1.
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
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The St. Bartholomews Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence, directed against the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. Many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris to attend the wedding, the massacre began in the night of 23–24 August 1572, two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. The king ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, lasting several weeks, the massacre expanded outward to other urban centres and the countryside. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, the massacre also marked a turning point in the French Wars of Religion. Though by no means unique, it was the worst of the religious massacres. Throughout Europe, it printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody, the Massacre of Saint Bartholomews Day was the culmination of a series of events, The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which put an end to the third War of Religion on 8 August 1570. The marriage between Henry III of Navarre and Margaret of Valois on 18 August 1572, the failed assassination of Admiral de Coligny on 22 August 1572. The Peace of Saint-Germain put an end to three years of civil war between Catholics and Protestants. This peace, however, was precarious since the more intransigent Catholics refused to accept it, with the Guise family, who led this faction, out of favour at the French court, the Huguenot leader Admiral Gaspard de Coligny was readmitted into the kings council in September 1571. Staunch Catholics were shocked by the return of Protestants to the court and they were also conscious of the kingdoms financial difficulties, which led them to uphold the peace and remain on friendly terms with Coligny. The Huguenots were in a defensive position as they controlled the fortified towns of La Rochelle, La Charité-sur-Loire, Cognac. To cement the peace between the two parties, Catherine planned to marry her daughter Margaret to the Protestant prince Henry of Navarre. The royal marriage was arranged for 18 August 1572 and it was not accepted by traditionalist Catholics or by the Pope. Both the Pope and King Philip II of Spain strongly condemned Catherines policy, the impending marriage led to the gathering of a large number of well-born Protestants in Paris, who had come to escort their prince. But Paris was a violently anti-Huguenot city, and Parisians, who tended to be extreme Catholics, encouraged by Catholic preachers, they were horrified at the marriage of a princess of France with a Protestant. The Parlement of Paris itself decided to snub the marriage ceremony, compounding this bad feeling was the fact that the harvests had been poor and taxes had risen. The rise in prices and the luxury displayed on the occasion of the royal wedding increased tensions among the common people. A particular point of tension was a cross erected on the site of the house of Philippe de Gastines
2.
French Wars of Religion
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Approximately 3,000,000 people perished as a result of violence, famine and disease in what is accounted as the second deadliest European religious war. Unlike all other wars at the time, the French wars retained their religious character without being confounded by dynastic considerations. At the conclusion of the conflict in 1598, Huguenots were granted rights and freedoms by the Edict of Nantes. The wars weakened the authority of the monarchy, already fragile under the rule of Francis II and then Charles IX, apart from previously mentioned names, the wars have been variously described as the Eight Wars of Religion, or simply the Wars of Religion. However, the Massacre of Vassy in 1562 is agreed to begin the French Wars of Religion, during this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles. Humanism, until the late 1520s, served as a ground for the French Protestant Reformation. The spirit of the Renaissance interested Francis I and he encouraged the study of the classics by establishing royal professorships in Paris, equipping more people with the knowledge necessary to understand the classics. Francis I had no qualms with the religious order. Through the Concordat of Bologna, Pope Leo X increased the power of the king over the church, nomination of clergy depended upon the kings choice, in France, unlike in Germany, the nobles supported the policies and the status quo of their time. The establishment of the college and the spread of the printing press served the purposes of the Reformation. The printing press made mass production of inexpensive and fueled the spread of knowledge in all disciplines. Interest in the classics soared and literature was available to a wider audience. The accessibility coupled with romanticism for the knowledge from the past that built empires, precise language and eloquence were valued among scholars and true understanding of the classics meant studying them from the originals. Theological and religious thoughts were disseminated at an unprecedented pace, ideas about the Reformation were widespread in France by 1519. John Froben, a humanist printer, published a collection of Luther’s works, in one correspondence, he reported that 600 copies of such works were being shipped to France and Spain and were sold in Paris. The humanist perspective on understanding Scriptures had theological and ecclesiastical implications, studying Scriptures in the original flourished in the Renaissance period. This contrasted the heavy reliance of the church on the Vulgate - the Latin translation of the Bible. The Meaux Circle was formed by a group of humanists including Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples and Guillaume Briçonnet, bishop of Meaux, in the effort to reform preaching, the Meaux circle was joined by Vatable, a Hebraist and Guillaume Budé the classicist and librarian to the king
3.
Religion
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Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
4.
Fanaticism
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Fanaticism and fanatic come from the Latin adverb fānāticē (fren-fānāticus. Fanaticism is a belief or behavior involving uncritical zeal or with an obsessive enthusiasm, philosopher George Santayana defines fanaticism as redoubling your effort when you have forgotten your aim. The fanatic displays very strict standards and little tolerance for contrary ideas or opinions, tõnu Lehtsaar has defined the term fanaticism as the pursuit or defence of something in an extreme and passionate way that goes beyond normality. Religious fanaticism is defined by blind faith, the persecution of dissents, in his book Crazy Talk, Stupid Talk, Neil Postman states that the key to all fanatical beliefs is that they are self-confirming. Fanatical not because they are false, but because they are expressed in such a way that they can never be shown to be false. The behavior of a fan with overwhelming enthusiasm for a subject is differentiated from the behavior of a fanatic by the fanatics violation of prevailing social norms. Though the fans behavior may be judged as odd or eccentric, entail promoting religious views Anti-Religious fanaticism - sometimes considered part of religious fanaticism Sports fanaticism - high levels of intensity surrounding sporting events. Antifanaticism, A Tale of the South Enthusiasm Extremism Fanboy Fixation Obsession Zealotry Haynal, A. Molnar, M. and de Puymege, Религиозный фанатизм как иллюзорная компенсация недостаточности духовно-душевных составляющих целостного мироотношения / И. А. Беляев // Вестник Челябинской государственной академии культуры и искусств
5.
Jansenism
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Jansenism was a Catholic heretical theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from the published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen. It was first popularized by Jansens friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbey, through the 17th and into the 18th centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological centre of the movement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Paris, which was a haven for writers including Duvergier, Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, Jansenism was opposed by many in the Catholic hierarchy, especially the Jesuits. Although the Jansenists identified themselves only as rigorous followers of Augustine of Hippos teachings, Jansenist leaders endeavored to accommodate the popes pronouncements while retaining their uniqueness, and enjoyed a measure of peace in the late 17th century under Pope Clement IX. However, further controversy led to the apostolic constitution Unigenitus Dei Filius, promulgated by Pope Clement XI in 1713, the origins of Jansenism lie in the friendship of Jansen and Duvergier, who met in the early 17th century when both were studying theology at the University of Leuven. Duvergier was Jansens patron for a number of years, getting Jansen a job as a tutor in Paris in 1606, two years later, he got Jansen a position teaching at the bishops college in Duvergiers hometown of Bayonne. The duo studied the Church Fathers together, with a focus on the thought of Augustine of Hippo. Duvergier became abbot of Saint Cyran Abbey in Brenne and was known as the Abbé de Saint-Cyran for the rest of his life, Jansen returned to the University of Leuven, where he completed his doctorate in 1619 and was named professor of exegesis. Jansen and Duvergier continued to correspond about Augustine, especially Augustines teachings on grace, upon the recommendation of King Philip IV of Spain, Jansen was consecrated as bishop of Ypres in 1636. Jansen died in a 1638 epidemic and this manuscript, published in 1640 as Augustinus, expounded Augustines system and formed the basis for the subsequent Jansenist Controversy. Jansen emphasized a particular reading of Augustines idea of efficacious grace which stressed that only a portion of humanity were predestined to be saved. Jansen insisted that the love of God was fundamental, and that only perfect contrition, Duvergier was not released until after Richelieus death in 1642, and he died shortly thereafter, in 1643. Jansen also insisted on justification by faith, although he did not contest the necessity of revering saints, of confession, Jansens opponents condemned his teachings for their alleged similarities to Calvinism. Pascal himself claimed that Molinists were correct concerning the state of humanity before the Fall, the heresy of Jansenism, as stated by subsequent Roman Catholic doctrine, lay in denying the role of free will in the acceptance and use of grace. Jansenism asserts that Gods role in the infusion of grace cannot be resisted, Catholic doctrine, in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, is that Gods free initiative demands mans free response—that is, humans freely assent or refuse Gods gift of grace. However, on August 1,1642, the Holy Office issued a decree condemning Augustinus, in 1602, Marie Angélique Arnauld become abbess of Port-Royal-des-Champs, a Cistercian convent in Magny-les-Hameaux. There, she reformed discipline after an experience in 1608
6.
