1.
David
–
David was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, reigning in c. He is described as a man after Gods own heart in 1 Samuel 13,14 and Acts 13,22. The Hebrew prophets regarded him as the ancestor of the future messiah, the New Testament says he was an ancestor of Jesus. God is angered when Saul, Israels king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine instruction to not only all of the Amalekites. Consequently, he sends the prophet Samuel to anoint David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul. Sauls courtiers recommend that he send for David, a man skillful on the lyre, wise in speech, and brave in battle. So David enters Sauls service as one of the royal armour-bearers, and plays the lyre to soothe the king, war comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat. David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Sauls army, refusing the kings offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling. Saul inquires the name of the heros father. Saul sets David over his army, all Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him. Saul plots his death, but Sauls son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his fathers schemes and David flees. He becomes a vassal of the Philistine king Achish of Gath, but Achishs nobles question his loyalty, Jonathan and Saul are killed, and David is anointed king over Judah. In the north, Sauls son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, with the death of Sauls son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David, Your throne shall be established forever. David wins more victories over the Philistines, while the Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites, during a battle to conquer the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David seduces Bathsheba and causes the death of her husband Uriah the Hittite. In response, Nathan prophesies the punishment that shall fall upon him, in fulfillment of these words Davids son Absalom rebels. The rebellion ends at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, Absaloms forces are routed, and Absalom is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree, and killed by Joab, contrary to Davids order. Joab was the commander of Davids army, David laments the death of his favourite son, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom
David
–
Statue of King David by
Nicolas Cordier in the Borghese Chapel of the
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
David
–
Samuel anoints David,
Dura Europos,
Syria, 3rd century CE
David
–
"David Giving Thanks to God After the Death of Goliath", 18th century painting attributed to
Charles Errard the Younger
David
–
David holds the impaled head of Goliath and marches before a general on a white horse, as envisioned by Poussin, ca. 1632
2.
Psalms
–
The Book of Psalms, commonly referred to simply as Psalms or the Psalms, is the first book of the Ketuvim, the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the Christian Old Testament. The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning instrumental music and, by extension, the book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches. Many of the psalms are linked to the name of David, over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the leader or choirmaster, including such statements as with stringed instruments and according to lilies. Others appear to be references to types of composition, such as A psalm and Song. Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common being of David, others named include Moses, Asaph, the Sons of Korah and Solomon. A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship, Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation Ps. Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew and it is generally admitted that Pss.9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem, they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps.144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15, Pss.42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject, of metrical structure and of refrain, to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps.146, later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes,1,2,3,4,6 +13,9 +10,19,20,21,56 +57,69 +70,114 +115,148,149,150. A choral ode would seem to have been the form of Pss.14 +70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps,14, the two antistrophes are Ps.70. It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter, Ps.14 =53, Ps.70 =40. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps and this loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151, Some versions of the Peshitta include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely written in Hebrew. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set, gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types, Hymns, songs of praise for Gods work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, two sub-categories are enthronement psalms, celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying Mount Zion, Gods dwelling-place in Jerusalem
Psalms
–
Tanakh (Judaism)
Psalms
–
An 1880
Baxter process illustration of
Psalm 23, from the
Religious Tract Society 's magazine The Sunday at Home.
Psalms
–
David Playing the Harp by
Jan de Bray, 1670.
Psalms
–
A
Jewish man reads Psalms at the
Western Wall
3.
Religion
–
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
Religion
–
Urarina shaman, Peru, 1988
Religion
Religion
–
The
Yazılıkaya sanctuary in
Turkey, with the twelve gods of the underworld
Religion
–
Confucianism,
Taoism, and
Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century,
Song dynasty
4.
Ritual
–
A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and performed according to set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community, Rituals are characterized but not defined by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance. Rituals are a feature of all human societies. Even common actions like hand-shaking and saying hello may be termed rituals, the field of ritual studies has seen a number of conflicting definitions of the term. One given by Kyriakidis is that a ritual is an outsiders or etic category for a set activity that, to the outsider, seems irrational, non-contiguous, or illogical. The term can be used also by the insider or emic performer as an acknowledgement that this activity can be seen as such by the uninitiated onlooker, the English word ritual derives from the Latin ritualis, that which pertains to rite. In Roman juridical and religious usage, ritus was the way of doing something, or correct performance. The word ritual is first recorded in English in 1570, there are hardly any limits to the kind of actions that may be incorporated into a ritual. Catherine Bell argues that rituals can be characterized by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, Ritual utilizes a limited and rigidly organized set of expressions which anthropologists call a restricted code. Maurice Bloch argues that ritual obliges participants to use this formal oratorical style, which is limited in intonation, syntax, vocabulary, loudness, in adopting this style, ritual leaders speech becomes more style than content. Because this formal speech limits what can be said, it induces acceptance, compliance, Bloch argues that this form of ritual communication makes rebellion impossible and revolution the only feasible alternative. Ritual tends to support forms of social hierarchy and authority. Rituals appeal to tradition and are concerned to repeat historical precedents accurately. Traditionalism varies from formalism in that the ritual may not be yet still makes an appeal to historical. An example is the American Thanksgiving dinner, which may not be formal, thus, the appeal to history is important rather than accurate historical transmission. Catherine Bell states that ritual is also invariant, implying careful choreography and this is less an appeal to traditionalism than a striving for timeless repetition. The key to invariance is bodily discipline, as in prayer and meditation meant to mold dispositions. This bodily discipline is frequently performed in unison, by groups, Rituals tend to be governed by rules, a feature somewhat like formalism
Ritual
–
A priest elevates the Host during a
Catholic Mass, one of the most widely performed rituals in the world.
Ritual
–
The use of Latin in a Tridentine Catholic Mass is an example of a "restricted code".
Ritual
–
The First Thanksgiving 1621, oil on canvas by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (1863–1930). The painting shows common misconceptions about the event that persist to modern times: Pilgrims did not wear such outfits, and the Wampanoag are dressed in the style of
Plains Indians.
