1.
Mexicans
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Mexicans are the people of the United Mexican States, a multiethnic country in North America. Mexicans can also be those who identify with the Mexican cultural and/or national identity, the Mexica founded Mexico-Tenochtitlan in 1325 as an altepetl located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico. It became the capital of the expanding Mexica Empire in the 15th century, at its peak, it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in the central part of Mexico City. In 2015,21. 5% of Mexicos population in Mexico self-identify as being indigenous, there are about 12 million Mexican nationals residing outside of Mexico, with about 11.7 million living in the United States. The larger Mexican diaspora can also include individuals that trace ancestry to Mexico, the Nahuatl language was a common tongue in the region of modern Central Mexico during the Aztec Empire, but after the arrival of Europeans the common language of the region became Spanish. Mexicano is derived from the word Mexico itself, in the principal model to create demonyms in Spanish, the suffix -ano is added to the name of the place of origin. Another hypothesis suggests that Mēxihco derives from the Nahuatl words for Moon and this meaning might then refer to Tenochtitlans position in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form of a rabbit, still another hypothesis suggests that it is derived from Mēctli, the goddess of maguey. The term Mexicano as a word to describe the different peoples of the region of Mexico as a group emerged in the 16th century. In that time the term did not apply to a nationality nor to the limits of the modern Mexican Republic. The document stated, el venturoso descubrimiento que los Mexicanos han hecho, Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of mestizaje. The word has somewhat pejorative connotations and most of the Mexican citizens who would be defined as mestizos in the sociological literature would probably self-identify primarily as Mexicans, in Chiapas the word Ladino is used instead of mestizo. White Mexicans are Mexican citizens of full European descent, another group in Mexico, the mestizos, also include people with varying amounts of European ancestry, with some having a European admixture superior to 90%. Because of this, the line between whites and mestizos has become rather blur, and the Mexican government decided to abandon racial classifications. Intermixing would produce a group which would become the majority by the time of Independence. However, at its height, the immigrant population in Mexico never exceeded twenty percent of the total. Many of these came with money to invest and/or ties to allow them to become prominent in business
2.
Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
3.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
4.
Puerto Palomas, Chihuahua
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Puerto Palomas de Villa, also known simply as Palomas, is a small town of 4,688 people in the municipality of Ascensión, in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It borders the village of Columbus, New Mexico, in the United States, Palomas is located in the Chihuahuan Desert at an approximate elevation of 4100 feet above sea level. Because of this high elevation, in addition to its location in far north Mexico. Puerto Palomas is a border crossing for the El Paso area. Most US tourists come to purchase low-cost prescription drugs, get dental work done, or visit The Pink Store, the store has arts and crafts from all across Mexico, while the restaurant is known for its dishes made from queso menonita produced in the state of Chihuahua. A hotel is located a few blocks away at the corner of Progreso and 5 de Mayo Avenue, Pancho Villa launched his attack on Columbus, New Mexico, on March 9,1916, from Palomas. In retaliation, the United States launched the Pancho Villa Expedition, under General John J. Pershing, notwithstanding more than a year of effort, including one of the first large-scale uses of motorized transport by the U. S. Army, Pancho Villa was not captured. During this campaign, a young Lt. George S. Patton, later to be known as General Patton, during his service and accompanied by ten soldiers of the 6th Infantry Regiment, Patton killed two Mexican leaders, including General Julio Cárdenas, commander of Villas personal bodyguard. For this action, as well as Pattons affinity for the Colt Peacemaker, Pattons success in this regard gained him a level of fame in the United States, and he was featured in newspapers across the nation. Several public schools are located in Palomas and these schools require fees to be paid from the households of the students. As of the 2013-2014 school year,421 residents of Palomas attend the schools of Deming Public Schools in the United States, birth in the United States automatically confers citizenship. Almost 75% of students at Columbus Elementary School in Columbus, New Mexico, official Web Site For Palomas, Mexico
5.
Chihuahua (state)
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Chihuahua, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, is one of the 32 states of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua City and it is located in Northwestern Mexico and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a border with the U. S. adjacent to the U. S. states of New Mexico. Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with an area of 247,455 square kilometres, the state is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande. Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any state in Mexico. Due to its variant climate, the state has a variety of fauna. The state is characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains, there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley. The etymology of the name Chihuahua has long disputed by historians. The most accepted theory explains that the name was derived from the Nahuatl language meaning The place where the water of the rivers meet, Chihuahua has a diversified state economy. The three most important economic centers in the state are, Ciudad Juárez, a manufacturing center, Chihuahua, the state capital, and Delicias. Today Chihuahua serves as an important commercial route prospering from billions of dollars from international trade as a result of NAFTA, on the other hand the state suffers the fallout of illicit trade and activities especially at the border. The earliest evidence of inhabitants of modern day Chihuahua was discovered in the area of Samalayuca. Clovis points have been found in northeastern Chihuahua that have dated from 12,000 BC to 7000 BC. It is thought that these inhabitants were hunter gatherers, inhabitants of the state later developed farming with the domestication of corn. An archeological site in northern Chihuahua known as Cerro Juanaqueña revealed squash cultivation, irrigation techniques, between AD300 and 1300 in the northern part of the state along the wide, fertile valley on the San Miguel River the Casas Grandes culture developed into an advanced civilization. The Casas Grandes civilization is part of a prehistoric archaeological culture known as Mogollon which is related to the Ancestral Pueblo culture. Paquime was the center of the Casas Grandes civilization, extensive archaeological evidence shows commerce, agriculture, and hunting at Paquime and Cuarenta Casas
6.