Bernard Picart
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Bernard Picart, was a French engraver, son of Etienne Picart, also an engraver. He was born in Paris and died in Amsterdam and he moved to Antwerp in 1696, and then spent a year in Amsterdam before returning to France at the end of 1698. After his wife died in 1708, he moved to Amsterdam in 1711, most of his work was book-illustrations, including the Bible and Ovid. His most famous work is Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du monde, israel calls Cérémonies an immense effort to record the religious rituals and beliefs of the world in all their diversity as objectively and authentically as possible. Although Picart had never left Europe, he relied on accounts by those who had and had access to a collection of Indian sculpture, the original French edition of Cérémonies comprises ten volumes of text and engravings. Israel notes also that Picart left Paris with Prosper Marchand, and collaborated on the Cérémonies with Jean-Frédéric Bernard, Picart, Marchand and Charles Levier belonged to a radical Huguenot coterie. The engravings had captions in French, English, German, the artists involved were Michel de Marolles, Bernard Picart, Jacques Favereau, Abraham van Diepenbeeck, and Cornelis Bloemaert. A facsimile of the Dutch version was published in 1968, a Jewel of a Thousand Facets. New York Review of Books Vol. LVII, number 11, online summary Hunt, Lynn, Margaret C. The Book That Changed Europe, Picart and Bernards Religious Ceremonies of the World, Hunt, Lynn and Margaret Jacob and Wijnand Mijnhardt. Bernard Picart and the First Global Vision of Religion, los Angeles, Getty Research Institute,2010. Religionsbilder der frühen Aufklärung, Bernard Picarts Tafeln für die Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du monde, radical enlightenment, philosophy and the making of modernity, 1650-1750. OCLC44425436 Jacob, Margaret, Bernard Picart and the Turn to Modernity, De Achttiende eeuw, Bernard Picart and Jean Frederic Bernards Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the World on UCLA website
7.
Christianity and violence
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Despite the example of Jesus, some institutions and individuals have acted violently and attempted to justify themselves through Christian writings. Ira Chernus holds that the concept of nonviolence in the United States is rooted deeply in Christianity, adding that Christianity has continued to be the foundation of most nonviolent individuals and organizations all through the 20th Century. Heitman and Hagan identify the Inquisition, Crusades, Wars of Religion, to this list, Mennonite theologian J. Miroslav Volf says that Christianity is intrinsically nonviolent, but has suffered from a confusion of loyalties. He states that explicitly giving ultimate allegiance to the Gospel of Jesus Christ, many Christians in fact seem to have a commitment to their respective cultures. Scholars are divided on whether the text of the Bible itself supports the waging of violence, raanan S. Boustan states that iolence can be found throughout the pages of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. Philip Jenkins describes the Bible as overflowing with texts of terror, supersessionist Christians focus on violence in the Old Testament while ignoring or giving little attention to violence in the New Testament. Among common examples of violence in Christianity, J, in the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted into a persecuting religion. Miroslav Volf has identified the intervention of a new creation, as in the Second Coming, writing about the latter, Volf says, Beginning at least with Constantines conversion, the followers of the Crucified have perpetrated gruesome acts of violence under the sign of the cross. Muslims also associate the cross with violence, crusaders rampages were undertaken under the sign of the cross, the statement attributed to Jesus I come not to bring peace, but to bring a sword has been interpreted by some as a call to arms for Christians. Mark Juergensmeyer argues that despite its central tenets of love and peace, the bloody history of the tradition has provided disturbing images and violent conflict is vividly portrayed in the Bible. This history and these images have provided the raw material for theologically justifying the violence of contemporary Christian groups. Sometimes referred to as Spiritual warfare, higher law has been used to justify violence by Christians. The concept of justification for war under certain conditions goes back at least to Cicero, however its importance is connected to Christian medieval theory beginning from Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas. In Ulrich Luzs formulation, After Constantine, the Christians too had a responsibility for war, already Celsus asked bitterly whether Christians, by aloofness from society, wanted to increase the political power of wild and lawless barbarians. Augustines Epistle to Marcellinus is the most influential example of the new type of interpretation, just war theorists combine both a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just war tradition act as an aid to determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts, when it is right to resort to armed force and what is acceptable in using such force. In more recent years, a third category — jus post bellum — has been added, which governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements, as well as the prosecution of war criminals
8.
Constantine the Great
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Constantine the Great, also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 AD. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman Army officer and his father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west, in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian, in 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia. As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, the government was restructured and civil and military authority separated. A new gold coin, the solidus, was introduced to combat inflation and it would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was adopted by Christians, in military matters, the Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. The age of Constantine marked an epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. He built a new residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself. It would later become the capital of the Empire for over one thousand years and his more immediate political legacy was that, in leaving the empire to his sons, he replaced Diocletians tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession. His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and centuries after his reign, the medieval church upheld him as a paragon of virtue while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his due to the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Critics portrayed him as a tyrant, trends in modern and recent scholarship attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built on his orders at the site of Jesus tomb in Jerusalem. The Papal claim to power in the High Middle Ages was based on the supposed Donation of Constantine. He is venerated as a saint by Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholics, though Constantine has historically often been referred to as the First Christian Emperor, scholars debate his actual beliefs or even his actual comprehension of the Christian faith itself. Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and he has always been a controversial figure, the fluctuations in Constantines reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but have strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period. There are no surviving histories or biographies dealing with Constantines life, the nearest replacement is Eusebius of Caesareas Vita Constantini, a work that is a mixture of eulogy and hagiography
9.
Donatism
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Donatism was a religious movement that separated from the proto-catholics in the 4th century. Donatism made the assumption that Christian clergy are required to be faultless for their ministrations to be effective and for the prayers and this belief was once held strongly among Berber Christians. Donatism had its roots in the social pressures among the long-established Christian community of the Roman Africa province, Donatism was an indirect outcome of Diocletians persecutions. The governor of the Africa province had been lenient towards the large Christian minority under his rule during the persecutions and he was satisfied when Christians handed over their Scriptures as a token repudiation of their faith. Some Christians acceded to this convenient action, when the persecutions came to an end, however, they were branded traditores, those who handed over by their critics, mostly from the poorer classes. They were still a force at the time of Saint Augustine of Hippo at the end of the fourth century, the rest of the Church was far more forgiving of these people than the Donatists. The Donatists refused to accept the sacraments and spiritual authority of the priests, during the persecution some Church leaders had gone so far as to turn Christians over to Roman authorities and had handed over religious texts to authorities to be publicly burned. These traditors had returned to positions of authority under Constantine I, the first question, therefore, was whether the Sacrament of Penance can effect a reconciliation whereby the apostate, or in some cases specifically the traditor, may be returned to full communion. The Donatists held that such a crime, after the forgiveness of baptism, disqualified one for leadership in the Church, the second question was the validity of sacraments celebrated by priests and bishops who had been apostates under the persecution. The Donatists held that all such sacraments were invalid, by their sinful act, hence, to the Donatists, a priest who had been an apostate but who repented could speak the words of consecration forever, but he could no longer confect the Eucharist. As a result, many towns were divided between Donatist and non-Donatist congregations, the sect had particularly developed and grown in northern Africa. There was growing unrest and threats of riots in Carthage connected to the bishop controversy, Constantine, hoping to defuse the unrest, gifted monies to the catholic bishop Caecilian as payment for church buildings that had been damaged or confiscated during the prior period of persecution. No gifts were made to the Donatists, the Donatists appealed to Rome for equal treatment, Constantine tasked Miltiades to sort the issue which led to the 313 commission mentioned above. The Donatists refused to abide by the decision of the Roman Council and this attempt failed to produce a good hearing and the Donatists appealed directly to the Emperor. From his letter that survives, Constantine shows frustration that the church come to a good conclusion and he calls for a larger council. Again, the decision went against the Donatists and again appealed to Constantine. The Emperor demanded that all parties be brought to Rome for a hearing, Constantine ruled in favor of Caecilian, a delegation from Rome traveled to Carthage to seek a compromise – this trip failed miserably. Donatist extremists were stirring up protests and violence in the streets, the Donatists refused to accept any compromise or decision in favor of the catholic bishop
10.
