1.
Nidaros Cathedral
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Nidaros Cathedral is a Church of Norway cathedral located in the city of Trondheim in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. Built over the site of Saint Olav, the king of Norway in the 11th century. It is the location for the consecration of the King of Norway. It was built from 1070 to 1300, and designated as the cathedral for the Diocese of Nidaros in 1152, after the Protestant Reformation, it was taken from the Roman Catholics by the Lutheran Church in 1537. It is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world, Nidaros Cathedral was built beginning in 1070 to memorialize the burial place of Olav II of Norway, the king who was killed in 1030 in the Battle of Stiklestad. He was canonized as Saint Olav a year later by the bishop of Nidaros and it was designated the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros from its establishment in 1152 until its abolition in 1537 under the Reformation. Since the Reformation, it has served as the cathedral of the Lutheran bishops of Trondheim in the Diocese of Nidaros, the architectural style of the cathedral is Romanesque and Gothic. Historically it has been an important destination for pilgrims coming from all of Northern Europe, along with Vår Frue Church, the cathedral is part of the Nidaros og Vår Frue parish in the Nidaros deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros. Work on the cathedral as a memorial to St. Olav started in 1070 and it was finished some time around 1300, nearly 150 years after being established as the cathedral of the diocese. The cathedral was damaged by fires in 1327 and again in 1531. The nave was destroyed and was not rebuilt until the restoration in early 1900s, in 1708, the church burned down completely except for the stone walls. It was struck by lightning in 1719, and was ravaged by fire. Major rebuilding and restoration of the started in 1869, initially led by architect Heinrich Ernst Schirmer. It was officially completed in 2001, maintenance of the cathedral is an ongoing process. The oldest parts of the cathedral consist of the octagon with its surrounding ambulatory and this was the site of the original high altar, with the reliquary casket of Saint Olav, and choir. Design of the octagon may have inspired by the Corona of Canterbury Cathedral. Similarly, the choir shows English influence, and appears to have been modeled after the Angel Choir of Lincoln Cathedral and it is joined to the octagon by a stone screen that fills the entire east side of the choir. Built into the side of the ambulatory is a small well
2.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
3.
Church of Norway
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The Church of Norway, from 2017 called the Peoples Church, is a Lutheran denomination of Protestant Christianity that serves as the peoples church and the largest church in Norway. The church was established after the Lutheran reformation in Denmark–Norway in 1536–1537 broke ties with the Holy See, the church professes the Lutheran Christian faith, with its foundation on the Bible, the Apostles, Nicene and Athanasian Creeds, Luthers Small Catechism and the Augsburg Confession. The church is a member of the Porvoo Communion with 12 other churches and it has also signed some other ecumenical texts, including the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification with the Roman Catholic Church. Until 1969, the name for administrative purposes was simply the State Church or sometimes just the Church. While the church remains state-funded and integrated in the administration with a special constitutional role, it is largely self-governing in doctrinal matters. On 27 May,2016, Stortinget passed a new bill that establishes the Church of Norway as an independent legal entity rather than a branch of the civil service, the Church of Norway officially ceased to be the state church on January 1,2017. Until 1845 the Church of Norway was the only religious organization in Norway. Dissenterloven was a passed by the Storting on 16 July 1845 that allowed the establishment of alternative religious bodies. This bill was in 1969 replaced by Lov om trudomssamfunn og ymist anna, until 2012 the constitutional head of the church was the King of Norway, who is obliged to profess himself a Lutheran. After the constitutional amendment of May 21,2012, the church is self-governed with regard to doctrinal issues, bishops and priests are civil servants also after the 2012 constitutional reform. Each parish has an autonomous administration, the state itself does not administer church buildings, buildings and adjacent land instead belong to the parish as an independent public institution. The Minister of Church Affairs, Trond Giske, was responsible for proposing the 2012 amendments, the church itself explained that, In 2012 the Parliament changed the constitution such that Norway no longer has a public religion. The Church of Norway can accordingly no longer be labeled as state church, a bill passed in 2016 created the Church of Norway as an independent legal entity, effective from 1 January 2017. The church has a structure, with 1,284 parishes,106 deaneries,11 dioceses and since 2 October 2011. The dioceses are – according to the rank of the five historic sees and then according to age, Nidaros, seated in Trondheim, bishops, Presiding Bishop of Nidaros and Bishop of Nidaros Cathedral Deanery Helga Haugland Byfuglien, Bishop of Nidaros Tor Singsaas. Bjørgvin, seated in Bergen, covering the counties of Hordaland, Oslo, seated in Oslo, covering Oslo and parts of the county of Akershus. Stavanger, seated in Stavanger, covering the county of Rogaland, Hamar, seated in Hamar, covering the counties of Hedmark and Oppland. Nord-Hålogaland, seated in Tromsø, covering the counties of Troms and Finnmark, agder og Telemark, seated in Kristiansand, covering the counties of Vest-Agder, Aust-Agder and Telemark
4.
Islam in Norway
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Islam is the second largest religion in Norway after various forms of Christianity, with Muslims representing 0. 1% of the population according to official statistical data. However, other sources give estimates of 1-3. 7%, the majority of Muslims in Norway are Sunni, with a significant Shia minority. In 2013, government statistics registered 120,882 members of Islamic congregations in Norway,0. 1% more than in 2012, 55% lived in the counties of Oslo and Akershus. Scholarly estimates regarding the number of people of Islamic background in Norway vary between 120,000 and 163,000, the vast majority have an immigrant background, with Norwegians of Pakistani descent being the most visible and well-known group. Icelandic annals relate the arrival of embassies from the Muslim sultan of Tunis in Norway in the 1260s, the population of Muslims in the country has not been noticeable until the latter half of the 20th century, however. Immigration from Muslim countries to Norway began late compared to other western-European countries, in 1975, labor immigration to Norway was halted, but rules for family reunification were relatively relaxed for several more years. The number of Muslims in Norway was first registered in official statistics in 1980 and these statistics are based on membership of a registered congregation, and it is most likely that the low number is due to the fact that few Muslims were members of a mosque. Historian of religion Kari Vogt estimates that 10% of Norwegian Muslims were members of a mosque in 1980, being a member of a mosque was an alien concept to many immigrants from Muslim countries. In Norway, it is necessary for the mosques to register their members, the number of registered members of mosques increased to 80,838 in 2004, but have since dropped to 72,023 in 2006. Part of the reason for the drop could be a new methodology in the compilation of statistics, in the end of the 1990s, Islam passed the Roman Catholic Church and Pentecostalism to become the largest minority religion in Norway, provided Islam is seen as one group. In 2004, the registered Muslims were members of 92 different congregations,40 of these were based in Oslo or Akershus counties. Muslims in Norway are a fragmented group, coming from many different backgrounds. Kari Vogt estimated in 2000 that there were about 500 Norwegian converts to Islam, the rest are mostly first or second generation immigrants from a number of countries. The largest immigrant communities from Muslim countries in Norway are from Pakistan, Iraq and Somalia, An unknown, in other words, the largest group of Norwegian Muslims originate in Pakistan, but no single nationality constitute as much as a quarter of the total population. The Turkish, Pakistani and Iranian communities are established in Norway. 55% of Iranians have lived in Norway more than 10 years, the Iraqis are a more recent group, with 80% of the Iraqi community having arrived in the past 10 years. In the 1990s there was a wave of asylum seekers from the Balkans, in recent years most immigrants arrive as part of family reunification. Mosques have been important, not just as places of prayer, several mosques also do different forms of social work, e. g. importantly, organising the transport of deceased members back to their countries of origin for burial
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Pentecostalism in Norway
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Pentecostal congregations in Norway is the largest Protestant free church in Norway with a total membership at 39,590 people in 2009. Thomas Ball Barratt brought Pentecostalism to Norway in 1907, Barratt initially did not want to establish a new Christian movement, rather, he wanted to spark a revival in existing churches. When this failed, he started a branch of the Pentecostal movement in Norway, Barratt was particularly influenced by other missionaries in Europe who had come from the recent Azusa Street Revival. Further, he often read Azusa Streets newspaper called the Apostolic Faith newspaper, Barratt was effective in Sweden, Denmark and England, and when he visited Denmark in 1907, that was the beginning of the Danish Pentecostal movement. It is said that Barratt was significant for the establishment of the Pentecostal movement in several European countries, there are over 280 Pentecostal churches in Norway. Most are traditional churches but congregations with different concepts have also been established, for example, Jesus Church is targeted at young people
6.
