1.
Discrimination
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This includes treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in countries and institutions in every part of the world. In some places, controversial attempts such as quotas have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination—but have sometimes been called reverse discrimination, the term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- distinguished between, from the verb discriminare, from discrimen distinction, from the verb discernere, Discrimination derives from Latin, where the verb discrimire means to separate, to distinguish, to make a distinction. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as disadvantageous treatment or consideration, an individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. They just need to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason, in addition to this discrimination develops into a source of oppression. It is similar to the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated inhumanly, social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups. Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable, the United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement, Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection. International bodies United Nations Human Rights Council work towards helping ending discrimination around the world, important UN documents addressing discrimination include, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination. The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 21 December 1965, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as a bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations. Parties to the Convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities, the text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006, and opened for signature on 30 March 2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on 3 May 2008, ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someones age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a persons age. Ageism is most often directed towards old people, or adolescents, Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, interestingly, they found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years
2.
Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
3.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
4.
Speciesism
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Speciesism involves the assignment of different values, rights, or special consideration to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. Their claim is that species membership has no moral significance, the term is not used consistently, but broadly embraces two ideas. It usually refers to human speciesism, the exclusion of all animals from the rights, freedoms. Activities such as these, that were standard human behaviors across the millennia, the term speciesism, and the argument that it is simply a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of a group of intellectuals in Oxford, England, one of the groups activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern, the pamphlet titled Speciesism was written to protest against animal experimentation. Ryder argued in the pamphlet that ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally, if all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on the same moral continuum. Ryder wrote, In as much as race and species are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago, is now widely condemned, similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor speciesism as much as they now detest racism. The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort, the time has come to act upon this logic. Those who claim that speciesism is unfair to non-human species have often argued their case by invoking mammals, the term was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book Animal Liberation. Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his books fifth chapter, sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case, Singer argued that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share the capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as a moral theory. The term caught on, Singer wrote that it was an awkward word and it became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankinds superiority. Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that human beings are members of the moral community
5.
Bias against left-handed people
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Bias based on handedness is bias or design, conscious or not, usually against people who are left-handed. Part of this is due to design in the world which is often right-hand biased, handwriting is one of the biggest sources of actual disadvantage for left-handed people, other than for those forced to work with certain machinery. These may include school desks, kitchen implements, and tools ranging from simple scissors to hazardous machinery such as power saws, beyond such neglect, however, left-handed people have been subjected to deliberate discrimination and discouragement. In certain societies, they may be considered unlucky or even malicious by the right-handed majority, many languages still contain references to left-handedness to convey awkwardness, dishonesty, stupidity, or other undesirable qualities. Among Incas left-handers were called lloqe which has positive value, peoples of the Andes consider left-handers to possess special spiritual abilities, including magic and healing. The Third Sapa Inca—Lloque Yupanqui—was left-handed and his name, when translated from Quechua, means the glorified lefthander. However, Lloque was also known as The Unforgettable Left-Handed One due to his reportedly horrifying ugliness, in the Chinese language, the character for left, 左, depicts a left hand attending to its work. In contrast, the character for right, 右, depicts a hand in relation to the mouth. In tantra Buddhism, the hand represents wisdom. In early Roman times, the side retained a positive connotation. The negative meaning was subsequently borrowed into Latin from Greek, in Russian, levsha became a common noun for skilled craftsman, after the title character from The Tale of Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and the Steel Flea written in 1881 by Nikolai Leskov. In the context of BDSM and Leather culture, the side is traditionally associated with dominance. Flagging on the left indicated one was the performer of a rather than the recipient. The unfavorable associations and connotations of the use of the left hand among cultures are varied. In some areas, in order to preserve cleanliness where sanitation was an issue, the hand, as the dominant hand of most individuals, was used for eating, handling food. The left hand would then be used for hygiene, specifically after urination and defecation. These rules were imposed on all, no matter their dominant hand, through these practices, the left hand became known as the unclean hand. Currently, amongst Muslims and in some societies including Nepal and India it is customary to use the left hand for cleaning oneself with water after defecating
6.