Crusades
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The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
11.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
12.
Holy Land
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The Holy Land is an area roughly located between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea that also includes the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River. Traditionally, it is synonymous with both the biblical Land of Israel and historical Palestine, the term usually refers to a territory roughly corresponding to the modern State of Israel, the Palestinian territories, western Jordan, and parts of southern Lebanon and southwestern Syria. It is considered holy by Jews, Christians, and Muslims, many sites in the Holy Land have long been pilgrimage destinations for adherents of the Abrahamic religions, including Jews, Christians, Muslims, and Baháís. Pilgrims visit the Holy Land to touch and see physical manifestations of their faith, confirm their beliefs in the context with collective excitation. Jews do not commonly refer to the Land of Israel as Holy Land, the Tanakh explicitly refers to it as holy land in only one passage, in Zechariah 2,16. The holiness of the Land of Israel is generally implied in the Tanakh by the Land being given to the Israelites by God, that is, it is the promised land, an integral part of Gods covenant. In the Torah many mitzvot commanded to the Israelites can only be performed in the Land of Israel, for example, in the Land of Israel, no land shall be sold permanently. Shmita is only observed with respect to the land of Israel, according to Eliezer Schweid, The uniqueness of the Land of Israel is. geo-theological and not merely climatic. This is the land which faces the entrance of the spiritual world, Jerusalem, as the site of the Temple, is considered especially significant. Sacred burials are still undertaken for diaspora Jews who wish to lie buried in the soil of Israel. According to Jewish tradition, Jerusalem is Mount Moriah, the location of the binding of Isaac, the Hebrew Bible mentions the name Jerusalem 669 times, often because many mitzvot can only be performed within its environs. The name Zion, which refers to Jerusalem, but sometimes the Land of Israel. The Talmud mentions the religious duty of colonising Israel, so significant in Judaism is the act of purchasing land in Israel, the Talmud allows for the lifting of certain religious restrictions of Sabbath observance to further its acquisition and settlement. Rabbi Johanan said that one who walks a distance of 4 cubits in Israel may be confident of a share in the future world, a story says that when R. Eleazar b. Due to the Jewish population being concentrated in Israel, emigration was generally prevented, many Jews wanted Israel to be the place where they died. R. Anan said, To be buried in Israel is like being buried under the altar, the saying His land will absolve His people implies that burial in Israel will cause one to be absolved of all ones sins. Christian books, including editions of the Bible, often had maps of the Holy Land, for instance, the Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae of Heinrich Bünting, a German Protestant pastor, featured such a map. As a geographic term, the description Holy Land loosely encompasses modern-day Israel, in the Quran, the term الأرض المقدسة is mentioned at least seven times, once when Moses proclaims to the Children of Israel, O my people
13.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
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Spanish Inquisition
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The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition and it became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Christian Inquisition along with the Roman Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism, the regulation of the faith of the newly converted was intensified after the royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert or leave Spain. The Inquisition was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabella II, the Spanish Inquisition is often stated in popular literature and history as an example of Catholic intolerance and repression. Modern historians have tended to question earlier accounts concerning the severity of the Inquisition, Henry Kamen asserts that the myth of the all-powerful, torture-mad inquisition is largely an invention of nineteenth century Protestant authors with an agenda to discredit the Papacy. Although records are incomplete, about 150,000 persons were charged with crimes by the Inquisition and about 3,000 were executed. The Inquisition was created through papal bull, Ad Abolendam, issued at the end of the century by Pope Lucius III as a way to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. There were a number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during the Middle Ages. In the Kingdom of Aragon, a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus of Pope Gregory IX, in 1232, during the era of the Albigensian heresy. With time, its importance was diluted, and, by the middle of the fifteenth century, there was never a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition in Castile. Members of the episcopate were charged with surveillance of the faithful, during the Middle Ages, in Castile, little attention was paid to heresy by the Catholic ruling class. Jews and Muslims were tolerated and generally allowed to follow their traditional laws, however, by law, they were considered inferior to Catholics and were subject to discriminatory legislation. The Spanish Inquisition can be seen as an answer to the nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors. After invading in 711, large areas of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by Muslims until 1250, when they were restricted to Granada, which fell in 1492. However, the Reconquista did not result in the expulsion of Muslims from Spain, since they. The Jews, who had previously thrived under Muslim rule, now suffered similar maltreatment, however, as Henry Kamen notes, so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals. Despite their legal inequality, there was a tradition of Jewish service to the crown of Aragon and Jews occupied many important posts. Castile itself had an unofficial rabbi, ferdinands father John II named the Jewish Abiathar Crescas to be Court Astronomer
15.
Islamic extremism
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Related terms include Islamist extremism and Islamism. On the other hand, many oppose the use of term, some have criticized political rhetoric that associates non-violent Islamism with terrorism under the rubric of extremism. The UK High Courts have ruled in two cases on Islamic extremism, and provided definitions, there are two UK High Court cases that explicitly address the issue of Islamic extremism. The judge refers to several grounds, section 20 of the 2006 Act, the definition of “terrorism” in section 1 of the Terrorism Act 2000 and the decision of the Supreme Court in R v Gul. Begg, a prominent Muslim public figure and Imam at Lewisham Islamic Centre since 1998 lost his 2016 court case of Libel against the BBC, in my view, the following constitute “extremist” Islamic positions. First, a view of the world. A total, eternal ‘Manichean’ worldview is a tenet of violent Islamic extremism. It divides the world strictly into ‘Us’ versus ‘Them’, those who are blessed or saved on the one hand, second, the reduction of jihad to qital. Third, the ignoring or flouting of the conditions for the declaration of armed jihad, i. e. the established Islamic doctrinal conditions for the declaration of armed combat set out above. Fourth, the ignoring or flouting of the regulations governing the conduct of armed jihad, i. e. the stipulations in the Quran. Thus, the use of violence, attacks on civilians, indiscriminate ‘suicide’ violence. Fifth, advocating armed fighting in defence of Islam as an individual religious obligation. Sixth, any interpretation of Shari’a that required breaking the ‘law of the land’, seventh, the classification of all non-Muslims as unbelievers. Eighth, the extreme Salafist Islamism doctrine that the precepts of the Muslim faith negate and supersede all other ties, such as those of family, kinship. Ninth, the citing with approval the fatwa of Islamic scholars who espouse extremist view, tenth, any teaching which, expressly or implicitly, encourages Muslims to engage in, or support, terrorism or violence in the name of Allah. According to some contemporary Muslim commentators, extremism within Islam goes back to the 7th century to the Kharijites, from their essentially political position, they developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting an approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers. There are over 120 such groups active today, below is a list of major groups active
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Takfir