Eastern Orthodoxy in Norway
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Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Norway is a small minority religion in Norway with 11,205 official members in 2012, up from 2,315 in 2000. Since the Viking age Scandinavians and specifically Norwegians came into contact both the Byzantine Empire and their neighbors, the Russians. Several of the Viking chiefs and kings not only resided in Novgorod, at some point during the late ninth or early tenth century Kiev fell under the rule of Varangians and became the nucleus of the Rus polity. In a number of sources it is in fact the Scandinavavians whom were known as Rus. In the 16th century a Russian missionary, St. Tryphon of Pechenga, evangalized some of the Sami population of Norway, following the socialist revolution in 1917, a number of Orthodox refugees from Russia fled to Scandinavia, first to Sweden and eventually to Norway. The Orthodox Church in Russia organized pastoral work among them through the church in Stockholm, in 1931, St. Nikolai church was established in Oslo. This congregation of Russian tradition sorts under the Patriarchate of Constantinople and was the first modern Orthodox congregation established in Norway, the 1960s and 1970s saw in influx of Orthodox from Greece in addition to the first known conversions of Norwegians in modern times. Through immigration from both Russia, the former Yugoslavia and other Eastern European countries the number of Orthodox Christians in Norway has increased significantly since 1990. The first modern Orthodox congregation, St. Nikolai Orthodox Church, is under the juridstriction of the Patriarchal Exarchate for Orthodox Parishes of Russian Tradition in Western Europe. While this adheres to the Russian or Slavic tradition, the Norwegian language is used along with Slavonic. The priest in Songdalen is in charge of St. Herman of Alaska Orthodox Community, there are several affiliate or mission communities in Bergen and Stavanger as well as a chapel in Bygstad and St. Georges chapel at Neiden. In addition there is a small skete dedicated to St. Tryphon of Pechenga, the Greek Community The primarily Greek congregation of the Annunciation of the Theotokos was founded in 1965 with main purpose of serving the Greek-speaking Orthodox community in Norway. This church sorts under Metropolitan Pavlos Menevissoglou of Sweden and all of Scandinavia, the congregation celebrates the Divine Liturgy approximately once a month through the services of Archimandrite Evmenios Likakis or other Greek clergy who travel to Oslo for the occasion. The main parish of the Moscow Patriarchate, St. Olgas, was founded in Oslo in 1996, today, there are also independent churches under the Moscow Patriarchate in Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim and Kirkenes. In addition, the Moscow Patriarchate sponsors work in Tromsø and in the Russian settlement of Barentsburg on Svalbard, Russian communities in North Norway have often been attended to by Russian clergymen of the Moscow Patriarchate. Christianity in Norway The Moscow Patriarchate Churches in Norway The Annunciation of the Theotokos St. Nikolai Orthodox Church St. Herman of Alaska Orthodox Community
7.
Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Norway
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The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church, or the Free Church as it is commonly known, is a nationwide Lutheran church in Norway consisting of 81 congregations and 21,817 baptized members. It was founded in 1877 in Moss and it is distinct from the Church of Norway, although both churches are members of the Lutheran World Federation. The Free Church is economically independent, the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church is founded on the Bible and the Lutheran Churchs confession. In the Free Church it is those who are baptized and confess the Christian faith who have the voting power and it has the authority to call its clergy and all other personnel, and it passes its own church laws
8.
Norwegian Humanist Association
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The Norwegian Humanist Association is one of the largest secular humanist associations in the world, with 84,300 members. Those members constitute 1. 7% of the population of 5,038,100. Founded in 1956, the HEF is a member of the International Humanist, the Norwegian Humanist Association is an organization for people who base their ethics on human, not religious values. Most members are agnostics or atheists, former HEF secretary general, Levi Fragell, was president of the IHEU and is Chair of IHEU’s Committee for Growth and Development. In June,2007 Åse Kleveland became chairman of the Board of the organization, according to its bylaws, the organization works to ensure access to humanist ceremonies and spreading knowledge of humanism. The organization previously also worked for a separation of church and state, a civil confirmation organized by HEF has gained popularity among the Norwegian young during recent years. About 17 percent of Norwegian 15-year-olds are now taking part in HEFs civil confirmation, on July 9,2006 a prominent member of the Norwegian Humanist Association, Mr. Jens Brun-Pedersen, called for prime minister Jens Stoltenberg to advocate the separation of church and state. The Norwegian Humanist Association hosted the 18th World Humanist Congress of the IHEU, the Congress was held at the Oslo Congress Center in Oslo, Norway, on the 12–14 August 2011. The theme was Humanism and Peace, HEF also hosted the 3rd in 1962 and the 9th in 1986. A youth wing of the HEF, Norwegian Humanist Youth, was founded in August 2007, the current President of the Board is Anders Garbom Backe. Norwegian Heathen Society Official website of the Norwegian Humanist Association Member magazine - Fri tanke Norwegian Humanist Youth
9.
Norwegians
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Norwegians are a Germanic ethnic group native to Norway. They share a culture and speak the Norwegian language. Towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, Proto-Indo-European speaking Battle-Axe peoples migrated to Norway bringing domesticated horses, agriculture, cattle, during the Viking age, Harald Fairhair unified the Norse petty kingdoms after being victorious at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in the 880s. Two centuries of Viking expansion tapered off following the decline of Norse paganism with the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century, during The Black Death, approximately 60% of the population died and in 1397 Norway entered a union with Denmark. In 1814, following Denmark-Norways defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway entered a union with Sweden, rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained officially neutral in World War I, the country was allied with the Entente powers. In World War II Norway proclaimed its neutrality, but was occupied for five years by Nazi Germany. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO, discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norways economic fortunes but in referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU. Key domestic issues include integration of a fast growing immigrant population, maintaining the countrys generous social safety net with an aging population, as with many of the people from European countries, Norwegians are spread throughout the world. There are more than 100,000 Norwegian citizens living abroad permanently, mostly in the U. S, Norwegian Vikings travelled north and west and founded vibrant communities in the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, and northern England. They conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin, in 947, a new wave of Norwegian Vikings appeared in England when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. Apart from Britain and Ireland, Norwegian Vikings established settlements in largely uninhabited regions, the first known permanent Norwegian settler in Iceland was Ingólfur Arnarson. In the year 874 he settled in Reykjavík, after his expulsion from Iceland Erik the Red discovered Greenland, a name he chose in hope of attracting Icelandic settlers. Viking settlements were established in the fjords of the southern and western coast. Eriks relative Leif Eriksson later discovered North America, during the 17th and 18th centuries, many Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands, particularly Amsterdam. The Netherlands was the second most popular destination for Norwegian emigrants after Denmark, loosely estimated, some 10% of the population may have emigrated, in a period when the entire Norwegian population consisted of some 800,000 people. The Norwegians left with the Dutch trade ships that when in Norway traded for timber, hides, herring, young women took employment as maids in Amsterdam. Young men took employment as sailors, large parts of the Dutch merchant fleet and navy came to consist of Norwegians and Danes
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Culture of Norway
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The culture of Norway is closely linked to the countrys history and geography. The unique Norwegian farm culture, sustained to this day, has resulted not only from scarce resources, in the 14th century, it brought about a strong romantic nationalistic movement, which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media. In the 19th century, Norwegian culture blossomed as efforts continued to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature, art and this continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions, cultural projects and artwork. Norways culinary traditions show the influence of long seafaring and farming traditions with salmon, herring, trout, cod, lefse is a common Norwegian wheat or potato flatbread, eaten around Christmas. For renowned Norwegian dishes, see Rakfisk, smalahove, pinnekjøtt, Krotekake, Kompe, several Norwegian authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, namely Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun in 1920 and Sigrid Undset in 1928 for Kristin Lavransdatter. Ibsen wrote plays such as Peer Gyynt, A Dolls House, Hedda Gabler, Norwegian literature attained international acclaim in the 1990s with Jostein Gaarders novel Sophies World which was translated into 40 languages. Norway has always had a tradition of building in wood, indeed, many of todays most interesting new buildings are made of wood, reflecting the strong appeal that this material continues to hold for Norwegian designers and builders. In the early Middle Ages, stave churches were constructed throughout Norway, many of them remain to this day and represent Norway’s most important contribution to architectural history. A fine example is The Stave Church at Urnes which is now on UNESCO’s World Heritage List, another notable example of wooden architecture is the Bryggen in Bergen, consisting of a row of narrow wooden structures along the quayside. In the 17th century, under the Danish monarchy, cities such as Kongsberg with its Baroque church, after Norway’s union with Denmark was dissolved in 1814, Oslo became the capital. Architect Christian H. Grosch designed the oldest parts of the University of Oslo, the Oslo Stock Exchange, at the beginning of the 20th century, the city of Ålesund was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style. The 1930s, when functionalism dominated, became a period for Norwegian architecture. One of the most striking buildings in Norway is the Sami Parliament in Kárášjohka designed by Stein Halvorson. Its debating chamber is an abstract version of a Lavvo. For an extended period, the Norwegian art scene was dominated by artwork from Germany and it was in the 19th century that a truly Norwegian era began, first with portraits, later with even more impressive landscapes. Johan Christian Dahl, originally from the Dresden school, eventually returned to paint the landscapes of west Norway, frits Thaulow, an impressionist, was influenced by the art scene in Paris as was Christian Krohg, a realist painter, famous for his paintings of prostitutes. Of particular note is Edvard Munch, a symbolist/expressionist painter who became famous for The Scream which is said to represent the anxiety of modern man. Other artists of note include Harald Sohlberg, a neo-romantic painter remembered for his paintings of Røros and Odd Nerdrum, the oldest Norwegian photograph is from Hans Thøger Winther dating back to 1840
11.
