Marcus Terentius Varro, Columella and Virgil would also include descriptions of the workings of wine presses in their agricultural treatises, yet despite their frequent mentions in ancient writings and archaeological evidence showing the presence of wine presses throughout the Roman empire, their use was actually relatively rare. This was because having a press was a very expensive and large piece of equipment that most Roman farmers, outside the estate holding patricians. Instead, it was more common for Roman estates to have large tanks or trough where grapes were tread upon by feet or paddles. Varro also described in his work De re rustica a type of pressed wine known as lorca that was produced by the left over grape skins being soaked in water that was served to slaves and farm workers
12.
Sparkling wine production
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Sparkling wine is a wine that becomes carbonated, either through fermentation or by addition of carbon dioxide. The oldest known production of sparkling wine took place in 1531 with the ancestral method, Champagne is the most well-known variant, but there are other variations such as Spanish Cava, Italian Spumante, Crémant from France and Sekt from Germany. Overall, more or less dry wines are most common among the sparkling wines. In popular parlance and also in the title of this article the term sparkling is used for all wines that produce bubbles at the surface after opening, under EU law the term sparkling has a special meaning that does not include all wines that produce bubbles. For this reason the terms fizzy and effervescent are sometimes used to include all bubbly wines, the following terms are increasingly used to designate different bottle pressures, Beady is a wine with less than 1 additional bar of pressure. Semi-sparkling is a wine with 1 to 2.5 additional bars of pressure, semi-sparkling wines include wines labelled as Frizzante, Spritzig, Pétillant and Pearl. Sparkling is a wine with above 3 additional bars of pressure and this is the only wine that can be labelled as sparkling under EU law. Sparkling wines include wines labelled as Champagne, Cava, Mousseux, Crémant, Espumoso, Sekt, fermentation of sugar into alcohol during winemaking always means that carbon dioxide is released. Carbon dioxide has the property of being soluble in water. Production always starts from a base wine, Champagne production the base wine is usually a blend of wines from different grape varieties and different wineries, where the distribution gives the final wine its special character, called cuvée. In some commonly used methods the base wine undergoes a secondary fermentation, in this way the carbon dioxide content is created which, after opening the bottle, produces the bubbles. The dead yeast cells form a precipitate called lees, that helps with appealing aromas to the sparkling wine. The lees is therefore normally removed before the wine is distributed, the main methods used to make sparkling wines are often given as seven, with some variations. The following table shows the features of each method. The methods are described in the text. It should be noted that each method there may be variations from one producer to another. The so-called classic way to sparkling wine is popularly known as the Champagne method or méthode classique which is the official EU designation. Formerly, the designation was méthode champenoise but this designation is no longer permitted, as the former designation suggests, the method is used for the production of most Champagne, and it is slightly more expensive than the Charmat method