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In Islamic law, takfir or takfeer refers to the practice of excommunication, one Muslim declaring another Muslim as kafir. The act which precipitates takfir is termed the mukaffir, an ill-founded takfir accusation is a major forbidden act. Some Muslims consider takfir to be a prerogative of either the Prophet—who does that through Divine revelation—or the State which represents the collectivity of the Ummah, orthodox Islamic law normally requires stringent evidence for such accusations. In many cases an Islamic court or a leader, an alim must pronounce a fatwa of takfir against an individual or group. Thus a murderer, for instance, may still be a Muslim, the Murjites argued that anyone who called themselves Muslim should be considered Muslim. The Mutazilites advocated what they saw as a way, whereby grave sinners were categorized neither as believers nor as kafirs. Some of the early medieval Kharijites concluded that any Muslim who sinned ceased to be a Muslim, some Muslims believe that one of the earliest examples of takfir was alleged to have been practiced by the first Caliph, Abu Bakr. In response to the refusal of certain Arab tribes to pay the alms-tax, he is reported to have said, By God, revelation has been discontinued, the Shariah has been completed, will the religion be curtailed while I am alive. I will fight these tribes even if they refuse to give a halter, poor-due is a levy on wealth and, by God, I will fight him who differentiates between the prayer and poor-due. It is rejected by Islamic scholars and leaders such as Hasan al-Hudaybi and Yusuf al-Qaradawi and by mainstream Muslims and this has sometimes been used to legitimize capital punishment of Ahmadis. In 1974 Pakistan amended its constitution to declare Ahmadis as non-Muslims, in 1984, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the then military ruler of Pakistan, issued Ordinance XX, forbidding Ahmadis to call themselves Muslim. Local ulama have declared takfir on another group in Pakistan, the Zikri of Makran in Balochistan, the Zikri believe that Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri was the Mahdi of Islam. In 1978 the ulama founded a movement to have the Pakistan state declare the Zikris as non-Muslims, the case of Salman Rushdie provides an example of takfir that featured prominently in Western media. Similar cases have occurred in Egypt, for example, Nasr Abu Zayd was accused of following his work on Islamic sources. Zouabri at first took care to deny that the GIA had ever declared takfir on Algerian society itself, but during the month of Ramadan hundreds of civilians were killed in massacres, some with their throats cut. The massacres continued for months and culminated in August and September when hundreds of men women and children were killed in the villages of Rais, Bentalha and Beni Messous. While the GIA had been the undisputed principal Islamist force in Algeria two years earlier, the slaughters drained it of popular support and led to the end of organized jihad in Algeria, the constitution of Tunisia, criminalized takfir by placing a ban on fatwas that promote takfir. The Islamic State has been criticized for applying takfir to Muslims who oppose its rule
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Osama bin Laden
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He was a Saudi Arabian, a member of the wealthy bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite. Bin Laden was born to the family of billionaire Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden in Saudi Arabia and he studied at university in the country until 1979, when he joined Mujahideen forces in Pakistan fighting against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. He helped to fund the Mujahideen by funneling arms, money and fighters from the Arab world into Afghanistan and he was banished from Saudi Arabia in 1992, and shifted his base to Sudan, until U. S. pressure forced him to leave Sudan in 1996. After establishing a new base in Afghanistan, he declared a war against the United States, initiating a series of bombings and related attacks. Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigations lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives, from 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, as the FBI placed a $25 million bounty on him in their search for him. S. There is no accepted standard for transliterating Arabic words and Arabic names into English, however. The FBI and Central Intelligence Agency, as well as other U. S. governmental agencies, have used either Usama bin Laden or Usama bin Ladin, less common renderings include Ussamah bin Ladin and, in the French-language media, Oussama ben Laden. Other spellings include Binladen or, as used by his family in the West, the decapitalization of bin is based on the convention of leaving short prepositions, articles, and patronymics uncapitalized in surnames, the nasab bin means son of. The spellings with o and e come from a Persian-influenced pronunciation also used in Afghanistan, Osama bin Ladens full name, Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden, means Osama, son of Mohammed, son of Awad, son of Laden. The Arabic linguistic convention would be to refer to him as Osama or Osama bin Laden, not bin Laden alone, as bin Laden is a patronymic, not a surname in the Western manner. According to bin Ladens son Omar bin Laden, the familys surname is al-Qahtani. Osama bin Laden had also assumed the kunyah Abū Abdāllāh and his admirers have referred to him by several nicknames, including the Prince or Emir, the Sheik, the Jihadist Sheik or Sheik al-Mujahid, Hajj, and the Director. The word usāmah means lion, earning him the nicknames Lion and Lion Sheik, in a 1998 interview, bin Laden gave his birth date as March 10,1957. Mohammed bin Laden divorced Hamida soon after Osama bin Laden was born, Mohammed recommended Hamida to Mohammed al-Attas, an associate. Al-Attas married Hamida in the late 1950s or early 1960s, the couple had four children, and bin Laden lived in the new household with three half-brothers and one half-sister. The bin Laden family made $5 billion in the construction industry, Bin Laden was raised as a devout Sunni Muslim. From 1968 to 1976, he attended the élite secular Al-Thager Model School and he studied economics and business administration at King Abdulaziz University. Some reports suggest he earned a degree in engineering in 1979
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Ayman al-Zawahiri
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In 2012, he called on Muslims to kidnap Western tourists in Muslim countries. Since the September 11 attacks, U. S. State Department has offered a US$25 million reward for leading to al-Zawahiris capture. He is under sanctions by the United Nations Security Council 1267 Committee as a member or affiliate of al-Qaeda. Ayman Mohammed Rabie al-Zawahiri is pronounced or in Arabic, Zawahiri is usually spelled Zawahri, but is sometimes spelled Dhawahri if transliterated directly from Modern Standard Arabic, also called Literary Arabic, in certain academic circles. Using the Intelligence Community Standard for the Transliteration of Arabic Names, Ayman al-Zawahiri was born in 1951 in the neighborhood of Maadi, Cairo, the Kingdom of Egypt, to Mohammed Rabie al-Zawahiri and Umayma Azzam. The al-Zawahiri family was considered distinguished while they lived in Maadi, Al-Zawahiris parents both came from prosperous families. Al-Zawahiris father, Mohammed Rabie al-Zawahiri, came from a family of doctors and scholars. Mohammed Rabie became a surgeon and a professor at Cairo University, aymans mother, Umayma Azzam, came from a wealthy, politically active clan. Ayman has said that he has an affection for his mother. Her brother, Mahfouz Azzam, became a model for Ayman as a teenager. Ayman has a brother, Muhammad al-Zawahiri, and a twin sister. Al-Zawahiris sister, Heba Mohamed al-Zawahiri, became a professor of oncology at the National Cancer Institute. She described her brother as silent and shy, Al-Zawahiris brother, Muhammad al-Zawahiri, was sent to the Balkans by his older brother in 1993. Muhammad was known as an expert and is said to be the military commander of Islamic Jihad. Muhammad worked in Bosnia, Croatia, and Albania under the cover of being an International Islamic Relief Organization official, while hiding in the United Arab Emirates, he was arrested in 2000, then extradited to Egypt, where he was sentenced to death. He was held in Tora Prison in Cairo as a political detainee, Security officials said he was the head of the Special Action Committee of Islamic Jihad, which organized terrorist operations. However, after the Egyptian popular uprising in the spring of 2011, on 17 March 2011 he was released from prison by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces and his lawyer said he had been held to extract information about his brother Ayman. However, on 20 March 2011, he was re-arrested, on 17 August 2013, Egyptian authorities arrested Muhammad al-Zawahiri at his home in Giza
19.
Sayyid Qutb
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Sayyid Qutb was an Egyptian author, educator, Islamic theorist, poet, and the leading member of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1966 he was convicted of plotting the assassination of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser and was executed by hanging and his magnum opus, Fi Zilal al-Quran, is a 30-volume commentary on the Quran. During most of his life, Qutbs inner circle consisted of influential politicians, intellectuals, poets and literary figures. By the mid-1940s, many of his writings were officially among the curricula of schools and he has been described by followers as a great thinker and martyr for Islam, while many Western observers see him as a key originator of Islamist ideology. Others in the West believe Qutb is an inspiration for violent groups such as al-Qaeda, today, his supporters are identified by their opponents as Qutbists or Qutbi. Qutb was born on 9 October 1906 and he was raised in the Egyptian village of Musha, located in Upper Egypts Asyut Province. His father was a landowner and the family estates administrator, but he was well known for his political activism, holding weekly meetings to discuss the political events. At this young age, Sayyid Qutb first learned about melodic recitations of the Quran, in his teens, Qutb was critical of the religious institutions with which he came into contact, holding in contempt the way in which those institutions were used to form public opinion and thoughts. At this time, Qutb developed his bent against the imams and this confrontation would persist throughout his life. He moved to Cairo where between 1929 and 1933 he received a based on the British style of schooling before starting his career as a teacher in the Ministry of Public Instruction. During his early career, Qutb devoted himself to literature as an author and critic, writing novels as Ashwak. In 1939, he became a functionary in Egypts Ministry of Education, from 1948 to 1950, he went to the United States on a scholarship to study its educational system, spending several months at Colorado State College of Education in Greeley, Colorado. Qutbs first major work of religious social criticism, Al-adala al-Ijtimaiyya fi-l-Islam, was published in 1949. Though Islam gave him peace and contentment, he suffered from respiratory and other health problems throughout his life and was known for his introvertedness, isolation, depression. In appearance, he was pale with sleepy eyes, Qutb never married, in part because of his steadfast religious convictions. While the urban Egyptian society he lived in was becoming more Westernized, Qutb lamented to his readers that he was never able to find a woman of sufficient moral purity and discretion and had to reconcile himself to bachelorhood. He would have a big collection of books, and another small collection specifically for Syed Qutb. If Syed never had the money, he would tell him that I dont have the now, so let me borrow it
20.