Architecture of Norway
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The architecture of Norway has evolved in response to changing economic conditions, technological advances, demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts. Norways architectural trends are seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries. Prior to the Viking Age, wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant, during the Middle Ages, the geography dictated a dispersed economy and population. As a result, the traditional Norwegian farm culture remained strong, in the 20th century, Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand, and innovation on the other. Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work, both within Norway—where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy—and outside Norway, in several innovative projects, until modern times, transportation infrastructure was also primitive, and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials. Traces of these can be found at the Vega archipelago, an area that is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BC, with the introduction of agriculture to Norway. Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures, Iron Age dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in long houses in order to preserve heat. Remains of structures from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age, most prehistoric long houses had pairs of roof-bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves, and walls of palisades, wattle and daub or turf. Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe, two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners, the other was the stave building tradition, possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof-bearing posts dug into the ground. Although there is scant archaeological evidence of buildings from the earliest permanent structures. In the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway, a Viking chieftains holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum, not counting the 28 remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are log houses, some with added stave-built galleries or porches, as the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time. Fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and these structures followed the European styles of their time. Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages, until the beginning of the 19th century, as many as 150 stave churches still existed. The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves to prevent them from rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an art and science. After the Reformation, however, no new churches were built
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Norwegian art
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For much of its history Norwegian art is usually considered as part of the wider Nordic art of Scandinavia. It has, especially since about 1100, been influenced by wider trends in European art. After World War II, the influence of the United States strengthened substantially, due to generous art subsidies, contemporary Norwegian art has a high production per capita. Norwegian art came into its own in the 19th century, especially with the landscape painters. Until that time, the art scene in Norway had been dominated by imports from Germany and Holland, initially with landscape painting, later with Impressionism and Realism. Though for the rest of the world Edvard Munch is certainly Norways great artistic figure, there have many other significant figures. Johan Christian Dahl is often said to be the father of Norwegian landscape painting, after a period in Copenhagen, he joined the Dresden school to which he made an important contribution. He eventually returned to paint the landscapes of western Norway, defining Norwegian painting for the first time, another important early contributor was Johannes Flintoe, a Danish-Norwegian painter, known for his Norwegian landscapes and paintings of folk costumes. He taught at the School of Drawing in Christiania from 1819 to 1851 where his students included budding romanticists such as Hans Gude, adolph Tidemand studied in Copenhagen, in Italy and finally in Düsseldorf where he settled. He often returned to Norway where he painted the old Norwegian farm culture and his best known painting is The bridal procession in Hardanger and Haugianerne painted in 1852. Frits Thaulow, 1847–1906, an impressionist, was initially a student of Hans Gude and he was later influenced by the art scene in Paris where he developed impressionist talents. Returning to Norway in 1880, he one of the leading figures on the Norwegian art scene, together with Christian Krohg. Christian Krohg, 1852–1925, a realist painter, was influenced by the Paris scene. He is remembered for his paintings of prostitutes which caused something of a scandal, thorolf Holmboe studied under Hans Gude in Berlin between 1886 and 1887 and Fernand Cormon in Paris between 1889 and 1891. He was inspired by different styles at different points in his career. Nikolai Astrup grew up in Jølster in the west of Norway, after studying art in Oslo and spending some time in Paris and in Germany, he returned to Jølster where he specialised in painting neo-romantic landscapes with clear, strong colors. He is remembered as one of the greatest Norwegian artists from the early 20th century, lars Hertervig from Tysvær in south-western Norway painted semi-fantastical works inspired by the coastal landscape in Ryfylke. Hertervig completed a number of works on paper using aquarelles and often making the base himself from scrapes of discarded pieces of paper
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Cinema of Norway
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Norway has had a notable cinema industry for some time. The first film produced domestically in Norway was a short about fishermen, Fiskerlivets farer, the first feature was released in 1911, produced by Halfman Nobel Roede. In 1931 Tancred Ibsen, grandson of the playwright, presented Norways first feature-length sound film, through the 1930s Ibsen dominated the nations film industry, with Leif Sinding in second place. Ibsen produced conventional melodramas more or less on the model of Hollywood films, in the early 21st century a few Norwegian film directors have had the opportunity to go to Hollywood to direct various independent films. As of 2011, nearly 900 films had been produced in Norway, jacobsen Philip Øgaard Svein Krøvel The Norwegian equivalent of the Academy Awards is the Amanda award, which is presented during the annual Norwegian Film Festival in Haugesund. The prize was created in 1985, the documentary Kon-Tiki by Thor Heyerdahl received the Academy Award for Documentary Feature at the 24th Academy Awards in 1951. It is the feature film in Norwegian history to win an Academy Award. As of 2013, five films from Norway have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, Nine Lives, The Pathfinder, The Other Side of Sunday, Elling and Kon-Tiki. Other alternatives for more higher education in film include, Bachelor degree in Film-. Bachelor degree in Film Science at Norwegian University of Science and Technology
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Norwegian cuisine
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Norwegian cuisine in its traditional form is based largely on the raw materials readily available in Norway and its mountains, wilderness and coast. It differs in many respects from its counterparts with a stronger focus on game. Many of the dishes are results of using conserved materials. Most Norwegians eat three or four regular meals a day, usually consisting of a cold breakfast with coffee, a lunch at work. Depending on the timing of family dinner, some may add a cold meal in the late evening, the basic Norwegian breakfast consists of milk or fruit juice, coffee, and open sandwiches with meat cuts, spreads, cheese or jam. Cereals such as flakes, muesli and oatmeal are also popular, particularly with children. Norwegians usually eat dinner around 4-5 PM and this is the most important meal of the day and typically includes carbohydrate-rich foods such as potatoes and protein-rich foods such as meat or fish. Norwegians usually eat supper around 7-8 PM and this may be some open bread sandwich. Particularly sought after include the fenalår, a slow-cured lambs leg. Due to a survival of an early medieval taboo against touching dead horses, eating horse meat was nearly unheard of until recent decades. Lambs meat and mutton is very popular in autumn, mainly used in fårikål, pinnekjøtt, cured and sometimes smoked mutton ribs that are steamed for several hours, is traditionally served as Christmas dinner in the western parts of Norway. Another Western specialty is smalahove, a salted, or salted and smoked, other meat dishes include, Kjøttkaker - meatcakes, rough and large cakes of ground beef, onion and salt and pepper. Roughly the size of a childs fist, potatoes, stewed peas or cabbage and carrots are served on the side. Many like to use a jam of lingonberries as a relish, the pork version is called medisterkake. Kjøttboller - meatballs, A rougher version of the Swedish meatballs, served with mashed potatoes and cream-sauce or sauce espagnole depending on the locality. Svinekoteletter - pork chops, simply braised and served with potatoes, svinestek - roast pork, a typical Sunday dinner, served with pickled cabbage, gravy, vegetables and potatoes. All good cuts of meat are roasted, as in any cuisine, side dishes vary with season and what goes with the meat. Roast leg of lamb is an Easter classic, roast beef is not very common, lapskaus - stew, resembles Irish stew, but mincemeat, sausages or indeed any meat except fresh pork may go into the dish
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Media of Norway
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Media of Norway outlines the current state of the press, television, radio, film and cinema, and social media in Norway. Reporters Without Borders ranks Norway 2nd in its Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Freedom of the press in Norway dates back to the constitution of 1814. Most of the Norwegian press is owned and self-regulated, however. The two companies dominating the Norwegian terrestrial broadcast television are the governmental owned NRK and TV2, other, long-running channels are TVNorge and TV3. National radio is dominated by the public-service company NRK, which is funded from the licence fee payable by the owners of television sets. NRK provides programming on three radio channels – NRK P1, NRK P2, and NRK P3 – broadcast on FM, a number of further specialist channels are broadcast exclusively on DAB, DVB-T, and the internet including Radio Norway Direct Norways new English language Radio Station. Additionally, there are a number of radio stations as well as local radio stations run by various non-profit organizations. As of August 2009, it was estimated that 1,156,000 Norwegians use Facebook, for comparison, the total number of inhabitants is about 4,830,000. The Press Association is responsible for Pressens Faglige Utvalg, which oversees the Ethical Code of Practice for the Norwegian Press, the Broadcasting Council oversees the state-owned Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. The Norwegian Media Authority contributes to the enforcement government regulations, as with other related countries, the Norwegian media is often criticized of being biased towards the political left. Political scientist Frank Aarebrot claims to present evidence of this in terms of both Norwegian journalists and editors and he also expressed concern that journalists who sympathise with the Progress Party may have a lesser chance to get hired than journalists with political sympathies close to editors. For instance, in the actual 2009 election, the Progress Party received 41 mandates, the Christian Democratic Party and Center Party would also have been left without representation, while the revolutionary socialist party Red would enter parliament with 9 mandates. The Socialist Left and Liberal Party would also receive significant gains, the notion of political bias based on the sum of individuals party selection has been criticized. Among others, conservative historian and politician Francis Sejersted holds that the media is neither left-slanted nor right-slanted. This means that media across the spectrum have a tendency to choose the same angle on a case, focusing on personification. Når kildene byr opp til dans, søkelys på Stortingets presselosje og politikkens medierammer. Om markedsorientering og journalistikk i ti norske aviser, ottosen, Rune, Røssland, Lars Arve, Østbye, Helge. Pressedekningen av den ikke-vestlige verden 1902-2002
16.
Music of Norway
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Norway is a rather sparsely populated country in Europe, but even so its music and its musical life are as complex as those of most other countries. Much has been learned about music in Norway from physical artifacts found during archaeological digs. These include instruments such as the lur, viking and medieval sagas also describe musical activity, as do the accounts of priests and pilgrims from all over Europe coming to visit St Olafs grave in Trondheim. In the later part of the 19th century, Norway experienced economic growth leading to greater industrialization and urbanization, more music was established in the cities, and opera performances and symphony concerts were considered to be of high standards. In this era both prominent composers and performers combined the European traditions with Norwegian tones, the import of music and musicians for dance and entertainment increased, and this continued in the 20th century, even more so when gramophone records and radio became common. In the last half of the 20th century, Norway, like other countries in the world. Before 1840, there were limited sources of folk music in Norway. Originally these historical attainments were believed to have a distinct Christian influence, as research continued, there was also mythical and fairy tale connections to the folk music. Overall the purpose of music was for entertainment and dancing. Norwegian folk music may be divided into two categories, instrumental and vocal, as a rule instrumental folk music is dance music. Norwegian folk dances are dances and usually performed by couples, although there are a number of solo dances as well. Norway has very little of the ceremonial dance characteristic of other cultures, dance melodies may be broken down into two types, two-beat and three-beat dances. The former are called halling, gangar or rull, whereas the latter are springar or springleik, Traditional dances are normally referred to as bygdedans. These dances, sometimes called courting dances were often connected to the important events of life, weddings, funerals. Folk music in Norway falls in another 2 main categories based in the populations from which they spring, North Germanic. Traditional Sami music is centered around a vocal style called joik. Originally, joik referred to one of several Sami singing styles. Its sound is comparable to the chanting of some American Aboriginal cultures
17.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
18.