Anarchism in the United States
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As the post-World War II era anarchism regained influence through new developments such as anarcho-pacifism, the American new left and the counterculture of the 1960s. To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism. The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration, the economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism. At the beginning of the 19th century, around 80% of the male population were self-employed. The great majority of Americans during this time were working their own land, primarily for their own needs. While communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are forms of industrial socialism, historian Wendy McElroy reports that American individualist anarchism received an important influence of 3 European thinkers. Another major foreign influence was the german philosopher Max Stirner, after success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren, considered to be the first individualist anarchist, after New Harmony failed Warren shifted his ideological loyalties from socialism to anarchism. Warren was a follower of Owen and joined Owens community at New Harmony, Warren termed the phrase Cost the limit of price, with cost here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Therefore, e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did and they could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce. He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental labor for labor store called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism and these included Utopia and Modern Times. Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid, Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, Civil Disobedience is an essay by Thoreau that was first published in 1849. Thoreau was motivated in part by his disgust with slavery and the Mexican–American War and it would influence Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Buber and Leo Tolstoy through its advocacy of nonviolent resistance. It is also the main precedent for anarcho-pacifism, Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of American individualist anarchist and transcendentalist Thoreau. In his book Walden, he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization, many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against Civilization, Readings
7.
Emma Goldman
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Emma Goldman was an anarchist political activist and writer. She played a role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America. Born in Kovno, Russian Empire to a Jewish family, Goldman emigrated to the United States in 1885, attracted to anarchism after the Haymarket affair, Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy, womens rights, and social issues, attracting crowds of thousands. She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman, her lover and lifelong friend, planned to assassinate industrialist, Frick survived the attempt on his life in 1892 and Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years followed, for inciting to riot. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth, in 1917, Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to induce persons not to register for the newly instated draft. After their release from prison, they were arrested—along with hundreds of others—and deported to Russia, in 1923, she published a book about her experiences, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life, after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. She died in Toronto on May 14,1940, aged 70, during her life, Goldman was lionized as a free-thinking rebel woman by admirers, and denounced by detractors as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution. Her writing and lectures spanned a variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love. Although she distanced herself from first-wave feminism and its efforts toward womens suffrage, after decades of obscurity, Goldman gained iconic status by a revival of interest in her life in the 1970s, when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest. Emma Goldmans Orthodox Jewish family lived in the Lithuanian city of Kaunas, Goldmans mother Taube Bienowitch had been married before, to a man with whom she had two daughters—Helena in 1860 and Lena in 1862. When her first husband died of tuberculosis, Taube was devastated, Goldman later wrote, Whatever love she had had died with the young man to whom she had been married at the age of fifteen. Taubes second marriage was arranged by her family and, as Goldman puts it and her second husband, Abraham Goldman, invested Taubes inheritance in a business that quickly failed. The ensuing hardship combined with the distance of husband and wife to make the household a tense place for the children. When Taube became pregnant, Abraham hoped desperately for a son and they eventually had three sons, but their first child was Emma. Emma Goldman was born on June 27,1869 and her father used violence to punish his children, beating them when they disobeyed him. He used a whip on Emma, the most rebellious of them and her mother provided scarce comfort, rarely calling on Abraham to tone down his beatings
8.
Magonism
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Magonism is an anarchist, or more precisely anarcho-communist, school of thought precursor of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The same Ricardo Flores Magón affirmed, Liberal Party members are not magonistas, in his literary work Verdugos y Víctimas, one of the characters responds indignantly when he was arrested and judged, Im not a magonist, I am an anarchist. They were also influenced by the works of Marx, Gorky, fernando Palomares, a Mayo indigenous, was one of the most active members of the Liberal Party who took part in the Cananea strike and libertarian campaign of 1911 in Mexicali and Tijuana. In the post-revolutionary Mexico, the figures of Flores Magón brothers was recollected by governments, also the magonistas considered not fighting to change the administrators of the state, but to abolish them. For this reason, the survived magonistas continued to spread anarchist propaganda, the Mexican Anarchist Federation, founded in 1941 and active for about 40 years, edited the newspaper Regeneración and spread magonist thought. In the 1980s the magonism survived among some youth anarcho-punk groups, in 1994, when the Zapatista Army of National Liberation took up arms in Chiapas, claimed the ideas of the Flores Magón brothers. In the popular uprising of Oaxaca of 2006, took part organizations, rubén Trejo, Magonismo, utopía y revolución, 1910-1913. 2005, Cultura Libre - ISBN 970-9815-00-8 M. Ballesteros, J. C, maldonado, Magonismo y Movimiento Indígena en México. 2003, Ce-Acatl AC An overview about the magonism Ricardo Flores Magón Archive