Muslim Brotherhood
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The Society of the Muslim Brothers, shortened to the Muslim Brotherhood, is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt by Islamic scholar and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna in 1928. The Brotherhoods stated goal is to instill the Quran and the Sunnah as the reference point for. Ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community, as a Pan-Islamic, religious, and social movement, it preached Islam, taught the illiterate, and set up hospitals and business enterprises. The Arab Spring brought it legalization and substantial power at first. The Brotherhood itself claims it is a peaceful, democratic organization, according to a spokesman, the Muslim Brotherhood believe in reform, democracy, freedom of assembly, press, etc. We believe that the reform is the true and natural gateway for all other kinds of reform. We have announced our acceptance of democracy that acknowledges political pluralism, the rotation of power. Its founder, Hassan Al-Banna, was influenced by Islamic modernist reformers Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, with the group structure and it downplayed doctrinal differences between schools emphasizing the political importance of worldwide unity of the Muslim Nation. Al-Banna believed the Quran and Sunnah constitute a perfect way of life, Islamic governments must be based on this system and eventually unified in a Caliphate. The Brotherhood preaches that Islam will bring justice, the eradication of poverty, corruption and sinful behavior. On the issue of women and gender the Muslim Brotherhood interprets Islam conservatively, there have been breakaway groups from the movement, including the Al-Gamaa al-Islamiyya and Al Takfir Wal Hijra. Prominent figures of the Brotherhood include Sayyid Qutb, an influential and anti-Semitic thinker of Islamic supremacism. Osama bin Laden criticized the Brotherhood, and accused it of betraying jihad, the Brotherhoods most frequently used slogan is Islam is the Solution. Another well known slogan is God is our objective, dying in the way of God is our highest hope. On the Brotherhoods green logo is emblazoned وَأَعِدُّواْ - taken from sūrat l-anfāl, according to academic Khalil Yusuf its motto was traditionally Believers are but Brothers. The Muslim Brotherhood position on political participation varied according to the situation of each branch. For many years its stance was collaborationist in Kuwait and Jordan, for pacific opposition in Egypt, armed opposition in Libya, (A book on the document was published under the name, La conquête de lOccident, Le projet secret des Islamistes by Sylvain Besson. These parties are staffed by Brotherhood members but they are independent from the Muslim Brotherhood to some degree
21.
Pan-Islamism
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Pan-Islamism is a political movement advocating the unity of Muslims under one Islamic state – often a Caliphate – or an international organization with Islamic principles. The model pan-Islamism aims for is the years of Islam – the reign of Muhammad. In the modern era, Pan-Islamism was championed by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who sought unity among Muslims to resist colonial occupation of Muslim lands. Afghani feared that nationalism would divide the Muslim world and believed that Muslim unity was more important than ethnic identity. ”In a review of the articles of his Paris-base newspaper there was nothing favoring political democracy or parliamentarianism. While Afghanis interest in Islamic law and theology was scant, later Pan-Islamism in the world was strongly associated with Islamism. Leading Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ayatollah Khomeini all stressed their belief that a return to traditional Sharia law would make Islam united, in the period of decolonialism following World War II, Arab nationalism overshadowed Islamism which denounced nationalism as un-Islamic. In the Arab world secular pan-Arab parties – Baath and Nasserist parties – had offshoots in almost every Arab country, Islamists suffered severe repression, its major thinker Sayyid Qutb, was imprisoned, underwent torture and was later executed. Following the defeat of Arab armies in the Six-Day War, Islamism, Pan-Islamic Sunni Muslims such as Maududi and the Muslim Brotherhood, embraced the creation of a new Caliphate, at least as a long-term project. Shia leader Ruhollah Khomeini also embraced a united Islamist supra-state but saw it led by a scholar of fiqh. These events galvanised Islamists the world over and heightened their popularity with the Muslim public, throughout the Middle-East, and in particular Egypt, the various branches of the Muslim Brotherhood have significantly challenged the secular nationalist or monarchical Muslim governments. In Pakistan the Jamaat-e-Islami enjoyed popular support especially since the formation of the MMA, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Hizb-ut-Tahrir has emerged as a Pan-Islamist force in Central Asia and in the last five years has developed some support from the Arab world. Pan-Islamism, Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain, Brill Academic Publishers,1997, commonwealth of Muslim States, a plea for Pan-Islamism, al-Ahibba,1972. Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics, A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918-1924, Brill Academic Publishers,1999, the Politics of Pan-Islam, Ideology and Organization. Londonistan, How Britain is Creating a Terror State Within, Pan-Islamism in Oxford Islamic Studies Online al-Afghanis Vision of a Pan-Islamic Civilization al-Afghani Bibliography The Manchester Document
22.
Egyptian government
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The politics of Egypt is based on republicanism, with a semi-presidential system of government, established following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, and the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak. The President is elected for two terms and the Parliament is unicameral. The President can appoint up to 5% of the number of seats in Parliament. Parliament can also impeach the President, Egypt was traditionally ruled by royals until 1952, but the first free elected President was in 2012. The Parliament of Egypt is the oldest legislative chamber in Africa, the President is elected for four-year term that can be renewable once. Candidates must provide 30,001 signatures from at least 15 provinces, or 30 members of a chamber of the legislature, the position was created after Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Mohammed Naguib was the first president, prior to 2005, the Parliament chooses a candidate for the Presidency and the people vote whether or not they approve that candidate for President in a referendum. In 2005, the first presidential elections held with multiple candidates stand for the positions, after the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, a new presidential elections held in 2012, it was the first free and fair elections in Egyptian history. El-Sisi then was elected head of state in the 2014 presidential election. Egypt adopted the system in 2012 and under it the President doesnt hold extensive powers. The President can dissolve the Parliament, declare state of emergency and declare wars, the Parliament can impeach the President after two-thirds votes in favour for impeachment and then a public referendum is held to whether or not approve the impeachment of the President. Parliament meets for one session each year, under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the House of Representatives is the principal legislative body. The House sits for a term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the House may force the resignation of the cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly, in the case of a president and house from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation. The most recent elections held in 2015, the Shura Council was the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. In the Shura Council 176 members were elected and 88 members were appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms
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Islamic state
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An Islamic state is a type of government primarily based on the application of sharia, dispensation of justice, maintenance of law and order. From the early years of Islam, numerous governments have been founded as Islamic, however, the term Islamic state has taken on a more specific connotation since the 20th century. The concept of the modern Islamic state has been articulated and promoted by such as Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Israr Ahmed. Like the earlier notion of the caliphate, the modern Islamic state is rooted in Islamic law and it is modeled after the rule of Muhammad. Today, many Muslim countries have incorporated Islamic law, wholly or in part, certain Muslim states have declared Islam to be their state religion in their constitutions, but do not apply Islamic law in their courts. Islamic states which are not Islamic monarchies are usually referred to as Islamic republics, the first Islamic State was the political entity established by Muhammad in Medina in 622 CE, under the Constitution of Medina. It represented the unity of the Muslim Ummah. It was subsequently transformed into the caliphate by Muhammads disciples, who were known as the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the Islamic State significantly expanded under the Umayyad Caliphate and consequently the Abbasid Caliphate. The essence or guiding principles of an Islamic government or Islamic state, is the concept of Al-Shura, different scholars have different understandings or thoughts, with regard to the concept al-Shura. However, most Muslim scholars are of the opinion that Islamic al-Shura should consist of, Meeting or consultation, consultation following the guidelines of the Quran and Sunnah. There is a leader elected among them to head the meeting, the discussion should be based on mushawarah and mudhakarah. All members are given opportunity to voice out their opinions. The issue should be of maslahah ammah or public interest, the voices of the majority are accepted, provided it does not violate the teachings of the Quran or Sunnah. Muhammad himself respected the decision of the shura members and this idea was later supported by the majority of the sahabah, and thereafter Muhammad also approved it. The reason why Muhammad placed great emphasis on the agreement of the decision of the shura was because the majority of opinion is better than the decision made by one individual. The Ottoman Caliphate as an office of the Ottoman Empire was abolished under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924 as part of Atatürks Reforms. However, the Khilaphat found little support from the Muslims of the middle east themselves who preferred to be independent nation states, instead of being under the Ottoman rule. The very term, Islamic State, was never used in the theory or practice of Muslim political science, before the twentieth century, the Islamic state was perceived as a third way between the rival political systems of democracy and socialism
24.