Tourism in Norway
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The main tourist attractions of Norway are the bird-indented coastlines and its mountain, the unspoiled nature of the outer parts of the continent, and the countries and smaller cities. The main attractions of Norway are the landscapes that extend across the Arctic Circle. It is famous for its coastline and its mountains, ski resorts, lakes. The main tourism cities in Norway are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger, Trondheim, much of the nature of Norway remains unspoiled, and thus attracts numerous hikers and skiers. The fjords, mountains and waterfalls in Western and Northern Norway attract several hundred thousand foreign tourists each year, the culture of Norway evolved as a result of its sparse population, harsh climate, and relative isolation from the rest of Europe. It is therefore distinct from other countries in Europe in that it has fewer opulent palaces and castles, smaller agricultural areas, regionally distinct architecture, crafts, and art are presented in the various folk museums, typically based on an ethnological perspective. Norsk Folkemuseum at Bygdøy in Oslo is the largest of these, Norway is a very popular attraction for winter sports. Some of the most popular skiing resorts are, Trysil Hemsedal Hafjell Beitostølen etc, the Norwegian highway system covers more than 90,000 kilometres, of which about 67,000 are paved. The highway system includes ferry transit across waterways, numerous bridges and tunnels, some of these mountain passes are closed during the winter months, and some may close during winter storms. With the opening of the Oresund Bridge and the Great Belt Fixed Link, Norway is connected to the European continent by a highway connection through Sweden. The 4,058 kilometres long rail network connects most of the cities south of Bodø. The Norwegian rail network is connected to the Swedish network. Oslo Airport, Gardermoen is the most important airport in Norway, most cities and towns have nearby airports, and some of the largest also have international flights. The cruise ferry Hurtigruten connects the cities on the coast between Bergen and Kirkenes, in the summer, the coastal cities are visited by numerous foreign cruise ships, Bergen being the main cruise port. As of 2008, Norway ranks 17th in the World Economic Forums Travel, innovation Norway, a state-owned promotion company which is also in charge of tourism affairs, makes annual reports on the countrys most visited tourist attractions, both cultural and natural. The 2007 report lists 50 cultural and 20 natural attractions, in January 2009, the National Building Museum presented the exhibition Detour, Architecture and Design along 18 National Tourist Routes in Norway. The exhibition, which was created in collaboration with the Norwegian Embassy, was available for view until May 2009, World Heritage Sites in Norway Norwegian Mountain Touring Association List of museums in Norway Scandinavian Mountains Airport VisitNorway. com
19.
Norwegian diaspora
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The Norwegian diaspora consists of Norwegian emigrants and their descendants, especially those that became Norwegian Americans. Emigrants also became Norwegian Canadians, Norwegian Australians, Norwegian New Zealanders, Norwegian Brazilians, Kola Norwegians, norsemen left the area that is now the modern state of Norway during the Viking Era expansion, with results including the settlement of Iceland and the conquest of Normandy. In the 1500s and 1600s there was a small scattering out of Norwegian people, the 19th century wave of Norwegian emigration began in 1825. The Midwestern United States, especially the states of Wisconsin and Minnesota, was the destination of most people who left Norway, the first modern Norwegian-American settlement in Minnesota was at Norwegian Ridge, in what is now Spring Grove, Minnesota. Early emigrant communities in the United States were a market for books written in Norwegian principally from the 1890s to 1930s. Torbjørg Lie, a writer for the Decorah-Posten, imagined her readers not so much adopting a new country as living in a diaspora. Meanwhile, newspapers in Norway were also eager to publish letters that recent emigrants had written home, according to scholar Daniel Judah Elazar, It was the Norwegian diaspora in the United States which initiated the separation of Norway from Sweden, which led to Norwegian independence in 1905. The Norwegian-American community overwhelmingly favored independence of Norway from Sweden, one petition from Chicagos Norwegian-American community bore 20,000 signatures. President Theodore Roosevelt did not change his stance, however, as of 2006 there are over 5,000,000 Norwegian Americans. In Canada in a 2006 survey,432,515 people reported Norwegian ancestry,55,475 Americans spoke Norwegian at home as of 2000, and the American Community Survey in 2005 showed that 39,524 people use the language at home. The Sons of Norway, originally a small fraternal benefit organization, now has more than 60,000 members in America and it is dedicated to promoting Norwegian culture and traditions. The Vesterheim Norwegian-American Museum in Decorah, Iowa, is the oldest and most comprehensive museum in the United States devoted to a single immigrant ethnic group. It was founded in 1877 in association with nearby Luther College, King Harald V of Norway was present in October 2012 for the celebration of Luther Colleges sequicentennial. Self-identified Norwegians, whether in Norway or elsewhere, celebrate Syttende Mai on May 17 as Norwegian Constitution Day and they may hold a childrens parade, wear traditional clothing, or display ribbons of red, white, and blue. Norwegians in Sweden maintain their own Norwegian band Det Norske Korps for these celebrations, members of the Norwegian emigrant community in the United States took a special pride in Norway hosting the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. Sons of Norway List of US Communities where Norwegian is spoken Norse colonization of the Americas Scandinavian migration to the United Kingdom Scandinavian diaspora
20.
Norwegian Australian
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Norwegian Australians are Australian citizens of Norwegian ancestry. The majority of people were part of the Norwegian diaspora. An organised European immigration to Australia was initiated in 1788, most of the early emigrants were deported from Britain to the Penal Colony. The most famous was probably Knud Geelmuyden Bull, from Bergen, organised emigration began with a single person in 1867, two the next year and 15 emigrants in 1869. There was a strong growth, with 50 in 1870,221 in 1871,784 in 1872,354 in 1873,36 in 1874,76 in 1875 and 42 in 1876. In 1880, a further 595 Norwegians emigrated to Australia, in 2008,800 people celebrated the Norwegian Constitution Day in Brisbane. The 17 May celebrations in Brisbane have in recent years been considered to be the largest celebration of the Norwegian national day in the southern hemisphere, Australia is one of the most popular countries for Norwegian students. Half of the Norwegian students in Australia and New Zealand are members of ANSA — the Association of Norwegian Students Abroad, the Norwegian Embassy in Canberra cooperates closely with ANSA Australia, and has for instance its own column in ANSA Australias magazine ANZA. The Archer brothers Eidsvold, Queensland, after Eidsvoll, Norway
21.
Scandinavian Brazilian
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Scandinavian Brazilians refers to Brazilians of full or partial Scandinavian ancestry, or Scandinavian-born people residing in Brazil. The Scandinavian settlement in Brazil began in the mid to late 19th century and was predominant then, many Scandinavians came to Brazil for economic reasons and to start a new life. In recent years, many Norwegians and Swedes have migrated to the zone of the State of Rio Grande do Norte and Ceará, attracted by the beaches. In 1768, the scientist Daniel Solander, disciple of Carl von Linné, was the first known Swede to arrive in Brazil. The relations between Brazil and Sweden were rooted in the ties between the Brazilian and Swedish royal families, and in the Swedish emigration to Brazil at the end of the 19th century. The wife of King Oscar I of Sweden and Norway, Queen Josephine, was a sister to Empress Amelia, diplomatic relations between Brazil and Sweden were established in 1826. In the Riddarholmen Church in Stockholm, where many Swedish royals are buried, there are commemorative plaques of Emperors Pedro I, diplomatic relations between Brazil and Sweden were established in 1826. The first Swedish emigrants arrived in Brazil in 1890, and in 1909 the first sea line between the two countries was initiated, mass emigration from Norway started circa 1865–1866, after the civil war was over. Several ship-owners saw the opportunity to earn money by transporting migrants to the New World. United States, Canada and Brazil received many Norwegians, in Curitiba, one of the first Scandinavian of note to arrive was Alfredo Andersen, an artist who arrived towards the end of the 19th century and painted well into the 1930s. The Museu Alfredo Andersen contains much of his work, located in Paraná, in addition, Icelandic immigrants settled there in 1863 and again in 1873. Examples of this immigration is the Karlson House in Guarani das Missões, the Svenska Kulturhuset in the district of Linha Jansen, Swedish cultural groups include the Ovenska Danser ballet of Ijuí, RS and the Ballet Patrícia Johnson of Bento Gonçalves, RS. In April 2010, the City of Nova Roma, RS celebrated the 120th anniversary of the Swedish immigration to the city. Earlier, in 1991, the city of Ijui, RS celebrated the immigration of the Scandinavians to their city with the opening of a Swedish Cultural Center in the city. There was also significant immigration of Swedish and Danish citizens to São João da Boa Vista, in the 1920s, Danish immigrants in rural parts of Aiuruoca laid the foundation for the modern Brazilian cheese production. The Scandinavian Church in Brazil is a part of The Swedish Church Abroad - which belongs to The Swedish Church and they offer services for Scandinavians or persons with Scandinavian related interests. They have churches in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, the Norwegian Church Abroad or The Norwegian Seamen’s Church is located in Rio de Janeiro. The Norwegian Church Abroad or The Norwegian Seamens Church is an organisation serving Norwegians
22.