Persecution of Christians
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Persecution of Christians can be traced historically based on the biblical account of Jesus from the first century of the Christian era to the present day. Early in the century, the religion was legalized by the Edict of Milan. Christian missionaries as well as converts to Christianity have been the targets of persecution ever since the emergence of Christianity, schisms of the Middle Ages and especially the Protestant Reformation, provoked severe conflicts between Christian denominations persecuting each other. During World War II members of some Christian churches were persecuted in Nazi Germany for resisting Nazi ideology, in more recent times the persecution of Christians has increased in India according to International Christian Concern. The Christian missionary organization Open Doors estimates 100 million Christians face persecution, particularly in Muslim-majority countries such as Pakistan, the early Christians preached the second coming of a Messiah which did not conform to their religious teachings. However, feeling that their beliefs were supported by Jewish scripture, despite individual conversions, the vast majority of Judean Jews did not become Christians. Claudia Setzer asserts that, Jews did not see Christians as clearly separate from their own community until at least the middle of the second century. Thus, acts of Jewish persecution of Christians fall within the boundaries of synagogue discipline and were so perceived by Jews acting and thinking as the established community, the Christians, on the other hand, saw themselves as persecuted rather than disciplined. Inter-communal dissension began almost immediately with the teachings of Stephen at Jerusalem, According to the Acts of the Apostles, a year after the Crucifixion of Jesus, Stephen was stoned for his alleged transgression of the faith, with Saul looking on. Peter and other early Christians were also imprisoned, beaten and harassed, luke T. Walter Laqueur argues that hostility between Christians and Jews spans generations. By the 4th century, John Chrysostom was arguing that the Pharisees alone, the first documented case of imperially supervised persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire begins with Nero. In 64 AD, a fire broke out in Rome, destroying portions of the city. Some people suspected that Nero himself was the arsonist, as Suetonius reported, claiming that he played the lyre, Suetonius however does not specify the reasons for the punishment, he just lists the fact together with other abuses put down by Nero. Contrary to popular misconception, the Church was not in a struggle for its existence during its first centuries, persecutions of Christians were sporadic and locally inspired, and almost never state-sanctioned. In the first two centuries Christianity was a small sect which was not a significant concern of the Emperor. The sole source for this event is early Christian historian Eusebius of Caesareas Church History, Tertullians Apologeticus of 197 was ostensibly written in defense of persecuted Christians and was addressed to Roman governors. The edict of Septimius Severus touted in the Augustan History is considered unreliable by historians, According to Eusebius, the Imperial household of Maximinus predecessor, Alexander, had contained many Christians. Eusebius states that, hating his predecessors household, Maximinius ordered that the leaders of the churches should be put to death
7.
Islamophobia
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Islamophobia or Muslimophobia refers to fear, prejudice, hatred or dislike directed against Islam or Muslims, or towards Islamic politics or culture. The introduction of the term was justified by the assessment that anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably. The causes and characteristics of Islamophobia are still debated, some people also question the validity of the term. The academics S. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live, in German, Islamophobie and Islamfeindlichkeit are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means hatred of Muslims, the word Islamophobia is a neologism formed from Islam and -phobia, a suffix used in English to form nouns with the sense ‘fear of ——’, ‘aversion to ——’. The compound form Islamo- contains the thematic vowel -o-, and is found in earlier coinages such as Islamo-Christian from the 19th century, Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended. In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, chaired by Gordon Conway, the Commissions report, Islamophobia, A Challenge for Us All, was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, the symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory, postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia. The presentations from the symposium were turned into a volume, Sayyid. Thinking Through Islamophobia, Global Perspectives New York, Columbia University Press, nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely. The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition, several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s, so have Maud Olofsson, and Jan Hjärpe, among others. Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness. On occasion race does come into play, diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on race or religion. Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims, according to Alan Johnson, Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism wrapped in religious terms. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance defines Islamophobia as the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and it has also been defined as fear of Muslims and Islam, rejection of the Muslim religion, or a form of differentialist racism. The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday on several levels
8.
Misogyny
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Misogyny is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. Misogyny can occasionally be found within sacred texts of religions and mythologies, according to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female. Johnson argues that, Misogyny. is a part of sexist prejudice and ideology and. Misogyny is manifested in different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies. Dictionaries define misogyny as hatred of women and as hatred, dislike, the counterpart of misogyny is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men, the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, the love or fondness of women. The term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek word misogunia, the earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus. Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and he uses misogunia to describe the sort of writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating that he reject the hatred of women in his writing. He then offers an example of this, quoting from a lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a wife are praised. The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three disaffections—women, wine and humanity. Chrysippus point is more abstract than Antipaters, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of a contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally and it was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike. So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as a disease and it is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general view was that man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other. Aristotle has also accused of being a misogynist, he has written that women were inferior to men. The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women, the Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit, evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates words for his bold new proposal about marriage, suggest that the women are to be held in common by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women, misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs —in Deipnosophistae and in Plutarchs Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from seven of Strabos 17 volume Geography
9.
Anti-intellectualism
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Anti-intellectualism has been used by totalitarian dictatorships to oppress political dissent. Economist Thomas Sowell argues for distinctions between unreasonable and reasonable wariness of intellectuals, when working in their fields of expertise, intellectuals have increased knowledge. However, when compared to other careers, Sowell suggests intellectuals have few disincentives for speaking outside their expertise, for example, a physician is judged by effective treatment, yet might face malpractice lawsuits if he harms a patient. In this manner, intellectuals participate in areas where they may possess no prior knowledge at all in order to influence public policy issues. Similar arguments have been made by others, historian Paul Johnson argued that a close examination of 20th-century history reveals that intellectuals have championed innumerable disastrous public policies, writing, beware intellectuals. Not merely should they be well away from the levers of power. Journalist Tom Wolfe described an intellectual as a person knowledgeable in one field who speaks out only in others, in Brazil, the educator Paulo Freire was banished for being ignorant, according to the organizers of the coup d’ État of the moment. Extreme ideological dictatorships, such as the Khmer Rouge regime in Kampuchea, in achieving their Year Zero social engineering of Cambodia, they assassinated anyone suspected of involvement in free-market activities. The suspected Cambodian populace included professionals and almost every educated man and woman, city-dwellers, doctrinally, the Khmer Rouge designated the farmers as the true proletariat, as the true representatives of the working class, hence the anti-intellectual purge. Moreover, anti-intellectualism is neither always violent, nor oppressive, because most any social group can exercise contempt for intellect, intellectualism, and education. In fact, it is always the critical intellectuals, writers, intellectuals by definition are people who take ideas seriously for their own sake. Whether or not a theory is true or false is important to them independently of any practical applications it may have, have, as Richard Hofstadter has pointed out, an attitude to ideas that is at once playful and pious. But in the movement, the intellectual ideal of knowledge for its own sake is rejected. Knowledge is seen as only as a basis for action. Far more important than what one knows is how one feels, remember that the publishers want to keep the printing presses busy and do not object to nonsense if it can be sold. The cultural elite—women and men—will be pleading for the plumbers and the construction workers, in The Powring Out of the Seven Vials, the Puritan John Cotton wrote that the more learned and witty you bee, the more fit to act for Satan will you bee. Upon the learning of the Jesuits, and the glorie of the Episcopacy, I say bee not deceived by these pompes, empty shewes, and faire representations of goodly condition before the eyes of flesh and blood, bee not taken with the applause of these persons. Not every Puritan concurred with Cottons contempt for secular education, some founded universities such as Harvard, Yale, the highest elites and the titled aristocracies had little reason to risk their lives crossing the Atlantic and then face the perils of pioneering
10.
Sect
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A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. A sect, in an Indian context, refers to an organized tradition, the present gamut of meanings of sect has been influenced by confusion with the homonymous Latin word secta, as though sects were scissionsWiktionary entry cast aside from the mainstream religion. There are several different sociological definitions and descriptions for the term, among the first to define them were Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch. In the church-sect typology they are described as newly formed groups that form to protest elements of their parent religion. The American sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge assert that claim to be authentic purged, refurbished version of the faith from which they split. They further assert that sects have, in contrast to churches, other sociologists of religion such as Fred Kniss have asserted that sectarianism is best described with regard to what a sect is in tension with. Some religious groups exist in only with co-religious groups of different ethnicities. The English sociologist Roy Wallis argues that a sect is characterized by “epistemological authoritarianism”, in France, since the 1970s, secte has a specific meaning which is very different from the English word. The term remains valid for this purpose, according to Michaels, Indian sects do not focus on heresy, since the lack of a center or a compulsory center makes this impossible – instead, the focus is on adherents and followers. The ancient schools of fiqh or sharia in Islam are known as madhhabs, in the beginning Islam was classically divided into three major sects. These political divisions are known as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam. Each sect developed several distinct jurisprudence systems reflecting their own understanding of the Islamic law during the course of the history of Islam, for instance, Sunnis are separated into five sub-sects, namely, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali and Ẓāhirī. The Shia, on the hand, first developed Kaysanism. The non-Zaydis are initially called as Rafida Groups and these Rafidis were later divided into two sub-groups known as Imamiyyah and Batiniyyah. The Imami-Shia later brought into existence Jafari jurisprudence, Batiniyya groups, on the other hand, were divided into two sub-groups known as Seveners and Ismāīlīs. Qarmatians who did not follow the Fatimid Caliphate were branched from the Seveners and those groups of Batiniyya who followed the Fatimids are the ancestors of todays Ismāīlīs. Druze was emerged as an offshoot of Ismāʿīlism at the beginning of the 11th Century, ismailism at the end of the 11th Century split into two major branches known as Nizārī Ismāīlī and Musta’li Ismaili. The Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali Sunnis, the Twelver groups, the Ismāīlī groups, the Zaydis, the Ibadis, in addition, new sects like Ahmadiyya movement, Black Muslim movements, Quranists, Salafis, Wahhabis, and Zikris have been emerged independently
11.
White supremacy
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White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudoscientific arguments. The term is typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates. Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews. White supremacy was dominant in the United States even after the American Civil War, in large areas of the U. S. this included the holding of non-whites in chattel slavery with four million denied freedom from bondage. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession, in an editorial about Native Americans in 1890, author L. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, the denial of social and political freedom continued into the mid-20th century resulting in the Civil Rights Movement. On the U. S. immigration laws prior to 1965, many U. S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States decision in Loving v. Virginia. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the claims to land. The terms recent rise in popularity among leftist activists has been characterized by some as counterproductive, in an opinion piece in The Atlantic, Conor Friedersdorf has said that the usage of the term by activists creates confusion because it strays from the common definition. Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century, gobineaus theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish cultures. Many modern-day white supremacist groups around the world reuse Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under the Dutch Empire, and continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid as an officially structured policy was introduced by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party after the election of 1948. Legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups—black, white, coloured, and Indian, in 1970, the Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation, and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship. South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991, in Rhodesia, a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom during an unsuccessful attempt to avoid immediate majority rule. Neo-Nazi organisations embracing white-supremacist ideology are present in countries in the world. It has been claimed in 2007, that Russian Neo-Nazis accounted for half of the worlds total, White racial advantages occur both at a collective and an individual level. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows, By white supremacy I do not mean to allude only to the racism of white supremacist hate groups. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, the term expresses historic continuities between a pre-African-American Civil Rights Movement era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States
12.
Anti-Masonry
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Anti-Masonry is defined as avowed opposition to Freemasonry. However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement, Anti-Masonry consists of radically differing criticisms from sometimes incompatible groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. The earliest anti-Masonic document was a leaflet printed in 1698 by a Presbyterian minister named Winter and it reads, TO ALL GODLY PEOPLE, In the Citie of London. For this devllish Sect of Men are Meeters in secret which swear against all without ther Following and they are the Anti Christ which was to come leading Men from Fear of God. For how should Men meet in secret Places and with secret Signs taking Care that none observed them to do the Work of GOD, are not these the Ways of Evil-doers. Knowing how that God observeth privilly them that sit in Darkness they shall be smitten, mingle not among this corrupt People lest you be found so at the Worlds Conflagration. In 1826, William Morgan disappeared from the town of Batavia, New York. His disappearance caused some Anti-masons to claim that he had kidnapped and murdered by Masons. Morgans disappearance sparked a series of protests against Freemasonry, which spread to the political realm. Under the leadership of anti-Masonic Thurlow Weed, an Anti-Jacksonist movement became the Anti-Masonic Party and this political Party ran presidential candidates in 1828 and 1832, but by 1835 the party had disbanded everywhere except Pennsylvania. In the United Kingdom, anti-Masonic sentiment grew following the publication of Martin Shorts 1989 book and this movement was initially led by Jack Straw, Home Secretary from 1997 until 2001. In 1999, the Welsh Assembly became the body in the United Kingdom to place a legal requirement on membership declaration for Freemasons. Currently, existing members of the police and judiciary in England are asked to admit to being Freemasons. Conversely, new members of the police are not required to declare their status, Soviet Russia outlawed all secret societies, including Masonry, in 1922. At one of the Second International meetings Grigory Zinoviev demanded to purge it of masons, Freemasonry did not exist in the Soviet Union, China, or most other Communist states. Postwar revivals of Freemasonry in Czechoslovakia and Hungary were suppressed in 1950, however, when in power, Castro was also said to have kept them on a tight leash as they were considered a subversive element in Cuban society. Fascists treated Freemasonry as a source of opposition. Masonic writers state that the used by the totalitarian regimes is similar to that used by some modern critics of Freemasonry