Qutbism
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Qutbism is an Islamist ideology developed by Sayyid Qutb, the figurehead of the Muslim Brotherhood. Muslim extremists “cite Sayyid Qutb repeatedly and consider themselves his intellectual descendants. ”The main tenet of Qutbist ideology is that the Muslim community has been extinct for a few centuries having reverted to Godless ignorance, Qutb outlined his ideas in his book Maalim fi-l-Tariq. Ayman Al-Zawahiri, who went on to become a member of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, was one of Muhammad Qutbs students and later a mentor of Osama bin Laden, zawahiri paid homage to Qutb in his work Knights under the Prophets Banner. Osama bin Laden is reported to have regularly attended public lectures by Muhammad Qutb, at King Abdulaziz University. Late Yemeni Al Qaeda leader Anwar al-Awlaki has also spoken of Qutbs great influence, the book, written by MB Supreme Guide Hassan al-Hudaybi, attacked the idea of Takfir of other Muslims. Like the term Wahhabi, Qutbee is used not by the alleged Qutbees to describes themselves, the most controversial aspect of Qutbism is takfir, Qutbs idea that Islam is extinct. According to takfir, with the exception of Qutb’s Islamic vanguard, Takfir was intended to shock Muslims into religious re-armament. When taken literally, takfir also had the effect of causing non-Qutbists who claimed to be Muslim in violation of Sharia law, violating this law could potentially be considered apostasy from Islam, a crime punishable by death according to Qutbis. Because of these consequences, Muslims have traditionally been reluctant to practice takfir. Other factors played a part in instigating the violence, but Qutbs takfir against jahiliyyah society, while Maalim fi-l-Tariq was Qutbs manifesto, other elements of Qutbism are found in his works Al-adala al-Ijtimaiyya fi-l-Islam, and his Quranic commentary Fi Zilal al-Quran. Ideas in those works also have come under attack from traditionalist/conservative/Wahhabi Muslims and they include, Qutbs assertion that slavery is now illegal under Islam, as its lawfulness was only temporary, existing only until the world devised a new code of practice, other than enslavement. Traditionalist critics maintain Islaam has affirmed slavery, and it will continue so long as Jihaad in the path of Allaah exists. Proposals to redistribute income and property to the needy, opponents claim they are socialist and innovations of Islam. Describing Moses as having an excitable nature – this allegedly being mockery, dismissing fiqh or the schools of Islamic law known as madhhab as separate from Islamic principles and Islamic understanding. Desiring to unite the four schools of Islamic law into one school – allegedly an innovation, favoring the overthrow of tyrants, when Islam teaches that when you cannot correct a wrong thing be patient. Qutb may now be facing criticism representing his ideas success or Qutbisms logical conclusion as much as his ideas failure to persuade some critics, but according to Olivier Roy, contemporary neofundamentalist refuse to express their views in modern terms borrowed from the West. On the importance of science and learning, the key to the power of his bête noire, western civilization, and encouraged Muslims to seek knowledge. On the other hand, Qutb believed some learning was forbidden to Muslims and should not be studied, including, principles of economics and political affairs, origin of the universe, the origin of the life of man
25.
Jihadism
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Jihadism is a 21st-century neologism found in the Western languages to describe Islamist militant movements perceived as a military movement rooted in Islam and existentially threatening to the West. It has been described as a term to define precisely, because it remains a recent neologism with no single. The term jihadism first appeared in South Asian media and was adopted by Western journalists in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and it has since been applied to various insurgent and terrorist movements whose ideology is based on the notion of jihad. The terrorist organizations partaking in the Soviet–Afghan War of 1979 reinforced the rise of jihadism, gilles Kepel has diagnosed a specifically Salafi jihadism within the Salafi movement of the 1990s. Jihadism with an international, Pan-Islamist scope in this sense is known as global jihadism. Jihadism is usually defined as Sunni Islamist armed struggle, and fighters often target Shia Islam, as well as Sufism, the term jihadism has been in use since the 1990s more widely after 9/11 attacks. It was first used in the Indian and Pakistani media, according to Martin Kramer as of 2003, jihadism is used to refer to the most violent persons and movements in contemporary Islam, including al-Qaeda. Most Muslims do not use the term disliking the association of illegitimate violence with a religious concept. The term jihadist globalism is also used in relation to jihadism. It is a sub-culture mainly applied to individuals in developed nations who are recruited to travel to conflict zones on jihad, for example, jihadi rap videos make participants look more MTV than Mosque, according to NPR, which was the first to report on the phenomenon in 2010. Jihadism has been called an offshoot of Islamic revivalism of the 1960s and 1970s, the writings of Sayyid Qutb and Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj provide inspiration. The Soviet war in Afghanistan is said to have amplified the jihadist tendency from a phenomenon to a major force in the Muslim world. It served to produce foot soldiers, leadership and organization, abdullah Yusuf Azzam provided propaganda for the Afghan cause. The jurists were made salaried employees and the nationalist rulers naturally encouraged their employees to serve the rulers interests, inevitably the jurists came to be seen by the Muslim public as doing so. Into this vacuum of authority came aggressive proselytizing funded by tens of billions of dollars of petroleum-export money. The term jihadist is almost exclusively used to describe Sunni extremists, in Syria, where there are thousands of foreign Muslim fighters engaged in the civil war, for example, non-Syrian Shia are often referred to as militia, and Sunni foreigners as jihadists. One who does use the term Shia jihad is Danny Postel, according to Shadi Hamid and Rashid Dar, jihadism is driven by the idea that jihad is an individual obligation incumbent upon all Muslims. This is in contrast with the belief of Muslims up until now that jihad is a collective obligation carried out according to orders of legitimate representatives of the Muslim community
26.
Anwar al-Awlaki
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Anwar al-Awlaki was an American and Yemeni imam and Islamic lecturer. President Barack Obama ordered the strike and his son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki, was killed in a U. S. drone strike two weeks later. On January 29,2017, Al-Awlakis 8-year-old daughter, Nawar Al-Awlaki, was killed in a U. S. commando attack in Yemen which was ordered by Obamas successor, Donald Trump. With a blog, a Facebook page, the al-Qaeda magazine Inspire, after a request from the U. S. Congress, in November 2010 Google removed many of al-Awlakis videos from its websites. According to The New York Times, al-Awlakis public statements and videos have been influential in inspiring acts of terrorism in the wake of his assassination than before his death. As imam at a mosque in Falls Church, Virginia, al-Awlaki spoke with, in 2001, he presided at the funeral of the mother of Nidal Malik Hasan, an Army psychiatrist who later e-mailed him extensively in 2008–09 before the Fort Hood shootings. During al-Awlakis later radical period after 2006–07, when he went into hiding, he was associated with Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, Al-Awlaki was allegedly involved in planning Abdulmutallabs attack. The Yemeni government tried him in absentia in November 2010, for plotting to kill foreigners, a Yemeni judge ordered that he be captured dead or alive. Some U. S. officials said that in 2009, al-Awlaki was promoted to the rank of commander within al-Qaeda. Others felt that Nasir al-Wuhayshi still held this rank and that al-Awlaki was a member in the group. He repeatedly called for jihad against the United States, in April 2010, U. S. President Barack Obama placed al-Awlaki on a list of people whom the U. S. Central Intelligence Agency were authorized to kill because of terrorist activities, Al-Awlakis father and civil rights groups challenged the order in court. Al-Awlaki was believed to be in hiding in southeast Yemen in the last years of his life. The U. S. deployed unmanned aircraft in Yemen to search for and kill him, firing at and failing to kill him at least once, before succeeding on September 30,2011. Two weeks later, al-Awlakis 16-year-old son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki, a U. S. citizen who was born in Denver, Nasser al-Awlaki, Anwars father, released an audio recording condemning the killings of his son and grandson as senseless murders. In June 2014, a classified memorandum issued by the U. S. Department of Justice was released. Some civil liberties advocates have described the incident as an execution that breached al-Awlakis right to due process. Al-Awlaki was born in Las Cruces, New Mexico in 1971 to parents from Yemen, Nasser al-Awlaki served as Agriculture Minister in Ali Abdullah Salehs government
27.