Norwegian Canadians
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Norwegian Canadians refer to Canadian citizens who identify themselves as being of full or partial Norwegian ancestry, or people who emigrated from Norway and reside in Canada. Norwegians are one of the largest European ethnic groups in the country and have contributed greatly to its culture, there are approximately 1.2 million Canadians of Scandinavian descent living in Canada, representing around 3. 9% of Canada’s population. According to the Canada 2011 Census there were 452,705 Canadians who claimed Norwegian ancestry, significant Norwegian immigration took place from the mid-1880s to 1930. Norwegians have played important roles in the history of Canada, Snorri Thorfinnsson aka Snorri Guðriðsson, the son of Thorfinn Karlsefni and his wife Guđriđ, is thought to be the first white baby born in Canada and North America. Although this proved conclusively the Vikings pre-Columbian discovery of North America, there is a consensus among scholars that the Vikings did reach North America, approximately five centuries prior to the voyages of Christopher Columbus. The main sources of information about the Norse voyages to Vinland are two Icelandic sagas, The Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders and these stories were preserved by oral tradition until they were written down some 250 years after the events they describe. The existence of two versions of the shows some of the challenges of using traditional sources for history, because they share a large number of story elements. A brief summary of the plots of the two sagas shows many more examples, the major reason for Norwegian migration appears to be one of economics. Farms in Norway were often small and unable to support a family, added to that was the lack of other employment to augment the family income. Between 1850 and 1910 approximately 681,011 Norwegians made their way to North America, very few originally stayed in Canada but some, after a stay in the American Midwest, made their way across the border and settled in the present provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. One of the earliest Norwegian parties to America in the nineteenth century sailed from Stavanger on July 4,1825 and this party was led by Kleng Pedersen. The ship, Restauration, of 45 tons, master being Helland, was a sloop carrying 52 passengers. To that number was added baby Larson, who was born on the voyage, many of this party were Quakers, leaving Norway for religious reasons. The voyage took 97 days and they arrived in New York on October 9,1825, in 1836 the Norden and Den Norske Klippe sailed to America with 167 passengers. Another two vessels sailed the following year, the British Government repealed the navigation laws in 1849 and from 1850 on, Canada became the port of choice as Norwegian ships carried passengers to Canada and took lumber back to Britain. The Canadian route offered many advantages to the emigrant and they moved on from Quebec by rail and by steamer for another thousand or more miles for a steerage fare of slightly less than $9.00. In 1855 there were eight vessels reported from Norway to Canada in the immigration report, the following year,14 vessels made the voyage averaging 54 days, and carrying 2,821 passengers. One of these vessels, the Orion from Stavanger, was said to carry 50 paupers all heading for the American West but, the passengers of the Gifion, all proceeded to Wisconsin
23.
Icelandic Commonwealth
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With the probable exception of Papar, Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 870. The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure, the first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains, the office of the goði was called the goðorð. The goðorð was not delimited by strict geographical boundaries, thus, a free man could choose to support any of the goðar of his district. The supporters of the goðar were called Þingmenn, in exchange for the goði protecting his interests, the Þingmaðr would provide armed support to his goði during feuds or conflicts. The Þingmenn were also required to attend regional and national assemblies, on a regional level, the goðar of the thirteen district assemblies convened meetings every spring to settle local disputes. The goðar also served as the leaders of the Alþingi, the assembly of Iceland. Today, the Alþingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in existence and it began with the regional assembly at Kjalarness established by Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, son of the first settler. The leaders of the Kjalarnessþing appointed a man named Úlfljótr to study the laws in Norway and he spent three years in Norway and returned with the foundation of Úlfljótr’s Law, which would form the basis for Icelands national assembly. Sections of his law code are preserved in the Landnámabók, the first Alþingi assembly convened around the year 930 at Þingvellir. The Alþingi served as a gathering at which people from all over the country met for two weeks every June. The Alþingi revolved around the Lögrétta, the council of the assembly. The Lögrétta comprised the 39 goðar and their advisors and they also appointed a Lawspeaker once every three years. The Lawspeaker recited and clarified laws at Lögberg, located at the center of Þingvellir, the descendants of Ingólfr Arnarson, the first settler of Iceland, held the ceremonial position of allsherjargoði and had the role of sanctifying the Alþingi each year. Iceland was divided into four administrative regions called fjörðungar, each of these was ruled by nine goðar. The Alþingi was made up of the four Quarter Courts and this judicial body of Iceland consisted of 36 judges, each appointed by one of the goðar. These courts tried individual cases and served as a judicial authority to the regional courts. The rulings of the judges had to be virtually unanimous
24.
Norwegian New Zealander
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Norwegian New Zealanders are New Zealanders of Norwegian ancestry, the majority of whom are part of the Norwegian diaspora. Two Norwegian settlements were established in New Zealand, one in Norsewood, the emigrants arrived there from 1868. In 1878 the number of Norwegian-born was said to be 1,213, Norsewood in New Zealands Seventy Mile Bush started as a Norwegian settlement in 1872. In 1881 New Zealand had 1,271 Norway-born residents, in 1901 there were 1,279, New Zealand and Australia are two of the most popular countries for Norwegian students. There are currently about 200 Norwegians studying in New Zealand, there are also some 2,500 Norwegian students in Australia. Half of the Norwegian students in New Zealand and Australia are members of ANSA - the Association of Norwegian Students Abroad, russell Crowe Teremoana Tapi Taio New Zealand–Norway relations
25.
Kola Norwegians
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The Kola Norwegians were Norwegian settlers along the coastline of the Kola Peninsula in Russia. In 1860 the Russian Tsar Alexander II granted permission for Norwegian settlements on the Kola, around 1870, scores of families from Finnmark in northern Norway departed for the Kola coast, attracted by the prospects of fishing and trade. The Russian authorities granted them privileges to trade with Norway, most of them settled in Tsyp-Navolok on the easternmost tip of the Rybachiy Peninsula. Others settled in Vaydaguba at the tip of the same peninsula. A vibrant society developed, retaining contact with Norway, especially with the town of Vardø, some settlers returned to Norway shortly after the Russian Revolution of 1917, but most of them remained at Tsyp-Navolok. In 1917 perhaps about 1000 lived on the Kola, on 23 June 1940 Lavrenty Beria of the NKVD ordered the Murmansk Oblast, encompassing the entire Kola Peninsula, to be cleaned of foreign nationals. As a result, the entire Norwegian population was deported for resettlement in the Karelo-Finnish SSR, soon they had to move from there too, because of pressures caused by the Finnish invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. In spring 1942, a large proportion died of starvation and malnutrition, despite many having served in the Red Army, they were not allowed to return home to the Kola after the end of the Second World War. Many children were raised without learning to speak Norwegian, some have now migrated to Norway. There are special provisions in Norwegian immigration law which ease this process, in order to obtain a permit to move to Norway and work there, a foreign citizen must show an adequate connection to the country, such as having two or more grandparents who were born there. As for citizenship, it is awarded on the basis as to anyone else - which basis includes the formal renunciation of the original citizenship. By 2004 approximately 200 Kola Norwegians had settled in Norway, in 2007, the small village of Port-Vladimir, the last stronghold of the Kola Norwegians lost its official recognition due to depopulation. Only 98 individuals identified themselves as Norwegians in the 2010 Census of Russia, including 20 in St. Petersburg,11 in Murmansk, population transfer in the Soviet Union Russenorsk Pomors Bjarmaland
26.
Norwegian South African
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Norwegian South Africans are South African citizens of Norwegian ancestry. While most Norwegian emigrants moved to America, some also moved to South Africa, Madagascar, Angola. The number of Norwegians in the whole of Africa in 1920 was 998, the number rose to 1,107 by 1930,651 Norwegians lived in South Africa and 147 in Madagascar. Official migration numbers from 1961 to 2005 are available, in the 1890s added about 90 families, most from Sunnmøre, by boat the long road to South Africa and Kwazulu-Natal. After arrival at Port Shepstone, the families were awarded a lot and one could begin to build a house. In 1882 a party of 246 Norwegian immigrants settled in nearby Marburg near Port Shepstone, although a few went back home and others went to Australia, most Norwegians remain in this area. After a short time they began to build a church, the Norwegian Settlers Church, the church is also a Norwegian museum with things Norwegians brought with them from home, as for example, bunad, tools, kitchen utensils, etc. Norwegians also put their mark on place names in the area with names like Oslo Beach, later Norwegians participated in gold-digging in Johannesburg - and the Norwegian missionaries were among the first who established Christianity in Zululand. Early in the 1900s had the Norwegians already established Norwegian School, Norwegian Lutheran Church, in line with the expanding whaling and the growing Norwegian merchant fleet, reached the Norwegian South Africa climax towards the middle of the 1900s. Durbans major Norwegian ancestors were Abraham Larsen and Jacob Egeland, now there is a thinning in the ranks of the first and second generation immigrants - those who kept their Norwegian identity. A few years ago potetløp was held for children at 17 May. Two years ago the Norwegian society in the years after 110 years of activity, there are still gathering places such as The Norwegian Hall, the former Norwegian Lutheran Church, St. Olavs Church. There are Norwegian names in the directory, Norwegian houses and street names, and there always will be the occasional immigrant with Norwegian names and language intact, such as Rolf Larsen, the last surviving Norwegian whale hunter in Durban. - Aarestad - Andersen - Bergh - Carlsen - Engelstad - Grieg - Grüng - Hansen - Holmsen - Jacobson - Ludick - Larsen
27.
Scandinavian migration to Britain
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Scandinavian migration to Britain is a phenomenon that has occurred at different periods over the past 1,200 years. The 2001 UK Census recorded 22,525 people born in Sweden,18,695 in Denmark,13,798 in Norway,11,322 in Finland and 1,552 in Iceland. Nordic Lutherans have worshipped in England since the 16th century, by the end of the 17th century, two further congregations had been established. There are several long-established Nordic churches in London, all seek to provide Lutheran Christian worship and pastoral care to their respective national communities in their own languages. Many of the churches also organise language classes and a wide range of social activities. The table below includes Britons with significant recent Nordic ancestry, swedes in the United Kingdom Danelaw Scandinavian migration to France
28.