Ritual
–
Masquerade at the
Carnival of Venice.
5.
Church music
–
Church music is music written for performance in church, or any musical setting of ecclesiastical liturgy, or music set to words expressing propositions of a sacred nature, such as a hymn. Christianity began as a small, persecuted Jewish sect, the only record of communal song in the Gospels is the last meeting of the disciples before the Crucifixion. Outside the Gospels, there is a reference to St. Paul encouraging the Ephesians and Colossians to use psalms, hymns, antiphonal psalmody is the singing or musical playing of psalms by alternating groups of performers. The peculiar mirror structure of the Hebrew psalms makes it likely that the method originated in the services of the ancient Israelites. According to the historian Socrates of Constantinople, its introduction into Christian worship was due to Ignatius of Antioch, the use of instruments in early Christian music seems to have been frowned upon. In the late 4th or early 5th century St. Jerome wrote that a Christian maiden ought not even to know what a lyre or flute is like, or to what use it is put. The introduction of church music is traditionally believed to date from the time of the papacy of Pope Vitalian in the 7th century. Gregorian chant is the tradition of Western plainchant, a form of monophonic liturgical chant of Western Christianity that accompanied the celebration of Mass. This musical form originated in Monastic life, in singing the Divine Service nine times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the Rule of Saint Benedict. Singing psalms made up a part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group. In its long history Gregorian Chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and this practice continued into the lifetime of François Couperin, whose Organ Masses were meant to be performed with alternating homophonic Chant. Although it had fallen into disuse after the Baroque period, Chant experienced a revival in the 19th century in the Roman Catholic Church. The mass is a form of music that sets out the parts of the Eucharistic liturgy to music, for example, there are many Masses written in English for the Church of England. Music is an part of mass, it accompanies various rituals acts. Many Masses, especially later ones, were never intended to be performed during the celebration of an actual mass, generally, for a composition to be a full Mass, it must contain the following invariable five sections, which together constitute the Ordinary of the Mass. Kyrie Gloria Credo, the Nicene Creed Sanctus, the part of which, beginning with the word Benedictus, was often sung separately after the consecration. Agnus Dei The Requiem Mass is a version of the ordinary mass. Musical settings of the Requiem mass have a tradition in Western music
Church music
–
Church singing,
Tacuinum Sanitatis Casanatensis (14th century).
Church music
–
The
Introit Gaudeamus omnes, scripted in square notation in the 14th—15th century Graduale Aboense, honours
Henry, patron saint of Finland
Church music
–
Carol singers
6.
Syriac Orthodox Church
–
The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, or Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Eastern Mediterranean. Employing the Divine Liturgy of Saint James with Syriac as its official and liturgical language, the church is led by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius Aphrem II since 2014, seated in Bab Tuma, Damascus, Syria. The Syriac Orthodox Church belongs to the Oriental Orthodoxy, a full communion of churches since the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Around 825, many Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India, affirmed allegiance to the Syriac Orthodox Church, however, another part of clergy gained permission from the Ottoman authorities in Istanbul to reestablish the Syriac Orthodox Church soon after. The churchs present circa 5 million members are divided in 26 archdioceses and its original area is present-day Syria, Turkey, or Iraq. The churchs Levantine ethno-religious identity has been a matter of controversy since the 20th century, many refer to these as ethnic Syriacs or Assyrians, while other advocate the term Arameans. The Syriac Orthodox Church participates in discussions, being a member of the World Council of Churches since 1960. Due mainly to persecution throughout the centuries, a diaspora has spread from the Levant throughout the world, notably in Sweden, Germany, United States, Canada, Guatemala, Brazil, and Australia. The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch claims the status as the most ancient Christian church in the world, according to Saint Luke, The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch. As Jewish Christianity originated at Jerusalem, so gentile Christianity started at Antioch, then the center of the Hellenistic East, with Peter. 70 and 130, were out from Jerusalem and Palestine into Syria. When Saint Peter left Antioch, Evodios and Ignatius presided over the Patriarchate of Antioch, because of the significance attributed to Saint Ignatius in the Syriac Orthodox Church, almost all of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs since 1293 have been named Ignatius. Until 498, this church accepted the authority of the Patriarch of Antioch. The church also maintained a smaller church under a Catholicos, known by the title Maphryono. The Christological controversies that followed the Council of Chalcedon in 451 resulted in a struggle for the Patriarchate between those who accepted and those who rejected the Council. In 518, Patriarch Severus of Antioch was exiled from the city of Antioch, on account of many historical upheavals and consequent hardships which the church had to undergo, the Patriarchate was transferred to different monasteries in Mesopotamia for centuries. In about 1160 its seat was transferred from Antioch to the Mor Hananyo Monastery, in southeastern Turkey near Mardin and they reestablished themselves in Homs, Syria due to an adverse political situation in Turkey. In 1959 it was transferred to Damascus, where it currently resides
Syriac Orthodox Church
–
Holy Qurbana being celebrated at St. Mark's Syriac Orthodox Monastery
Syriac Orthodox Church
–
Emblem of the Church
Syriac Orthodox Church
–
The Different Ranks of Priesthood in SOC i.e. Patriarch, Catholicos, Metropolitan, Corepiscopos, Priest, Deacon, Laymen.
Syriac Orthodox Church
–
Celebration at a
Syriac Orthodox monastery in
Mosul,
Ottoman Syria, early 20th century
7.
Hindu music
–
Hindu music is music created for or influenced by Hinduism. It includes Indian classical music, Kirtan, Bhajan and other musical genres, raagas are a common form of Hindu music in classical India. The most common Hindu bhajan in North Cat India is Om Jai Jagdish Hare, the names of Gods are religiously chanted, often including Vishnu and his incarnations, Shiva and the Goddess. A very common scale in Hindu music is 1234567, a bhajan is a Hindu devotional song, often of ancient origin. Bhajans are often simple songs in lyrical language expressing emotions of love for the Divine, whether for a single God/Goddess, many bhajans feature several names and aspects of the chosen deity, especially in the case of Hindu sahasranamas, which list a divinitys 1008 names. Great importance is attributed to the singing of bhajans with Bhakti, rasanam Lakshanam Bhajanam means the act by which we feel more closer to our inner self or God, is a bhajan. Acts which are done for the God is called bhajan, traditionally, the music has been Indian classical music, which is based on ragas and tala played on the Veena, Sarangi Venu, Mridanga. The Sikh Scripture contains 31 ragas and 17 talas which form the basis for kirtan music compositions, hindus are even said to have achieved Moksha through devoting music to God. This is the communal, call-and-response chanting of mantras, often with instruments, kirtans are deeply rooted in Vedic tradition. The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures, part of the Hindu tradition, samaveda, one of the four Vedas, describes music at length
Hindu music
–
A Hindu musician, early 20th century
8.
Sikh music
–
Sikh music or Shabad kirtan is Kirtan-style singing of hymns or Shabad from the Guru Granth Sahib, the central text of Sikhism. It began in the late 16th century as the expression of mystical poetry, accompanied by a musical instrument rabab. Following Nanak, all the Sikh gurus sang in the then-prevalent classical and folk styles, accompanied by stringed. The style was where the text was of significance and the music played a supporting, albeit important. The Gurus specified the raag for each hymn in the Sikh sacred scripture, significant efforts have been under way since the 1970s to revive the rich Sikh music tradition initiated and developed by the Sikh Gurus. Various terms used to refer to this tradition include Shabad keertan parampara, Gurbani sangeet parampara, devotional singing in Sikhism is called a Kirtan. It is typically performed at Gurdwaras, wherein Sikh scriptures and legends are recited in a song, set to a certain raga, a Shabad Kirtan refers to the musical recitation of the Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture in the Sikhism tradition. The Shabad Kirtan is silently listened to by the gathered congregation, a Kirtan in Sikh history has been the musical analog of Kathas recitation, both preferably performed by ragi jatha, or professional trained performers. The congregational setting is called a Sangat or Satsang, a word that in ancient Indian texts means like minded individuals, the instruments used in the Sikh music are the Firandia Rabab, Saranda, Jori, Taus, Dilruba and the Dhadh Sarangi or Tota. Till the 1980s most of instruments had become almost extinct but the renewed interests. It denotes feeling of beautification and yearning, the precise meaning of ghar is not fully understood, although recent research proposes it refers to raag variants. Dhadi Kirtan Hymn Raag Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib Sikh scriptures Shabad Tabla Chopra, R. M. Glory of Sikhism - Chapter on Music in Sikhism, Indian Classical Music and Sikh Kirtan
Sikh music
–
Bhai Mardana (1459–1534). the first follower and longtime companion of Guru Nanak Dev, the founder of Sikhism, the first Sikh musician
Sikh music
–
A Sikh playing the
Dilruba which was developed by
Guru Gobind Singh
Sikh music
–
Guru Arjan Dev 's own
Rebab
9.
Temple
–
A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
Temple
–
Temple of Hephaestus, a
Doric Greek temple in
Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted).
Temple
–
Koneswaram Temple a 6th Century BCE Tamil
Saivate temple in
Tirukonamalai,
Sri Lanka
Temple
–
Akshardham Temple, a Hindu temple in
New Delhi,
India.
Temple
–
Wat Phra Kaew, Buddhist temple
10.
Jerusalem
–
Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
Jerusalem
–
From upper left: Jerusalem skyline viewed from Givat ha'Arba,
Mamilla, the
Old City and the
Dome of the Rock, a
souq in the
Old City, the
Knesset, the
Western Wall, the
Tower of David and the
Ottoman Old City walls
Jerusalem
–
Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם (Yerushalayim)
Arabic: القُدس (al-Quds)
Aramaic: יְרוּשְׁלֶם (Yərushəlem)
Jerusalem
Jerusalem
–
Stepped Stone Structure in
Ophel /
City of David, the oldest part of Jerusalem
11.
Talmud
–
The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
Talmud
–
Talmud Readers by
Adolf Behrman
Talmud
–
The first page of the
Vilna Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot, folio 2a.
Talmud
–
A page of a medieval Jerusalem Talmud manuscript, from the
Cairo Genizah.
Talmud
–
A full set of the Babylonian Talmud.
12.
Levite
–
A Jewish male descended patrilineally from Levi is a Levi, and his full name may be written as HaLevi. The prefix ה, in the Hebrew language, means the, the daughter of a Levi is a Bat Levi. In Jewish tradition, a Levite is a member of the Israelite Tribe of Levi, descended from Levi, the Tribe of Levi served particular religious duties for the Israelites and had political responsibilities as well. In return, the tribes were expected to give tithe to support the Levites. The Kohanim were the priests, who performed the work of holiness in the Temple, Today, Levites in Orthodox Judaism continue to have additional rights and obligations compared to lay people, although these responsibilities have diminished with the destruction of the Temple. For instance, Kohanim are eligible to be called to the Torah first, Levites also provide assistance to the Kohanim, particularly washing their hands, before the Kohanim recite the Priestly Blessing. They also do not participate in the Pidyon HaBen ceremony, because they are pledged to Divine service. Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism do not observe the distinctions between Kohanim, Levites, and other Jews, Orthodox Judaism believes in the eventual rebuilding of a Temple in Jerusalem and a resumption of the Levitical role. There are a number of schools, primarily in Israel, to train priests. Conservative Judaism believes in a restoration of the Temple as a house of worship and in some role for Levites. The Kohanim are traditionally believed and halachically required to be of direct descent from the Biblical Aaron of the Levi tribe. The noun kohen is used in the Torah to refer to priests, during the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, Kohanim performed the daily and holiday duties of sacrificial offerings. Today kohanim retain a lesser though distinct status within Judaism. During the Priestly Blessing, the Levites traditionally wash the hands of the Kohanim prior to the blessing of the House of Israel. Contrary to popular belief, this is not due to any sort of lineal sanctity, in Israel, Conservative/Masorti Judaism has not extended Torah honors to either a bat Kohen or a bat Levi. He wrote, Today, we also are living through a time of flood, Not of water, but of a bright fire and we are now drowning in a flood of blood. Through the Kohanim and Leviim help will come to all Israel, a 2003 study of the Y-chromosome by Behar et al. pointed to multiple origins for Ashkenasi Levites, a priestly class who comprise approximately 4% among the Ashkenazi Jews. A2013 paper by Siiri Rootsi et al, here we report the analysis of 16 whole R1 sequences and show that a set of 19 unique nucleotide substitutions defines the Ashkenazi R1a lineage
Levite
–
Top row (left to right)
Moses •
Aaron •
Samuel •
Yitzhaq ben Amram •
David Levy Yaacov Horowitz
Levite
13.
Altar
–
An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes, and by extension the Holy table of post-reformation Anglican churches. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches, today they are used particularly in Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, as well as in Neopaganism and Ceremonial Magic. Judaism used such a structure until the destruction of the Second Temple, many historical faiths also made use of them, including Greek and Norse religion. Altars in the Hebrew Bible were typically made of earth or unwrought stone, altars were generally erected in conspicuous places. The first altar recorded in the Hebrew Bible is that erected by Noah, altars were erected by Abraham, by Isaac, by Jacob, and by Moses. In Catholic and Orthodox Christian theology, the Eucharist is a re-presentation, hence, the table upon which the Eucharist is consecrated is called an altar. The altar plays a role in the celebration of the Eucharist, which takes place at the altar on which the bread. The altar is often on a higher elevation than the rest of the church, in Reformed and Anabaptist churches, a table, often called a Communion table, serves an analogous function. In some colloquial usage, the altar is used to denote the altar rail also. The main altar was also referred to as the high altar, in the earliest days of the Church, the Eucharist appears to have been celebrated on portable altars set up for the purpose. Some historians hold that, during the persecutions, the Eucharist was celebrated among the tombs in the Catacombs of Rome, other historians dispute this, but it is thought to be the origin of the tradition of placing relics beneath the altar. Although in the days of the Jerusalem Temple the High Priest indeed faced east when sacrificing on Yom Kippur, the ministers, celebrated the Eucharist facing east, towards the entrance. Some hold that for the part of the celebration the congregation faced the same way. After the sixth century the contrary orientation prevailed, with the entrance to the west and the altar at the east end. Then the ministers and congregation all faced east during the whole celebration, most rubrics, even in books of the seventeenth century and later, such as the Pontificale Romanum, continued to envisage the altar as free-standing. The rite of the Dedication of the Church continued to presume that the officiating Bishop could circle the altar during the consecration of the church and its altar. Despite this, with the increase in the size and importance of the reredos, most altars were built against the wall or barely separated from it. This diversity was recognized in the rubrics of the Roman Missal from the 1604 typical edition of Pope Clement VIII to the 1962 edition of Pope John XXIII, Si altare sit ad orientem, versus populum
Altar
–
Altar in
Roskilde Cathedral dwarfed by a huge carved
triptych
Altar
–
Horned altar at
Tel Be'er Sheva,
Israel.
Altar
–
Ancient Greek kylix showing a
hoplite offering a sacrifice before an altar, around 480 BC. Ancient Agora Museum of Athens in the
Stoa of Attalus
Altar
–
The ancient
Altar of Pergamon, reconstructed at the Pergamon museum, Berlin.
14.
Islamic music
–
Islamic music may refer to religious music, as performed in Islamic public services or private devotions, or more generally to musical traditions of the Muslim world. The classic heartland of Islam is the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Iran, Central Asia and South Asia, due to Islam being a multi-ethnic religion, the musical expression of its adherents is vastly diverse. Indigenous traditions of various part have influenced the styles popular among Muslims today. However, lacking recordings, we can speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs. Certainly the Sufis, brotherhoods of Muslim mystics, spread their music far, the Berber and Arabic speaking countries of North Africa, such as Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, share some musical traditions with Egypt and the Arab countries of the Middle East. Popular modern styles of such as Raï and Chaabi originated in Berber counties. In addition, West African influences can be heard in the music of Gnawa. Music of Algeria Music of Morocco Most Somali music is based on the pentatonic scale and that is, the songs only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic scale such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Arabia, Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists, songwriters, and singers. Instruments prominently featured in Somali music include the kaban, Islam is the largest organized religion on the continent, although indigenous styles and genres are more prominent than those influenced by Middle-Eastern theory. West African musical genres are varied, and tend to incorporate both native and Berber influences, rather than those of Arab origin. A long history of court griot music based on historical accounts, wind and string instruments, such as the Kora or Flute are generally preferred to percussion, although percussion instruments such as the talking drum and djembe are also widely played. Many of the countries in Central Asia such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have been influenced by Turkish. Bowed instruments are common, as is bardic singing, Music of India Music of Pakistan Having never been conquered by the Islamic Empire, Muslim-majority Indonesia has been significantly less influenced by Middle Eastern traditions than South Asia. As a result, many musical styles predate the coming of Islam, although exceptions include Malay Zapin and Joget. The music of South East Asias Muslim-majority regions is more related to the musical genres of South East and East Asia. Variations of one of two main scales prevail in the region among different ensembles, slendro and pelog, in Java, use of the gamelan for Islamic devotional music was encouraged by the Muslim saint Sunan Kalijogo
Islamic music
–
Indonesian Sundanese Gamelan Degung
Islamic music
–
Somali oud player Nuruddin Ali Amaan.
15.
Rastafarian music
–
It developed in Jamaica in the 1930s, following the coronation of Haile Selassie I as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930. There are many sects of Rastafari that have developed over the years and its adherents worship him in much the same way as Jesus in his Second Coming, or as God the Son. Members of the Rastafari way of life are known as Rastafari, Rastas, Rastafari are also known by their official church titles, such as Elder or High Priest. Rastafari has always been conceived as a way of life for, the name Rastafari is taken from Ras Tafari, the title and first name of Haile Selassie I before his coronation. In Amharic, Ras, literally head, is an Ethiopian title equivalent to prince or chief, while the personal given name Täfäri means one who is revered. Yah is a Biblical name of God, from a form of Jahweh or Yahuah found in Psalms 68,4 in the King James Version of the Bible. Most adherents see Haile Selassie I as Jah or Jah Rastafari, an incarnation of God the Father, Rastafari developed in Jamaica during the 1930s, having been influenced by both Ethiopianism and the Back to Africa movement promoted by black nationalist figures like Marcus Garvey. A number of Christian clergymen, most notably Leonard Howell, believed that the crowning of Haile Selassie as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930 marked the fulfilment of a Biblical prophecy and this idea generated the Rastafari movement, which spread throughout Jamaica in that decade. By the 1950s the religion has come into conflict with other aspects of the islands society and had spread to other nations. In the 1960s it expanded and began to gain an increasing influence through music, the Rastafari way of life encompasses the spiritual use of cannabis and the rejection of the degenerate society of materialism, oppression, and sensual pleasures, called Babylon. It proclaims Zion, in reference to Ethiopia, as the birthplace of humankind, and from the beginning of the way of life calls for repatriation to Zion. This can mean moving to Ethiopia but also refers to mentally and emotionally repatriating before the physical. Some Rastafari also embrace various Afrocentric and Pan-African social and political aspirations, International awareness of Rastafari grew in the 1970s as a result of the popularity of reggae music, and especially the international success of singer-songwriter Bob Marley. By 1997 there were, according to one estimate, around one million Rastafari worldwide, in the 2011 Jamaican census,29,026 individuals identified themselves as Rastafari. Other sources estimated that in the 2000s they formed about 5% of the population of Jamaica, scholars of religion categorise Rastafari as a new religious movement. Many Rastas themselves do not however regard it as a religion, the term Rastafari derives from the pre-regnal title of Haile Selassie, the term Ras means a duke or prince, while Tafari Makonen was his name. Rastas refer to the totality of their religions ideas and beliefs as Rastalogy, the scholar of religion Ennis B. Edmonds described Rastafari as having a fairly cohesive worldview, attempts have been made to summarise Rastafari belief, but these have never been accorded the status of a catechism or creed within the movement
Rastafarian music
–
Ethiopian Emperor
Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, considered by Rastas to be Christ.
Rastafarian music
–
Rastafari
Rastafarian music
–
Mount Zion in Jamaica
Rastafarian music
–
Haile Selassie I
16.
Buddhist music
–
Buddhist music is music created for or inspired by Buddhism and part of Buddhist art. Honkyoku are the pieces of shakuhachi or hocchiku music played by wandering Japanese Zen monks called Komuso, Komuso temples were abolished in 1871, but their music, honkyoku, is one of the most popular contemporary music styles in Japan. Komuso played honkyoku for enlightenment and alms as early as the 13th century, in the 18th century, a Komuso named Kinko Kurosawa of the Fuke sect of Zen Buddhism was commissioned to travel throughout Japan and collect these musical pieces. The results of years of travel and compilation were thirty-six pieces known as the Kinko-Ryu Honkyoku. The chanting of mantras used in or inspired by Buddhism, including many genres in many cultures, repetitious chanting of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo and excerpts of the Lotus Sutra within Nichiren Buddhism Shomyo in Japanese Tendai and Shingon Buddhism. Throat singing in Tibetan Buddhist chants Tibetan Buddhism is the most widespread religion in Tibet, musical chanting, most often in Tibetan or Sanskrit, is an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various festivals, yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to Tantric Buddhism, the classical, popular Gelugpa school, Shomyo is a style of Japanese Buddhist chant, mainly in the Tendai and Shingon sects. There are two styles, ryokyoku and rikkyoku, described as difficult and easy to remember, respectively, influential C-pop singers like Faye Wong and Chyi Yu also helped Buddhist music reach a wider audience. In 2009, the Beyond Singing Project produced an album combining Buddhist chants, the musicians involved were, Tina Turner Regula Curti Dechen Shak-Dagsay Karuna Nadee
Buddhist music
–
Bibiladeniye Mahanama - Sri Lankan Buddhist Monk, Spiritual Music Composer
17.
Zoroastrian music
–
Zoroastrian music is a genre of religious music that accompanies religious and traditional rites among the Zoroastrian people. Historical texts prove that prior to the arrival of Islam in Persia, Zoroastrians knew choral, the majority of these songs are no longer performed, although Zoroastrian religious songs still do remain. The wording of these songs are attained from either the Avesta or from the Gathas, islamic influence can be seen in the melodies of the Naderi method of prayer recitation and pilgrims songs. The ancient tambourine music of Kermanshah is similar to kinds of Zoroastrian music. Due to the death of the mobeds, many Zoroastrian customs have been forgotten and only a few remain
Zoroastrian music
–
The
Faravahar, believed to be a depiction of a
fravashi
18.
Zoroastrianism
–
Ascribed to the teachings of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, it exalts a deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda, as its Supreme Being. Zoroastrianism was suppressed from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia of 633-654, recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 2.6 million, with most living in India and in Iran. Besides the Zoroastrian diaspora, the older Mithraic faith Yazdânism is still practised amongst Kurds, the religious philosophy of Zoroaster divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian tradition. The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, in Zoroastrianism, the creator Ahura Mazda, through the Spenta Mainyu is an all-good father of Asha, in opposition to Druj and no evil originates from him. He and his works are evident to humanity through the six primary Amesha Spentas, Spenta Mainyu adjoined unto truth oppose the Spirits opposite, Angra Mainyu and its forces born of Akəm Manah. In Zoroastrianism, the purpose in life is to be among those who renew the world. to make the progress towards perfection. Its basic maxims include, Humata, Hukhta, Huvarshta, which mean, Good Thoughts, Good Words, there is only one path and that is the path of Truth. Do the right thing because it is the thing to do. The full name by which Zoroaster addressed the deity is, Ahura, The Lord Creator and he proclaimed that there is only one God, the singularly creative and sustaining force of the Universe. He also stated that human beings are given a right of choice, Zoroasters teachings focused on responsibility, and did not introduce a devil per se. The contesting force to Ahura Mazda was called Angra Mainyu, or angry spirit, post-Zoroastrian scripture introduced the concept of Ahriman, the Devil, which was effectively a personification of Angra Mainyu. The name Zoroaster is a Greek rendering of the name Zarathustra and he is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati. The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna, which combines Mazda- with the Avestan language word yasna, meaning worship, in English, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin, meaning The best Religion | Beh < Middle Persian Weh + Din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan Daēnā. In Zoroastrian liturgy the term is used as a title for an individual who has formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony. The term Mazdaism /ˈmæzdə. ɪzəm/ is a typical 19th century construct, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda, the March 2001 draft edition of the Oxford English Dictionary also records an alternate form, Mazdeism, perhaps derived from the French Mazdéisme, which first appeared in 1871. In older English sources, the terms Gheber and Gueber were used to refer to Zoroastrians, however, Zoroastrian philosophy is identified as having been known to Italian Renaissance Europe through an image of Zoroaster in Raphaels School of Athens by Giorgio Vasari in 1550. The Oxford English Dictionary records use of the term Zoroastrianism in 1874 in Archibald Sayces Principles of Comparative Philology, Zoroastrians believe that there is one universal, transcendent, supreme god, Ahura Mazda, or the Wise Lord
Zoroastrianism
–
Farvahar.
Persepolis, Iran.
Zoroastrianism
–
Faravahar (or Ferohar), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit)
Zoroastrianism
–
A scene from the
Hamzanama where
Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib Burns Zarthust’s Chest and Shatters the Urn with his Ashes
Zoroastrianism
–
The
fire temple of
Baku, c. 1860
19.
Gospel music
–
Gospel music is a music genre in Christian music. The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music varies according to culture. Gospel music is composed and performed for many purposes, including aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, Gospel music usually has dominant vocals with Christian lyrics. Gospel music can be traced to the early 17th century, with roots in the oral tradition. Hymns and sacred songs were repeated in a call and response fashion, most of the churches relied on hand clapping and foot stomping as rhythmic accompaniment. Most of the singing was done a cappella, the first published use of the term Gospel Song probably appeared in 1874. The original gospel songs were written and composed by such as George F. Root, Philip Bliss, Charles H. Gabriel, William Howard Doane. The advent of radio in the 1920s greatly increased the audience for gospel music, following World War II, gospel music moved into major auditoriums, and gospel music concerts became quite elaborate. Gospel blues is a form of gospel music. Southern gospel used all male, tenor-lead-baritone-bass quartet make-up, progressive Southern gospel is an American music genre that has grown out of Southern gospel over the past couple of decades. Christian country music, sometimes referred to as gospel music, is a subgenre of gospel music with a country flair. It peaked in popularity in the mid-1990s, bluegrass gospel music is rooted in American mountain music. Celtic gospel music infuses gospel music with a Celtic flair, and is popular in countries such as Ireland. British black gospel refers to Gospel music of the African diaspora, some proponents of standard hymns generally dislike gospel music of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, with distance, there is a greater acceptance of such gospel songs into official denominational hymnals. Gospel music in general is characterized by dominant vocals referencing lyrics of a Christian nature, subgenres include contemporary gospel, urban contemporary gospel, Southern gospel, and modern gospel music. Several forms of gospel music utilize choirs, use piano or Hammond organ, tambourines, drums, bass guitar and, increasingly, electric guitar. In comparison with hymns, which are generally of a statelier measure, several attempts have been made to describe the style of late 19th and early 20th century gospel songs in general
Gospel music
–
Mahalia Jackson in the
Concertgebouw concert hall, The Netherlands
Gospel music
–
Exemplification of gospel music: an open Bible and a CD, which represent the gospel in written and musical forms
20.
Liturgical music
–
Liturgical music originated as a part of religious ceremony, and includes a number of traditions, both ancient and modern. Such ceremonial music in the Judeo-Christian tradition can be traced back to both Temple and synagogue worship of the Hebrews. The interest taken by the Catholic Church in music is not only by practitioners. Gregorian chant is warmly recommended by the Catholic Church, as both music and modern unison music for the assembly. It must be holy, and must therefore exclude all profanity, not only from itself and it must be true art, for otherwise it cannot exercise on the minds of the hearers that influence which the Church meditates when she welcomes into her liturgy the art of music. This was expanded upon by Pope Pius XII in his motu proprio Musicae sacrae, liturgy Ephrem the Syrian Contemporary Catholic liturgical music Church music Christian music Religious music Herbermann, Charles, ed. Ecclesiastical Music
Liturgical music
–
Musical notation in a 14th century English Missal
Liturgical music
–
Two pages of a psalter in Baeza Cathedral
Liturgical music
–
Monteverdi's Missa da cappella a sei voci; Kyrie
21.
Spiritual (music)
–
Spirituals are generally Christian songs that were created by African slaves in the United States. Spirituals were originally a tradition that imparted Christian values while also describing the hardships of slavery. Although spirituals were originally unaccompanied monophonic songs, they are best known today in harmonized choral arrangements and this historic group of uniquely American songs is now recognized as a distinct genre of music. Slave Songs of the United States, the first major collection of Negro spirituals, was published in 1867 and they are a result of the interaction of music and religion from Africa with music and religion of European origin. Further, this occurred only in the United States. Africans who converted to Christianity in other parts of the world, even in the Caribbean and Latin America, Negro spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith. Some may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to white American culture and they originated among enslaved Africans in the United States. Slavery was introduced to the British colonies in the early 17th century, in the United States, these people would remain in bondage for the entire 18th century and much of the 19th century. Most were not fully emancipated until the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, Slaves were forbidden from speaking their native languages, and were generally converted to Christianity. With narrow vocabularies, slaves would use the words they did know to translate biblical information, while some slave owners believed that Christian slaves would be more docile, others came to feel that stories of Moses leading the Israelites out of bondage were counterproductive. Forced conversion only worked to a point since church attendance might be required, some slaves became Christians voluntarily, either because it helped them endure hardships or because membership may have offered other benefits. Many of the Slaves turned towards the Baptist or Methodist churches, in some places enslaved Africans were permitted, or even encouraged, to hold their own prayer meetings. During these meetings, worshipers would sing, chant, dance, along with spirituals, shouts also emerged in the Praise Houses. Shouts begin slowly with the shuffling of feet and clapping of hands, drums were used as they had been in Africa, for communication. When the connection between drumming, communication, and resistance was eventually made drums were forbidden. Slaves introduced a number of new instruments to America, the bones, body percussion, and an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or banjar and they drew on native rhythms and their African heritage. They brought with them from Africa long-standing religious traditions that highlighted the importance of storytelling, Music was an essential element in communicating identity, shared social mores, traditional customs, and ethnic history. The primary function of the spirituals was as communal songs sung in a religious gathering, Negro spirituals may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to the white American culture
Spiritual (music)
22.
World Sacred Music Festival
–
The World Festival of Sacred Music is an annual music festival that is held for a week in Fes, Morocco. It was first held in 1994, the World Festival of Sacred Music-Los Angeles a citywide festival that takes place in Los Angeles once every three years. The Festival was initiated by His Holiness the Dalai Lama in 1999 as part of a celebration of the human spirit. The Festival is a volunteer and grassroots effort based on the intention to utilize the arts festival model to build genuine community cooperation. In 1999,2002,2005, and 2011. The Aratani World Series is a project of the World Festival of Sacred Music-LA in partnership with the Japanese American Cultural and Community Center. ]The Aratani World Series is a new annual series in Los Angeles featuring world-class artists meeting at the global crossroads of music. The World Sacred Music Festival in Olympia, Washington, USA began in 2005, inspired by the Fez Festival, sponsored by the non-profit organization Interfaith Works, the World Sacred Music Festival features regional and international artists from a wide variety of ethnicities and spiritual traditions. In 2005 it was a festival and from 2006-2009 it was a single-day festival. In 2010 the festival began presenting quarterly sacred music events
World Sacred Music Festival
–
Festival logo
23.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
24.
History of music
–
Music is found in every known culture, past and present, varying widely between times and places. Consequently, music may have been in existence for at least 55,000 years, a cultures music is influenced by all other aspects of that culture, including social and economic organization and experience, climate, and access to technology. The emotions and ideas that music expresses, the situations in which music is played and listened to, Music history is the distinct subfield of musicology and history which studies music from a chronological perspective. Prehistoric music, once more commonly called music, is the name given to all music produced in preliterate cultures. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in most of Europe and later music in subsequent European-influenced areas, however, it is more common to refer to the prehistoric music of non-European continents – especially that which still survives – as folk, indigenous or traditional music. The origin of music is unknown as it occurred prior to recorded history, some suggest that the origin of music likely stems from naturally occurring sounds and rhythms. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality, even today, some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment or practical functions and it is probable that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. In 2008 archaeologists discovered a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, the five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The oldest known wooden pipes were discovered near Greystones, Ireland, a wood-lined pit contained a group of six flutes made from yew wood, between 30 and 50 cm long, tapered at one end, but without any finger holes. They may once have been strapped together, the prehistoric age is considered to have ended with the development of writing, and with it, by definition, prehistoric music. Ancient music is the given to the music that followed. The oldest known song was written in cuneiform, dating to 3400 years ago from Ugarit. It was deciphered by Anne Draffkorn Kilmer, and was demonstrated to be composed in harmonies of thirds, like ancient gymel, the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world, is the Seikilos epitaph. One pipe in the aulos pairs likely served as a drone or keynote, instruments, such as the seven holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus valley civilization archaeological sites. Indian classical music can be found from the scriptures of the Hindu tradition, samaveda, one of the four vedas, describes music at length. Ravanahatha is a bowed fiddle popular in Western India and it is believed to have originated among the Hela civilization of Sri Lanka in the time of King Ravana
History of music
–
"David with his harp"
Paris Psalter, c. 960,
Constantinople
History of music
–
Portrait of Italian composer
Claudio Monteverdi in
Venice, by
Bernardo Strozzi, c. 1630
History of music
–
J. S. Bach
History of music
–
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's compositions characterized music of the classical era.
25.
Classical music
–
Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th
Classical music
Classical music
–
Nineteenth-century composer and pianist
Clara Schumann is one of only a few female composers mentioned in the Concise Oxford History of Music.
Classical music
–
The Dublin Philharmonic Orchestra performs
Tchaikovsky 's
Fourth Symphony.
Classical music
–
A youth
concert band in performance.
26.
Prehistoric music
–
Prehistoric music is a term in the history of music for all music produced in preliterate cultures, beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in different parts of the world, however, it is more common to refer to the prehistoric music which still survives as folk, indigenous or traditional music. Prehistoric music is studied alongside other periods within music archaeology, findings from paleolithic archaeology sites suggest that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools to create instruments. Archeologists have found Paleolithic flutes carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced, the Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the flute and various types of stringed instruments. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music are found in the Vedas, the earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BCE. Research on the origins of music started in the second half of the 19th century. After the appearance of the collection of articles The Origins of Music the subject was a topic of human evolutionary history. There are currently many hypotheses about the origins of music, some suggest that the origin of music likely stems from naturally occurring sounds and rhythms. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality, even today, some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment or practical functions, even aside from the bird song, monkeys have been witnessed to beat on hollow logs. Although this might serve some purpose of territorialism, it suggests a degree of creativity and seems to incorporate a call, explanations of the origin of music depend on how music is defined. If we assume that music is a form of emotional manipulation, music as we know it was not possible until the onset of intentionality - the ability to reflect about the past. Between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago humans started creating art in the form of paintings on walls, jewelry. They also started to bury their dead ceremonially, if we assume that these new forms of behavior reflect the emergence of intentionality, then music as we know it must also have emerged during that period. From a psychological viewpoint, the question of the origin of music is difficult to answer, Music evokes strong emotions and changed states of awareness. Generally, strong emotions are associated with evolution, but there is no clear link between music and sex, or between music and survival
Prehistoric music
–
Cycladic statues of a double flute player (foreground) and a harpist (background)
27.
Ancient music
–
Ancient music is music that developed in literate cultures, replacing prehistoric music. Ancient music refers to the musical systems that were developed across various geographical regions such as Mesopotamia, India, Persia, Egypt, China, Greece. Ancient music is designated by the characterization of the notes and scales. It may have been transmitted through oral or written systems, Music has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since antiquity. The ancient Egyptians credited one of the powerful gods Hathor with the invention of music, percussion instruments, and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom. Egyptian folk music, including the traditional Sufi dhikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms, none of the many theories that have been formulated have any adequate foundation. In 1986, Anne Draffkorn Kilmer from the University of California at Berkeley published her decipherment of a tablet from Nippur dated to about 2000 BCE. She demonstrated that they represent fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, the notation in that tablet was not as developed as the notation in the later cuneiform tablet dated to about 1250 BCE. The interpretation of the system is still controversial, but it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre. These tablets represent the earliest recorded melodies, though fragmentary, from anywhere in the world, in 1929, Leonard Woolley discovered pieces of four harps while excavating in the ruins of the ancient city of Ur, located in what was Ancient Mesopotamia and is contemporary Iraq. Some of the fragments are now located at the University of Pennsylvania, in the British Museum in London and they have been dated to 2,750 BCE. Various reconstructions have been attempted, but none have been totally satisfactory, depending on various definitions, they could be classed as lyres rather than harps. The most famous is the harp, held in Baghdad. The second Iraqi War led to the destruction of the bull-head lyre, among the Hurrian texts from Ugarit are some of the oldest known instances of written music, dating from c.1400 BCE and including one substantially complete song. A reconstruction of this hymn is presented at the Urkesh webpage, Musical instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus valley civilization archaeological sites. In ancient India, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to forms of recitation of the same text. The Nātya Shastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the arts, encompassing theatre, dance. It was written at a date in classical India
Ancient music
–
Egyptian lute players. Fresco from the tomb of Nebamun, a nobleman in the 18th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (c. 1350 BC).
Ancient music
–
A famous
Tang Dynasty (618–907) qin, the "Jiu Xiao Huan Pei"
Ancient music
–
Symposium scene, c. 490 BCE
28.
History of music in the biblical period
–
Knowledge of the biblical period is mostly from literary references in the Bible and post-biblical sources. The study of ancient musical instruments has been practiced for centuries with some researchers studying instruments from Israel/Palestine dating to the biblical period, archaeological and written data have demonstrated clearly that music was an integral part of daily life in ancient Israel/Palestine. Data also describes outdoor scenes of music and dancing in sometimes prophetic frenzies, often with carefully orchestrated and choreographed musicians, according to ancient music historian Theodore Burgh, If we were able to step into the. Biblical period, we would find a culture filled with music, where people used music in their daily lives. Such music was capable of expressing a variety of moods and feelings or the broadly marked antitheses of joy and sorrow, hope and fear, faith. In fact, every shade and quality of sentiment are found in the wealth of songs and psalms, Egypt was among the oldest cultures of the Near East and had a highly developed musical culture dating back to around 3000 BC. Egyptian sources, however, include only pictorial relics, some instruments, on various pieces of sculpture there are reliefs of harpists and flutists taking part in religious ceremonies and social entertainments. A number of instruments have been identified as being used in Egypt, including the lyre, an instrument, various drums from Asia, the lute. Murals showing singers and instrumentalist performing have also been found, according to music historian Homer Ulrich, it is likely that Egypt influenced the educational and ethical aspects of Greek music. Stephen Batuk equally observed that the link of music was consummated during the week of creation where birds in the air make sounds which could be seen as music. Although records are minimal, it is known that between 3000 and 2300 BC organized temple music with singers existed in Sumer and Babylonia, the oldest cultural groups in Mesopotamia, excavations have uncovered several musical instruments, including harps, lutes, double oboes, and a few others. Jewish music began in the years of tribal life. After the Hebrews established a kingdom in Israel, their activities were to increase substantially. It is in the uses of music—sacred and secular, ethical. He adds that a stay of four centuries in so civilized a culture as Egypt must have added to their knowledge of the art. Following the French archaeomusicologist Suzanne Haik-Vantoura, some authorities now argue that these cantillation marks date from temple times, attempts have been made to decipher them in modern musical notation. The musical traditions of the Temple were rudely broken by the destruction of the First Temple, Hindley notes that most of the psalms seem to have been written in the years after the return of the Jews to Jerusalem. At this time too the practice of antiphonal singing between the cantor and the congregation seems to have become common, the music of ancient Israel represents almost fourteen centuries of change, roughly from 1300 BC to 70 AD, when Titus siege of Jerusalem took place
History of music in the biblical period
–
David Playing the Harp by
Jan de Bray, 1670.
History of music in the biblical period
–
18th-century painting, "The Song of Miriam," by Paulo Malteis, Italy. Celebration after crossing the Red Sea from Egypt
History of music in the biblical period
–
Fresco of angel playing a lute by
Melozzo da Forlì.
History of music in the biblical period
–
Bar Kochba coinage showing trumpets and a lyre, c. 132 AD