Jihad
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Jihad is an Arabic word which literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim. It can have many shades of meaning in an Islamic context, such as struggle against ones evil inclinations, in classical Islamic law, the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare. In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad, the term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by terrorist groups. The word jihad appears frequently in the Quran with and without military connotations, Islamic jurists and other ulema of the classical era understood the obligation of jihad predominantly in a military sense. They developed a set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. In the modern era, the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance, while modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. Jihad is classified into inner jihad, which involves a struggle against ones own impulses, and external jihad. Most Western writers consider external jihad to have primacy over inner jihad in the Islamic tradition, gallup analysis of a large survey reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world. Jihad is sometimes referred to as the pillar of Islam. In Twelver Shia Islam jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion, a person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid. The term jihad is often rendered in English as Holy War, in Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines the term as fight, battle, jihad, nonetheless, it is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the Quran and words and actions of Muhammad. In the Quran and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah, in the path of God. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that it indicates the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and it is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word crusade. The context of the Quran is elucidated by Hadith, of the 199 references to jihad in perhaps the most standard collection of hadith—Bukhari—all assume that jihad means warfare. He said, The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain, Ibn Nuhaas also cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood. According to another hadith, supporting one’s parents is also an example of jihad and it has also been reported that Muhammad considered well-performing hajj to be the best jihad for Muslim women. The practice of raids by Bedouin against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the Quran
28.
Extremists
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Extremism means, literally the quality or state of being extreme or advocacy of extreme measures or views. Nowadays, the term is used in a political or religious sense. But extremism can, for example, also be meant in an economic sense, the term extremism is usually meant to be pejorative, that is, to express disapproval. However, it may also be meant in an academic, purely descriptive. Extremists are usually contrasted with centrists or moderates, for example, in contemporary discussions in Western countries of Islam or of Islamic political movements, the distinction between extremist and moderate Muslims is typically stressed. Political agendas perceived as extremist often include those from the politics or far-right politics, as well as radicalism, reactionism, fundamentalism. There have been many different definitions of extremism, Peter T. Coleman and Andrea Bartoli give short observation of definitions, Extremism is a complex phenomenon, although its complexity is often hard to see. Most simply, it can be defined as activities of a character far removed from the ordinary, in conflict settings it manifests as a severe form of conflict engagement. However, the labeling of activities, people, and groups as extremist, *In addition, ones sense of the moral or immoral nature of a given act of extremism may change as conditions change. Thus, the current and historical context of extremist acts shapes our view of them, *Power differences also matter when defining extremism. When in conflict, the activities of members of low power groups tend to be viewed as more extreme than similar activities committed by members of groups advocating the status quo. In addition, extreme acts are more likely to be employed by marginalized people, however, dominant groups also commonly employ extreme activities. Again, low power groups are likely to employ direct, episodic forms of violence. For instance, individual members of Hamas may differ considerably in their willingness to negotiate their differences with the Palestinian Authority and, ultimately, the terms extremism or extremist are almost always exonymic—i. e. Applied by others to a rather than by a group labeling itself. Rather than labeling themselves extremist, those labeled as such might describe themselves as, for example, there is no political party that calls itself right-wing extremist or left-wing extremist, and there is no sect of any religion that calls itself extremist or which calls its doctrine extremism. The term extremist is used to describe groups and individuals who have become radicalized, in some way, the term radical is one not normally regarded as pejorative and, unlike extremist, is sometimes used by groups in their description of themselves. The word violence cannot be regarded as value-neutral, ideology and methodology often become inextricably linked under the single term extremism
29.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
30.
Violent extremism
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Violent extremism refers to the beliefs and actions of people who support or use ideologically motivated violence to achieve radical ideological, religious or political views. Violent extremist views can be exhibited along a range of issues, including politics, religion, no society, religious community or worldview is immune to violent extremism. Radical thought that does not condone the exercise of violence to further political goals may be seen as normal and acceptable and it is often used as a code name for Islamic terrorism. There is no profile or pathway for radicalization, or even speed at which it happens. Nor does the level of education seem to be a predictor of vulnerability to radicalization. It is however established that there are socio-economic, psychological and institutional factors that lead to violent extremism, specialists group these factors into three main categories, push factors, pull factors and contextual factors. Groups can also lure new members by providing outlets for grievances and promise of adventure, furthermore, these groups appear to offer spiritual comfort, “a place to belong” and a supportive social network. Contextual factors that provide a terrain to the emergence of violent extremist groups, such as, fragile states. The following behaviours in combination have been identified as signs of radicalization, Sudden break with the family. Sudden drop-out of school and conflicts with the school, change in behaviour relating to food, clothing, language or finances. Changes in attitudes and behaviour towards others, antisocial comments, rejection of authority, refusal to interact socially, signs of withdrawal, regular viewing of internet sites and participation in social media networks that condone radical or extremist views. Reference to apocalyptic and conspiracy theories, the role of education in preventing violent extremism and de-radicalizing young people has only recently gained global acceptance. Developing critical thinking to investigate claims, verify rumours and question the legitimacy, fostering critically informed citizens able to constructively engage in peaceful collective action. Terrorism Religious terrorism Religious fanaticism Boko Haram Al Qaeda The Taliban ISIL Islamic extremism Christian terrorism
31.
Lawrence Wright
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Wright is best known as the author of the 2006 nonfiction book The Looming Tower, Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. Wright is also known for his work with documentarian Alex Gibney who directed film versions of Wrights one man show My Trip to Al-Qaeda, Wright graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in Dallas, Texas, in 1965 and was inducted into the schools Hall of Fame in 2009. He is a graduate of Tulane University and taught English at the American University in Cairo in Egypt for two years, in 1980 Wright began working for the magazine Texas Monthly and contributed to Rolling Stone magazine. In late 1992, he joined the staff of The New Yorker, Wright is the author of six books but is best known for his 2006 publication, The Looming Tower, Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. A quick bestseller, The Looming Tower was awarded the J. Wright had written a profile of former Scientologist Paul Haggis for The New Yorker, Wrights book on Scientology, Going Clear, Scientology, Hollywood, and the Prison of Belief was published in January 2013. The book contains interviews from current and former Scientologists, and examines the history, in an interview for The New York Times, Wright disclosed that he has received innumerable letters threatening legal action from lawyers representing the church and celebrities who belong to it. Wright spoke to two hundred current and former Scientologists for the book, the Church published an official statement in its newsroom and a blog listing its rebuttals to Wrights claims. Among Wrights other books is Remembering Satan, A Tragic Case of Recovered Memory, on June 7,1996, Wright testified at Ingrams pardon hearing. Wright also co-wrote the screenplay for the film The Siege, which tells the story of a terrorist attack in New York City that leads to curtailed civil liberties and rounding up of Arab-Americans. A script that Wright originally wrote for Oliver Stone was turned instead into a well-regarded Showtime movie, Noriega, a documentary featuring Wright, My Trip to Al-Qaeda, premiered on HBO in September 2010. It was based on his journeys and experiences in the Middle East during his research for The Looming Tower, Wright also plays the keyboard in the Austin, Texas, blues collective WhoDo. City Children, Country Summer, A Story of Ghetto Children Among the Amish, in the New World, Growing up with America, 1964-1984. Remembering Satan, A Tragic Case of Recovered Memory, twins, And What They Tell Us About Who We Are. The Looming Tower, Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, Going Clear, Scientology, Hollywood, and the Prison of Belief. Thirteen Days in September, Carter, Begin and Sadat at Camp David, the Terror Years, From Al-Qaeda to the Islamic State. The Talk of the Town, Comment, Intolerance, reporting & Essays, Profiles, The Apostate, Paul Haggis vs. the Church of Scientology
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The Looming Tower
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The book was written by Lawrence Wright, who was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for the work. The Looming Tower is largely focused on the involved in the September 11 attacks, their motives and personalities. There is also a portrait of Ayman al-Zawahiri, from his childhood in Egypt to his participation in, the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya are described, as is the bombing of the USS Cole in 2000. Lawrence Wright also describes in some of the Americans involved, in particular Richard A. Clarke, chief counter-terrorism adviser on the U. S. National Security Council. Because The Looming Tower is to a large extent focused on telling the story of the people involved it does not describe the 9/11 plot and its execution in much detail. It focuses more on the background and the conditions that produced the people who planned and staged the attack, the words looming towers or lofty towers appear in the Quran 4,78. According to Wright, Osama bin Laden, at a wedding before the 9/11 attack, quoted the line, april 25,2007 After Words interview with Wright on The Looming Tower, September 9,2006
33.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
35.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
36.