Norwegian Americans
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Norwegian Americans comprise Americans with ancestral roots from Norway. Norwegian immigrants went to the United States primarily in the half of the 19th century. There are more than 4.5 million Norwegian Americans according to the most recent U. S. census, Norwegian Americans currently comprise the 10th largest European ancestry group in the United States. Norsemen from Greenland and Iceland were the first Europeans to reach North America, leif Ericson reached North America via Norse settlements in Greenland around the year 1000. Norse settlers from Greenland founded the settlement of LAnse aux Meadows and Point Rosee in Vinland, in what is now Newfoundland and these settlers failed to establish a permanent settlement because of conflicts with indigenous people and within the Norse community. There was a Norwegian presence in New Amsterdam in the part of 17th century. Hans Hansen Bergen, a native of Bergen, Norway, was one of the earliest settlers of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam having immigrated in 1633, another of the first Norwegian settlers was Albert Andriessen Bradt who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1637. Pieter Van Brugh, Mayor of Albany, New York was the grandson of Norwegian immigrants, approximately 60 persons had settled in the Manhattan area before the British take-over in 1664. How many Norwegians that settled in New Netherland is not known, the Netherlands had strong commercial ties with the coastal lumber trade of Norway during the 17th century and many Norwegians immigrated to Amsterdam. Some of them settled in Dutch colonies, although never in large numbers, there were also Norwegian settlers in Pennsylvania in the first half of the 18th century, upstate New York in the latter half of the same century, and in New England during both halves. The earliest immigrants from Norway to America emigrated mostly because of religious motives, as Religious Society of Friends, organized Norwegian immigration to North America began in 1825, when several dozen Norwegians left Stavanger bound for North America on the sloop Restauration under the leadership of Cleng Peerson. To a great extent, this emigration from Norway was borne out of religious persecution, especially for Quakers and a local religious group. The ship landed in New York City, where it was at first impounded for exceeding its passenger limit. After intervention from President John Quincy Adams, the passengers moved on to settle in Kendall, New York with the help of Andreas Stangeland, many of these immigrants moved on from the Kendall Settlement, settling in Illinois and Wisconsin. In July of that year, a group of six dissenting families, seeking a haven from the official Norwegian state church, set sail from Stavanger in an undersized sloop, the Restaurationen. When it arrived in New York harbor after an arduous 14-week journey, the Restaurationen caused a sensation, local Quakers helped the destitute emigrants, who eventually established a community in upstate New York. Today, their descendants are known as sloopers. While about 65 Norwegians emigrated via Sweden and elsewhere in the years, no emigrant ships left Norway for the New World until the 1836 departures of the Den Norske Klippe
29.
Norwegian Dakotan
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A Norwegian Dakotan is a Norwegian American in the U. S. states of North and South Dakota. One in three of all North Dakotans is of Norwegian heritage, which is the highest among all U. S. states, South Dakota is number three, behind Minnesota. The immigrants settled primarily between 1870 and 1920, as of 2009,312,697 Dakotans claim Norwegian ancestry,21. 4% of the regions population, or 6. 7% of the total Norwegian American population. The first Norwegians arrived in the Dakotas as early as 1859 and it took another ten years before the greater influx of Norwegians took place. Mike Jacobs of WDAY observed that two Governors of North Dakota were born in Norway, almost as good politically as being a native North Dakotan, Norwegian immigrants began arriving in North Dakota in the 1870s. They settled mainly in the eastern and northern parts of the state, because of the lack of farmland in Norway, the Norwegian immigrants sought the wonderful fertile farmland of North Dakota. Some of the immigrants had spent a few years in other states before they arrived in North Dakota. In 1880 the census recorded 8,814 Norwegians in North Dakota, the towns of Columbus and Larson are approximately 100% Norwegian, founded by Columbus Larsson in 1906 and 1907. Columbus had 672 inhabitants in 1960, while it has just 133 in 2010, although these towns have a strong Norwegian heritage, none of the inhabitants speak Norwegian. Like the trend for the rest of North Dakotans, Norwegians are moving out of the rural areas, there are several examples of Norwegian ghost towns in North Dakota, especially in the northwestern part of the state. Telemark settlers found their way to most of the settlements in North Dakota in the late 1870s. In 1880, a band of people from Telemark, settled in the area of what is now Bue in Nelson County and their main cash crop was wheat, and they soon found that raising cattle was also quite lucrative. The main markets were in Valley City and Grand Forks, Sondre Norheim, Father of Modern Skiing, immigrated to North Dakota. On May 30,1884 Sondre and Rannei left Norway together with three of their children– Anne, Åmund and Talleiv and their son Olav and daughter Hæge had left home previously, and their eldest daughter Ingerid, decided to stay back home. Norheim followed in the footsteps of many of his neighbors in Morgedal, after having first settled in Minnesota, they moved to North Dakota, near Villard in McHenry County. He continued to ski when he could, though the climate and it was said he always had a pair of skis placed outside his door. Norheim grew more religious with age and helped build a Lutheran church in Villard and he died in 1897 and was buried in Denbigh, McHenry County, North Dakota. According to the 1860 Census there were 129 Norwegians in South Dakota and that changed fast, in 1880 one-tenth of the population was Norwegian, and in 1889 one-third of the population were Norwegians
30.
Norwegian Minnesotan
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A Norwegian Minnesotan is a Norwegian American in the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of 2009,868,361 Minnesotans claim Norwegian ancestry,16. 5% of Minnesotas population, many Norwegian settlers arrived and lived in various other locations in the United States before permanently settling in Minnesota. The first Norwegian emigrants to come to the United States often settled in the eastern Mid-west, the first Norwegian settlement in Minnesota was Norwegian Ridge, in what is now Spring Grove, Minnesota. As more and more new immigrants came to America there was a increase in population at the original Norwegian settlements. Following the war, the majority of Dakota people were expelled from Minnesota, because the land of Minnesota was subdued by force from the American Indians, land was cheap for the European immigrants who came here. Before long, the immigrant population exploded in Minnesota, Norwegians settled all over the state, but they established the first permanent settlements in the southeast. The first Norwegian settlement in Minnesota was Norwegian Ridge, in what is now Spring Grove, Minnesota, in Houston County, another such settlement was the 1851 colony in Goodhue County, Minnesota. They soon settled in Fillmore County as well, by 1860, half of Minnesotas 12,000 Norwegians resided in Goodhue, Fillmore, and Houston Counties. Ten years later, these three counties were home to nearly 25,000 of Minnesotas 50,000 Norwegian residents, by 1880, there were Norwegian settlements in the counties of Goodhue County, Minnesota, Fillmore, Houston, Freeborn, Steele, and Waseca. Norwegians also made settlements in Blue Earth, Brown, and Watonwan Counties, Lac qui Parle County, the Park Region in west-central Minnesota, and the prairies of southwestern Minnesota. Immigrants also came to the Red River Valley in northwestern Minnesota, settling in the counties of Clay, Marshall, Norman, during the early 1870s, the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad helped increase migration to the Red River Valley. As a result, by 1875 Norwegian immigrants made up a 30 percent of the population of the counties of Polk. Later, immigrants also made homes in Grant, Pennington, Red Lake, Roseau, much of this land belonged to the Lakota and Nakota peoples. Duluth was also a center for Norwegian immigration and its location on Lake Superior provided those Norwegian fishermen with ample employment. As a result, the Norwegian population of Duluth increased dramatically between 1870 and 1900, in 1870,242 Norwegians were counted in Duluth. By 1900 the population had reached 7,500 people of Norwegian ancestry, by the middle of the 1880s, Norwegian migration to Minnesota began to shift to the cities. Most of these were people who were accustomed to city life. Many also planned merely to make money in America and then to return to Norway
31.
Scandinavian Venezuelan
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Scandinavian Venezuelan is a Venezuelan person of full or partial Scandinavian ancestry, or a Scandinavian-born person residing in Venezuela. The Scandinavian settlement in Venezuela are almost unknown with little information about their colonization and it is believed that one of the first Nordic people to come to Venezuela were the Danish Protestant missionaries from the Alianza Escandinava Mission on 1890. Among the first beneficiaries of this policy, it came 48 Danish families from northern Europe, composed of 263 people who were installed in Chirgua, after World War II, emigration from Finland to Latin America continued, but to a smaller degree than before. According to Finnish official statistics, about 500 emigrants left for Latin American countries, Venezuela became then a new country to Finnish emigration. In the course of time small Finnish colonies have sprung up some of South Americas major cities, especially in Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro. On October 1954, the Scandinavian community founded in Caracas, the Scandinavian Congregation with the help of Pastor Åke Kastlund, later they founded the Luteran Church of La Resurrección in La Castellana district, together with the German, Hungarian and Latvian Protestant communities. Some of them celebrates Midsommar, which coincides with Venezuelan festivity of Fiesta de San Juan and it is celebrated with the traditional campfire, songs and dances around the midsommarstång
32.
Languages of Norway
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There are a large number of languages spoken in Norway. Of these, the Norwegian language is the most widely spoken, the most widely spoken language in Norway is Norwegian. It is a North Germanic language, closely related to Swedish and Danish, Norwegian is used by some 95% of the population as a first language. The language has two written standards, Nynorsk and Bokmål, both of which are official. Known as Språkstriden in Norwegian, the Norwegian language struggle is a movement rooted in both Norwegian nationalism and the 400 years of Danish rule in Norway. The koiné language known as Dano-Norwegian which developed in Norwegian cities was the result of Danish replacing Norwegian as the language of the elite in that country, an adoption of Norwegian orthography into the Danish language gave rise to the written standard of Riksmål, which later became Bokmål. By 1920, Nynorsk was being used widely in western Norway and the valleys, where it still has its stronghold. Later, attempts were made to reconcile the two standards into Samnorsk, or Common Norwegian, although this never came to fruition, Riksmål was officially changed to Bokmål in 1929. Nynorsk was developed by the linguist Ivar Aasen in the 1850s, based on rural, spoken Norwegian and its first official codification was in 1901, was given the name Nynorsk in 1929, and has been used officially since 1938. A more conservative variation of Nynorsk exists, called Høgnorsk and it has few active users, but is supported by the Ivar Aasen-sambandet organization, founded in 1965 in response to the samnorsk policy of the government at the time. Sami languages, like Kven and Finnish, belong to the Uralic language family, by far the most spoken form of Sami in Norway is North Sami. The others are Lule Sami, Pite Sami and South Sami, Sami languages are official in seven Norwegian municipalities. Mirroring the situation of Meänkieli in Sweden, Kven is sometimes considered to be a dialect of Finnish, the Romani people are a diaspora population originating in India, and today are spread across all of Europe. The Romani language, an Indo-European, Indo-Aryan language, is split into a number of dialects. Two of these, Tavringer Romani and Vlax Romani, are spoken in Norway, by populations of 6,000 and 500, scandoromani is another Romani dialect indigenous to Norway, as well as Sweden. Because of the nature of the Roma people, there is no geographic stronghold of the Romani language in Norway. There is no estimate on how many Norwegian Traveller speakers there are in Norway, nearly 90% of Norwegians can speak English. The country currently scores in the top 5 of the EF English Proficiency Index and this article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document 2006 edition
33.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
34.
Constitution of Norway
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The Constitution of Norway was first adopted on 16 May and subsequently signed and dated on 17 May 1814 by the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll. 17 May is the National Day of Norway, during May 2014 the Storting passed the most substantial changes since 1814, particularly by including paragraphs on human rights. The most likely goal of the young Crown Prince was reunification with Denmark and his initiative was successful, and a national assembly at Eidsvoll was called. The assembled representatives were elected by the congregations of the church throughout Norway. They convened at the Eidsvoll manor on 10 April, during five weeks of the spring of 1814, the constitution was written. The constitution was ratified by the assembly on 16 May, and signed the following day, the Norwegian constitution was inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the French revolution in 1789 and the subsequent U. S. and French constitutions. The authors Christian Magnus Falsen and Johan Gunder Adler were also influenced by the Spanish Constitution of 1812, a deviation from the republican constitutions of France and the USA was the retention of monarchy. Importing republicanism was seen as an attempt to emulate the French and Americans directly, the choice of monarchy as state form would also facilitate reunification of Denmark-Norway, something the Crown Prince was not alone in seeking. The kings power was severely curtailed. His absolute veto over laws was removed, the council of Eidsvoll chose, not surprisingly, Crown Prince Christian Frederik as king. He was thus chosen, and as such a king by the will of the rather than by the grace of God. In a Europe where almost all countries were ruled by absolute monarchy, diriks is credited with formulating §100, concerning freedom of speech, and §102, guarding against unreasonable searches and seizures. The constitution shows a mix of radical and traditional values. The principle of separation of powers between the executive, legislative and judicial branches was directly inspired by ideas from the US. Suffrage was extended, but was restricted to certain groups of men. All men who were either farmers possessing their own land, civil servants, with this, about half of all Norwegian men were granted the right to vote. The young king and Norwegian officials tried to find backing for their bid for Norway as a sovereign state throughout spring. After failing to secure the support of the United Kingdom, war with Sweden became unavoidable, the Swedish Campaign against Norway was short and decisive
35.
Old Norse religion
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Norse religion refers to the religious traditions of the Norsemen prior to the Christianization of Scandinavia, specifically during the Viking Age. Norse religion is a folk religion and it was the northern variation of the religion practiced in the lands inhabited by the Germanic tribes across most of Northern and Central Europe prior to Roman and Holy Roman incursions. However, it was not formalized nor categorized as a subset of Germanic paganism until it was described by outsiders who came into contact with native practitioners. The Norse - or people of Scandinavia - have always had contact with cultures outside Scandinavia. They were well aware of foreign religions and they traded, intermarried and sometimes worked as henchmen for other cultures, including the Romans. Most titles bestowed upon Norse religion are the ones which were used to describe the religion in a competitive manner, some of these terms were hedendom, Heidentum, Heathenry or Pagan. A more romanticized name for Norse religion is the medieval Icelandic term Forn Siðr or Old Custom, knowledge about Norse religion has been gathered from archaeological discoveries and from literature produced after the Christianization of Scandinavia. The literary sources that reference Norse paganism were written after the religion had declined, the vast majority of this came from 13th-century Iceland, where Christianity had taken longest to gain hold because of its remote location. The key literary texts for the study of Norse religion are the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, the Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus and the Poetic Edda, by an unknown writer or writers. Saga literature informs us of the not only of the literate elite. Sagas are categorized on the basis of events described in the saga took place. Though Sagas are often mythical in nature, the ambitions are to give a realistic description of past events. Many sites in Scandinavia have yielded information about early Scandinavian culture. The oldest extant cultural examples are petroglyphs or helleristninger/hällristningar and these are usually divided into two categories according to age, hunting-glyphs and agricultural-glyphs. The hunting glyphs are the oldest and are found in Northern Scandinavia. These finds seem to indicate an existence based on hunting and fishing. These motifs were gradually subsumed by glyphs with more zoomorphic, or perhaps religious, the glyphs from the region of Bohuslän are later complemented with younger agricultural glyphs, which seem to depict an existence based more heavily on agriculture. These later motifs primarily depict ships, solar and lunar motifs, geometrical spirals and anthropomorphic beings and these finds shows several signs of rituals in a seemingly religious context, including some strong indications of human sacrifice such as the case of the Tollund Man bog body
36.
Sami people
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The Sami people are an indigenous Finno-Ugric people inhabiting the Arctic area of Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of far northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Kola Peninsula of Russia. The Sami are the indigenous people of Scandinavia recognized and protected under the international conventions of indigenous peoples. Sami ancestral lands are not well-defined and their traditional languages are the Sami languages and are classified as a branch of the Uralic language family. Traditionally, the Sami have pursued a variety of livelihoods, including fishing, fur trapping. Their best-known means of livelihood is semi-nomadic reindeer herding, currently about 10% of the Sami are connected to reindeer herding, providing them with meat, fur, and transportation. 2,800 Sami people are involved in herding on a full-time basis. For traditional, environmental, cultural, and political reasons, reindeer herding is legally reserved only for Sami people in regions of the Nordic countries. The Sámi are often known in other languages by the exonyms Lap, Lapp, some Sami regard these as pejorative terms, while others do not. Finn was the originally used by Norse speakers to refer to the Sami, as attested in the Icelandic Eddas. As Old Norse gradually developed into the separate Scandinavian languages, Swedes apparently took to using Finn exclusively to refer to inhabitants of Finland, Finnish immigrants to Northern Norway in the 18th and 19th centuries were referred to as Kvens to distinguish them from the Sami Finns. Ethnic Finns are a group from Sami. In fact, Saxo never explicitly connects the Sami with the two Laplands, there is another suggestion that it originally meant wilds. In Finland and Sweden, Lapp is common in names, such as Lappi, Lappeenranta and Lapinlahti in Finland. As already mentioned, Finn is an element in Norwegian place names. In the North Sámi language, láhppon olmmoš means a person who is lost, Sámi refer to themselves as Sámit or Sápmelaš, the word Sámi being inflected into various grammatical forms. It has been proposed that Sámi, Häme, and perhaps Suomi are of the origin and ultimately borrowed from the Baltic word *žēmē. The Baltic word is cognate with Slavic земля, which means land. The Sámi institutions—notably the parliaments, radio and TV stations, theatres, etc. —all use the term Sámi, including when addressing outsiders in Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, or English
37.
Shamanism
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The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
38.
Christianization
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Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire groups at once. Various strategies and techniques were employed in Christianization campaigns from Late Antiquity, often the conversion of the ruler was followed by the compulsory baptism of his subjects. In essence, it was intended that the traditions and practices still existed, Early works of this type have tended to be downplayed and even dismissed as a form of Protestant apologetics aimed at purification of Christianity. The Council of Jerusalem, according to Acts 15, agreed that lack of circumcision could not be a basis for excluding Gentile believers from membership in the Jesus community. Rather, they instructed new believers to avoid pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, the Apostolic Decree thus helped to establish nascent Christianity as a unique alternative among the forms of Judaism for prospective Proselytes. The Armenian and Ethiopian churches are the instances of imposition of Christianity by sovereign rulers predating the council of Nicaea. The initial conversion of the Roman Empire occurred mostly in areas of Europe. Later conversions happened among the Grecian-Roman-Celtic populations over centuries, often initially among its urban population, the term pagan is from Latin and means villager, rustic, civilian. It is derived from this historical transition, the root of that word is present in todays word paisan or paisano. The Christianization of the Roman Empire is typically divided into two phases, before and after the year 312, which marked the momentous quasi-conversion of Constantine. By this date, Christianity had already converted a significant but unknown proportion of at least the urban population of the empire, Constantine ended the intermittent persecution of Christianity with the Edict of Milan, which granted tolerance to all religions, but specifically mentioned Christianity. Under Constantines successors, Christianization of Roman society proceeded by fits and starts, Constantines sons, for example, banned pagan state religious sacrifices in 341, but did not close the temples. Although all state temples in all cities were ordered shut in 356, under Julian, the temples were reopened and state religious sacrifices performed once more. When Gratian declined the position and title of Pontifex Maximus, his act brought an end to the state religion due to the positions authority. Again, however, this process ended state official practices but not private religious devotion, however, many temples remained open until Theodosius Is edict of Thessalonica in 381 banned haruspices and other pagan religious practices. From 389 to 393 he issued a series of decrees which led to the banning of religious rites and by confiscating their property. Further laws were passed against remaining pagan practices over the course of the following years, the effectiveness of these laws empire-wide is debatable. Christianization of central Balkans is documented at the end of the 4th century, where Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to those mountain wolves, reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity
39.
Christianity in Norway
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Christianity is the largest religion in Norway. Norway has historically been called a Christian country, a majority of the population are members of the Church of Norway with 76. 1% of the population officially belonging to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway in 2013. At numerous times in history, Norway sent more missionaries per capita than any other country and this changed considerably from the 1960s. In 2004, only 12% of the population attended church services each month, citizens born in Norway to one or two Norwegian parents are automatically added to the list of Protestant Christians in Norway, and are required to sign out of the church. There are two categories kept in the books, medlemmer and tilhørige. Members technically have to be baptised, whereas tilhørige are to be out of the books if not baptised by the age of 18. Norwegian citizens tax funds are given to the Protestant Church until one registers as a member of religious group. In 1993, there were 4,981 churches and chapels in Norway, the conversion of Norway to Christianity began in 1000 AD. The raids on Ireland, Britain and the Frankish kingdoms had brought the Vikings in touch with Christianity, Haakon the Good of Norway who had grown up in England tried to introduce Christianity in the tenth century, but had met resistance from pagan leaders and soon abandoned the idea. Anglo-Saxon missionaries from England and Germany engaged in converting Norwegians to Christianity, however, they succeeded in converting Olaf I of Norway to Christianity. Olaf II of Norway had more success in his efforts to convert the population, the Christians in Norway often established churches or other holy sites at places that had previously been sacred under the Norse religion. The spread of conversion can be measured by burial sites as Pagans were buried with grave goods while Christians werent, Christianity had become well established in Norway by the middle of the 11th century and had become dominant by the middle of the 12th century. Stave churches were built of wood without the use of nails in the 13th century, early 21st century, Norway had one of the lowest church attendance rates in the world. Below is a table that compares Norway with other divisions in regular church attendance for the early 21st century. In contrast to 250,000 regular churchgoers in the whole of Norway in 2004,43,500 attend Lakewood Church in the United States each week, and 23,000 attend Hillsong Church in Australia each week. The U. S. state of Alabama has a roughly equal to that of Norway. Below is a table that compares Norway with other countries in importance of religion, the Church of Norway is the state church of Norway. The church confesses the Lutheran Christian faith and it has as its foundation the Christian Bible, the Apostles Creed, Nicene Creed, Athanasian Creed, Luthers Small Catechism and the Augsburg Confession
40.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
41.
Odin
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In Germanic mythology, Odin is a widely revered god. In the modern period, Odin continued to be acknowledged in the folklore of Germanic Europe. Forms of his name appear frequently throughout the Germanic record, though narratives regarding Odin are mainly found in Old Norse works recorded in Iceland and these texts make up the bulk of modern understanding of Norse mythology. In Old Norse texts, Odin is depicted as one-eyed and long-bearded, frequently wielding a spear named Gungnir, and wearing a cloak, Odin is attested as having many sons, most famously the god Baldr with Frigg, and is known by hundreds of names. Odin has an association with Yule, and mankinds knowledge of both the runes and poetry is also attributed to him. In Old Norse texts, Odin is given primacy over female beings associated with the battlefield—the valkyries—and oversees Valhalla, where he receives half of those who die in battle, the other half are chosen by the goddess Freyja for her afterlife location, Fólkvangr. In later folklore, Odin appears as a leader of the Wild Hunt and he has also been associated with charms and other forms of magic, particularly in Old English and Old Norse texts. Odin has been a frequent subject of study in Germanic studies, in the modern period, Odin has inspired numerous works of poetry, music, and other forms of media. He is venerated in most forms of the new religious movement Heathenry, together with other gods venerated by the ancient Germanic peoples, some branches focus particularly on him. The Old Norse theonym Óðinn and its cognates, including Old English Wōden, Old Saxon Wōden, the masculine noun *wōđanaz developed from the Proto-Germanic adjective *wōđaz, related to Latin vātēs and Old Irish fáith, both meaning seer, prophet. Adjectives stemming from *wōđaz include Gothic woþs possessed, Old Norse óðr, mad, frantic, furious, additionally the Old Norse noun æði rage, fury and Old High German wuotī madness derive from the feminine noun *wōđīn, from *wōđaz. Over 170 names are recorded for the god Odin and these names are variously descriptive of attributes of the god, refer to myths involving him, or refer to religious practices associated with the god. This multitude of names makes Odin the god with the most names known among the Germanic peoples, the weekday name Wednesday derives from Old English wōdnesdæg. Cognate terms are found in other Germanic languages, such as Middle Low German wōdensdach, all of these terms derive from Proto-Germanic *Wodensdag, itself a Germanic interpretation of Latin Dies Mercurii. However, in Old High German, the derived from Odins was replaced by a translation of Church Latin media hebdomas. The earliest records of the Germanic peoples were recorded by the Romans and they regard it as a religious duty to offer to him, on fixed days, human as well as other sacrificial victims. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind, in this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as Mercury, Thor as Hercules, and Týr as Mars, and the identity of the Isis of the Suebi has been debated. But their rankings in their respective religious spheres may have very different
42.
Ullr
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The medieval Norse word was Latinized as Ollerus. The Modern Icelandic form is Ullur, in the mainland Scandinavian languages the modern form is Ull. The Thorsberg chape bears an Elder Futhark inscription, one of the earliest known altogether, owlþuþewaz / niwajmariz The first element owlþu, for wolþu-, means glory, glorious one, Old Norse Ullr, Old English wuldor. The second element, -þewaz, means slave, servant, the whole compound is a personal name or title, servant of the glorious one, servant/priest of Ullr. Ollerus ruled under the name Odin for ten years until the true Odin was called back, Ullr is mentioned in the poem Grímnismál where the homes of individual gods are recounted. The English versions shown here are by Thorpe, the name Ýdalir, meaning yew dales, is not otherwise attested. The yew was an important material in the making of bows, and it seems likely that the name Ýdalir is connected with the idea of Ullr as a bow-god. Another strophe in Grímnismál also mentions Ullr, the strophe is obscure but may refer to some sort of religious ceremony. It seems to indicate Ullr as an important god, the last reference to Ullr in the Poetic Edda is found in Atlakviða, Both Atlakviða and Grímnismál are often considered to be among the oldest extant Eddic poems. It may not be a coincidence that they are the ones to refer to Ullr. Again we seem to find Ullr associated with some sort of ceremony, this time that of swearing an oath by a ring, Snorri informs his readers that Ullr can be called ski-god, bow-god, hunting-god and shield-god. In turn a shield can be called Ullrs ship, despite these tantalising tidbits Snorri relates no myths about Ullr. It seems likely that he didnt know any, the god having faded from memory, while the origin of this kenning is unknown it could be connected with the identity of Ullr as a ski-god. Early skis, or perhaps sleds, might have been reminiscent of shields, a late Icelandic composition, Laufás-Edda, offers the prosaic explanation that Ullrs ship was called Skjöldr, Shield. The name of Ullr is also common in warrior kennings, where it is used as other god names are, Ullrs name appears in several important Norwegian and Swedish place names. This indicates that Ullr had at some point a religious importance in Scandinavia that is greater than what is apparent from the scant surviving textual references. It is also significant that the placenames referring to this god are often found close to placenames referring to another deity, Njörðr in Sweden. Some of the Norwegian placenames have a variant form, Ullinn and it has been suggested that this is the remnant of a pair of twin gods and further that there may have been a female Ullin, on the model of divine pairs such as Fjörgynn and Fjörgyn
43.
Heimdallr
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In Norse mythology, Heimdallr is a god who possesses the resounding horn Gjallarhorn, owns the golden-maned horse Gulltoppr, has gold teeth, and is the son of Nine Mothers. Heimdallr is said to be the originator of social classes among humanity, Heimdallr and Loki are foretold to kill one another during the events of Ragnarök. Heimdallr is additionally referred to as Rig, Hallinskiði, Gullintanni, two lines of an otherwise lost poem about the god, Heimdalargaldr, survive. Heimdallr also appears as Heimdalr and Heimdali, the etymology of the name is obscure, but the one who illuminates the world has been proposed. Heimdallr may be connected to Mardöll, one of Freyjas names, Heimdallr and its variants are sometimes modernly anglicized as Heimdall or Heimdal. Heimdallr is attested as having three other names, Hallinskiði, Gullintanni, and Vindlér or Vindhlér, the name Hallinskiði is obscure, but has resulted in a series of attempts at deciphering it. Gullintanni literally means the one with the golden teeth, Vindlér translates as either the one protecting against the wind or wind-sea. All three have resulted in theories about the god. A lead spindle whorl bearing an Old Norse Younger Futhark inscription that mentions Heimdallr was discovered in Saltfleetby, the spindle whorl itself is dated from the year 1000 to 1100 AD. On the inscription, the god Heimdallr is mentioned alongside the god Odin and Þjálfi, in the Poetic Edda, Heimdallr is attested in six poems, Völuspá, Grímnismál, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Rígsþula, and Hrafnagaldr Óðins. Heimdallr is mentioned thrice in Völuspá, in the first stanza of the poem, the undead völva reciting the poem calls out for listeners to be silent and refers to Heimdallr, This stanza has led to various scholarly interpretations. The holy races have been considered variously as either humanity or the gods, the notion of humanity as Heimdallrs sons is otherwise unattested and has also resulted in various interpretations. Some scholars have pointed to the introduction to the poem Rígsþula. Later in Völuspá, the völva foresees the events of Ragnarök, schach details that Heimdallar hljóð has aroused much speculation. Snorri seems to have confused this word with gjallarhorn, but there is no attestation of the use of hljóð in the sense of horn in Icelandic. Various scholars have read this as hearing rather than horn, larrington says that Odin exchanged one of his eyes for wisdom from Mimir, guardian of the well, while Heimdall seems to have forfeited his ear. In the poem Grímnismál, Odin, tortured, starved and thirsty, in the poem Lokasenna, Loki flyts with various gods who have met together to feast. At one point during the exchanges, the god Heimdallr says that Loki is drunk and witless, and asks Loki why he wont stop speaking