Major religious groups
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The worlds principal religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups, although this is by no means a uniform practice. This theory began in the 18th century with the goal of recognizing the relative levels of civility in societies, in world cultures, there have traditionally been many different groupings of religious belief. In Indian culture, different religious philosophies were traditionally respected as academic differences in pursuit of the same truth, in Islam, the Quran mentions three different categories, Muslims, the People of the Book, and idol worshipers. Initially, Christians had a dichotomy of world beliefs, Christian civility versus foreign heresy or barbarity. Daniel Defoe described the definition as follows, Religion is properly the Worship given to God. Therefore, Hannah Adamss early encyclopedia, for example, had its name changed from An Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects. to A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations. The modern meaning of the world religion, putting non-Christians at the same level as Christians. T. Suzuki, and Alan Watts, who influenced the public conception of world religions. Even history professors have now taken note of these complications and advise against teaching world religions in schools, others see the shaping of religions in the context of the nation-state as the invention of traditions. Religious traditions fall into super-groups in comparative religion, arranged by historical origin, Abrahamic religions originate in West Asia, Indian religions in the Indian subcontinent and East Asian religions in East Asia. Another group with supra-regional influence are Afro-American religion, which have their origins in Central, middle Eastern religions, Abrahamic religions are the largest group, and these consist mainly of Christianity, Islam, Judaism and the Baháí Faith. They are named for the patriarch Abraham, and are unified by the practice of monotheism, today, around 3.4 billion people are followers of Abrahamic religions and are spread widely around the world apart from the regions around East and Southeast Asia. Several Abrahamic organizations are vigorous proselytizers, iranian religions, partly of Indo-European origins, include Zoroastrianism, Yazdânism, Ætsæg Din, Ahl-e Haqq and historical traditions of Gnosticism. It has significant overlaps with Abrahamic traditions, e. g. in Sufism and in recent movements such as Bábism and the Baháí Faith. Indian religions, originated in Greater India and partly of Indo-European origins, they tend to share a number of key concepts, such as dharma, karma, reincarnation among others. They are of the most influence across the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, Southeast Asia, the main Indian religions are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. East Asian religions consist of several East Asian religions which use of the concept of Tao or Dō. They include many Chinese folk religions, Taoism and Confucianism, as well as Korean, indigenous ethnic religions, found on every continent, now marginalized by the major organized faiths in many parts of the world or persisting as undercurrents of major religions
37.
Religious denomination
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A religious denomination is a subgroup within a religion that operates under a common name, tradition, and identity. The term refers to the various Christian denominations and it is also used to describe the four branches of Judaism. Within Islam, it can refer to the branches or sects, as well as their various subdivisions such as sub-sects, schools of jurisprudence, schools of theology, the worlds largest religious denomination is Sunni Islam, followed by Roman Catholicism. A Christian denomination is a term for a distinct religious body identified by traits such as a common name, structure, leadership. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties are known as branches of Christianity. Jewish religious movements, sometimes called denominations or branches, include different groups which have developed among Jews from ancient times, today, the main division is between the Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative lines, with several smaller movements alongside them. This threefold denominational structure is present in the United States. The movements differ in their views on various issues and these issues include the level of observance, the methodology for interpreting and understanding Jewish law, biblical authorship, textual criticism, and the nature or role of the messiah. Across these movements there are marked differences in liturgy, especially in the language in services are conducted. In Hinduism, the deity or philosophical belief identifies a denomination. The major denominations include Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism, historically, Islam was divided into three major sects well known as Sunni, Khawarij and Shī‘ah. Nowadays, Sunnis constitute more than 85% of the overall Muslim population while the Shias are slightly more than 12%, today, many of the Shia sects are extinct. The major surviving Imamah-Muslim Sects are Usulism, Nizari Ismailism, Alevism, on the other hand, new Muslim sects like African American Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, non-denominational Muslims, Quranist Muslims and Wahhabis were later independently developed. The term multi-denominational may describe an event that includes several religious denominations from sometimes unrelated religious groups. Many civic events include religious portions led by representatives from several denominations to be as inclusive or representational as possible of the expected population or audience. Schools of Buddhism Christian denomination Hindu denominations Islamic denominations Jewish denominations Non-denominational Schism Sociological classifications of religious movements
38.
Abrahamic religions
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Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the largest Abrahamic religions in terms of numbers of adherents. As of 2005, estimates classified 54% of the population as adherents of an Abrahamic religion, about 32% as adherents of other religions. Christianity claims 33% of the population, Islam has 21%, Judaism has 0. 2%. It has been suggested that the phrase, Abrahamic religion, may mean that all these religions come from one spiritual source. Christians refer to Abraham as a father in faith, there is an Islamic religious term, Millat Ibrahim, indicating that Islam sees itself as having practices tied to the traditions of Abraham. Jewish tradition claims descent from Abraham, and adherents follow his practices and it is the Islamic tradition that Muhammad, as an Arab, is descended from Abrahams son Ishmael. Jewish tradition also equates the descendants of Ishmael, Ishmaelites, with Arabs, as the descendants of Isaac by Jacob, who was also later known as Israel, are the Israelites. The Báb, regarded by Baháís as a predecessor to Baháulláh, was a Sayyid, or a descendant of Muhammad. Tradition also holds that Baháulláh is a descendant of Abraham through his third wife, while there is commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences. For example, the common Christian beliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, there are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity, and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháí Faith not shared by Judaism. Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob and it has a strictly unitary view of God, and the central holy book for almost all branches is the Masoretic Text as elucidated in the Oral Torah. In the 19th century and 20th centuries Judaism developed a number of branches, of which the most significant are Orthodox, Conservative. Christianity began as a sect of Judaism in the Mediterranean Basin of the first century CE and evolved into a separate religion—Christianity—with distinctive beliefs, Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be God the Son, one person of the Trinity. The Christian biblical canons are usually held to be the ultimate authority, over many centuries, Christianity divided into three main branches, dozens of significant denominations, and hundreds of smaller ones. Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century CE with a unitary view of God. Muslims hold the Quran to be the authority, as revealed and elucidated through the teachings and practices of a central. The Islamic faith consider all prophets and messengers from Adam through the messenger to carry the same Islamic monotheistic principles. Soon after its founding Islam split into two branches, each of which now have a number of denominations
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Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism includes movements such as Modern Orthodox Judaism and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism. As of 2001, Orthodox Jews and Jews affiliated with an Orthodox synagogue accounted for approximately 50% of British Jews,26. 5% of Israeli Jews, among those affiliated to a synagogue body, Orthodox Jews represent 70% of British Jewry, and 27% of American Jewry. Orthodoxy is not one single movement or school of thought, there is no single rabbinical body to which all rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing member congregations. In the 20th century, a segment of the Orthodox population disagreed with Modern Orthodoxy, such rabbis viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. This form of Judaism may be referred to as Haredi Judaism or Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, several local Jewish papers, including New Yorks Jewish Week and Philadelphias Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi David Bar-Hayim, the term Orthodox Judaism was coined as a response to the rise of Reform Judaism in early 19th century Germany, some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to Jewish Law relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the many debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies without any reference to observance, however, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages, attempts to codify these were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Yet the 13 Fundamentals expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishnah, but in recent centuries the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. More specific doctrines refer to the times of Godly salvation and afterlife – in Judaism, Olam haBa and these include belief in divine reward for those who observe the Lords commandments and likewise, punishment meted unto the transgressors. Maimonides reserved one article for this tenet, oft mentioned in sources, stating merely that God rewards. This issue has been subject to debate and interpretation. Nahmanides offered a comprehensive system, with divine remuneration for better or worse both in this world, via natural means, and in a celestial heaven and hell. One of the most important teachings concerning afterlife in Judaism is the Resurrection of the Dead, the Talmud listed deniers of this faith as heretics who shall have no part in the World to Come. Maimoindes specified it apart as a separate article and this particular notion is closely linked with Reward and Punishment. They will live ordinary, corporeal life but will not die, then all mankind shall be resuscitated and be given each his just due. The eternal reward shall be preserved for their soul, as beforehand, preceding the miraculous events linked with afterlife is the Advent of the Messiah, also independently listed among Maimonides Thirteen as a tenet of faith. Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity, a Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition
