1.
Rotterdam
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Rotterdam is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety, in 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europes largest port and has a population of 633,471, ranking second in the Netherlands, just behind Amsterdam. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people, Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000. The city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life, the near-complete destruction of Rotterdams city centre during World War II has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed eighth in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit, the port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdams logistic success is based on its location on the North Sea. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, the extensive distribution system including rail, roads, and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname Gateway to Europe, and, conversely, Gateway to the World in Europe. The settlement at the end of the fen stream Rotte dates from at least 900 CE. A dam on the Rotte or Rotterdam was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat, on 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. The port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six chambers of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdams rapid growth, when completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m. During World War I the city was the worlds largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality, many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes, from there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters, during World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, the Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitlers bombing of Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities
2.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
3.
Architectural Association School of Architecture
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Its wide-ranging programme of exhibitions, lectures, symposia and publications have given it a central position in global discussions and developments within contemporary architectural culture. The foundation of the Architectural Association was as an alternative to the practice where young men were articled to established architects and this practise offered no guarantee for educational quality or professional standards. The AA believed it was open to vested interests, abuse, dishonesty and this situation led two articled pupils, Robert Kerr and Charles Gray, to propose a systematic course of training provided by the students themselves. Kerr became the first president, 1847–48, the AA School was formally established in 1890. In 1901, it moved premises to the former Royal Architectural Museum, in 1917, it moved again, to its current premises in Bedford Square, central London. The school has acquired property on Morwell Street behind Bedford Square. Women were first admitted as students to the AA School during the First World War in 1917. The students of the AA have been addressed by many eminent figures, from John Ruskin and George Gilbert Scott in the 19th century, to more recently Richard Rogers, recently launched programmes Projective Cities, Design + Make and Interprofessional Studio. The school has a bookshop, containing a range of architectural books, the bookshop is used as a platform for the AAs own books. AA Publications are designed and edited by the AA Print Studio, the school had its own independent radio station. The school is notable as existing outside the university system. It is also noted that due to its nature of an independent school and it exists outside the UCAS application system, even at undergraduate/first degree level direct application is the norm. It is not included in books which guide potential undergraduates to choose appropriate courses. Howard Robertson Alvin Boyarsky Alan Balfour Mohsen Mostafavi John Summerson, The Architectural Association 1847–1947, Pleiades Books, official website Bedford Press AA Publications
4.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
5.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
6.
Architectural theory
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Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture. Architectural theory is taught in most architecture schools and is practiced by the leading architects. Some forms that architecture theory takes are the lecture or dialogue, the treatise or book, Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools. It has existed in form since antiquity, and as publishing became more common. Books, magazines, and journals published a number of works by architects. As a result, styles and movements formed and dissolved much more quickly than the relatively enduring modes in earlier history and it is to be expected that the use of the internet will further the discourse on architecture in the 21st century. There is little information or evidence about major architectural theory in antiquity, until the 1st century BCE and this does not mean, however, that such works did not exist. Vitruvius was a Roman writer, architect, and engineer active in the 1st century BCE, probably written between 27 and 23 BCE, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived. Divided into ten sections or books, it covers almost every aspect of Roman architecture, from town planning, materials, decorations, temples, water supplies and it rigorously defines the classical orders of architecture. The rediscovery of Vitruvius work had a influence on architects of the Renaissance, adding archaeological underpinnings to the rise of the Renaissance style. Renaissance architects, such as Niccoli, Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti, throughout the Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was passed by transcription, word of mouth and technically in master builders lodges. Due to the nature of transcription, few examples of architectural theory were penned in this time period. Most works from this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the bible, the Abbot Sugers Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis, was an architectural document that emerged with gothic architecture. Another was Villard de Honnecourts portfolio of drawings from about the 1230s, in Song Dynasty China, Li Jie published the Yingzao Fashi in 1103, which was an architectural treatise that codified elements of Chinese architecture. From Alberti, good architecture is validated through the Vitruvian triad and this triplet conserved all its validity until the 19th century. The Age of the Enlightenment witnessed considerable development in architectural theory on the European continent, New archeological discoveries drove new interest in Classical art and architecture. These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture, towards the end of the century, there occurred a blossoming of theoretical activity. In England, Ruskins ideals underpinned the emergence of the Arts and Crafts movement exemplified by the writings of William Morris and this in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in the UK, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced the Vienna Secession
7.
Pritzker Prize
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Founded in 1979 by Jay A. Pritzker and his wife Cindy, the award is funded by the Pritzker family and sponsored by the Hyatt Foundation. It is considered to be one of the premier architecture prizes. The prize is said to be awarded irrespective of nationality, race, creed, the recipients receive US$100,000, a citation certificate, and since 1987, a bronze medallion. Before 1987, a limited edition Henry Moore sculpture accompanied the monetary prize, any licensed architect can also make a personal application for the prize before 1 November every year. In 1988 Gordon Bunshaft nominated himself for the award and eventually won it, the jury, each year consisting of five to nine experts. Recognized professionals in their own fields of architecture, business, education, publishing, the prize Chair is 2002 winner, Glenn Murcutt, earlier chairs were J. Carter Brown, the Lord Rothschild, and the Lord Palumbo. Inaugural winner Philip Johnson was cited for 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums, theaters, libraries, houses, gardens, the 2004 laureate Zaha Hadid was the first female prize winner. Ryue Nishizawa became the youngest winner in 2010 at age 44, partners in architecture have shared the award. In 1988, Gordon Bunshaft and Oscar Niemeyer were both honored with the award. The most recent winners, in 2017, are the Spanish architects Rafael Aranda, Carme Pigem and this was the first time three architects shared the prize. A. a Roche was born in Ireland, C Gehry was born in Canada. D Hadid was born in Iraq, E Rogers was born in Italy. Driehaus Architecture Prize List of architecture prizes General Past laureates
8.
Praemium Imperiale
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These are areas of achievement not covered by the Nobel Prize. The prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions to the development, promotion, the Praemium Imperiale is awarded in the memory of His Imperial Highness Prince Takamatsu, younger brother of Emperor Shōwa who reigned from 1926 through 1989. Prince Takamatsu was famous for his support of the development, promotion. The laureates are announced each September, the presentation ceremony and related events are held in Tokyo, Japan. The prize presentation ceremony is held in the presence of His Imperial Highness Prince Hitachi, President of the Japan Art Association, Prince Hitachi presents the prizes to the selected laureates. The prize consists of a medal and 15 million Japanese yen, and was created by the Fujisankei Communications Group. The laureates are annually recommended by international advisers, and decided by a committee of the Japan Art Association. The advisers include Yasuhiro Nakasone, William H. Luers, Lamberto Dini, François Pinault, Chris Patten, honorary advisers include Jacques Chirac, David Rockefeller, David Rockefeller, Jr. Helmut Schmidt and Richard von Weizsäcker. Since 1997, a series of grants have been made to organizations which nourish young artists
9.
Office for Metropolitan Architecture
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Their first major project was the utopian/dystopian project Exodus, or the Voluntary Prisoners of Architecture. This project proposed a structure, cutting through London like a knife. The founding of OMA coincided with the entry in the architectural design competition for a new Dutch parliament building in The Hague in 1978. OMA was one of the winners, and the project was widely discussed and published. The commission, however, was given to an architect who did not participate in the competition, the entry for the Dutch parliament competition was the first of a series of controversial and successful international competition entries by OMA in the 1980s that were not built by OMA. OMAs first major commissions were The Netherlands Dance Theatre in The Hague, due to change of location a second design for the Dance Theater was made in 1984. Once completed in 1987, the building received international attention, although full of first mistakes, the Dance Theater is the first realized design in which the ideas of Rem Koolhaas were made apparent. IJ-plein is located at the IJ, a river that serves as Amsterdams waterfront, the masterplan consists of 1,300 dwellings and several facilities. OMA designed the school, the community center and two blocks of housing, few other designs were realized in the 1980s, a police station in Almere, a bus station in Rotterdam, Byzantium apartment block in Amsterdam and Checkpoint Charlie Housing in Berlin. None of these designs however could match two houses built in period, one in Rotterdam, one in Paris. The first house was a duo of Miesian patio villas inserted in a dike in Rotterdam, the second—and arguably the best, most full-grown design of OMA until that date—is Villa Dall’Ava in Paris. The client, according to Koolhaas, asked for a masterpiece and she wanted a swimming pool on the roof. So many delays plagued the house that it became a record of our own growing up, much more important however were the competition entries OMA designed in this period. They gained the international fame. In the 1990s OMA gained renown through a series of groundbreaking entries in competitions, e. g. Tres Grande Bibliothèque and Two Libraries for Jussieu University, Paris. In 1999 OMA completed the Maison à Bordeaux, a villa for a client in the hills outside Bordeaux, the design was conceived in collaboration with engineer Cecil Balmond. OMA was awarded the contract for the Seattle Central Library, completed in 2005, former Seattle resident Joshua Prince-Ramus, a partner, heard from his mother about the meeting for interested firms at the last minute and flew in from the Netherlands. This 11-story glass and steel building is an addition to the Seattle cityscape
10.
De Rotterdam
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De Rotterdam is a building on the Wilhelminapier in Rotterdam, designed by Rem Koolhaas in 1998. The complex is located between the KPN Tower and Rotterdam Cruise Terminal and was finalized at the end of 2013, on 21 November 2013, the municipality of Rotterdam, as the largest user, received the keys. The design provides space for offices, a hotel and apartments, the 44 floors amount to a total floor space area of about 160,000 m², making it the largest building in the Netherlands. Construction began in 2009, when the municipality committed itself to hire 25,000 m² of the office space, the highest point was reached at the end of 2012, and the building was ready on its scheduled date of November 15,2013. The total cost at the start of construction in 2009 was estimated to be €340,000,000. When designing the structure, Koolhaas, who considered a career in film, reasoned that the most frequent view of these structures would be in motion. As the view changes, the towers, rising from a shared six-story plinth, separate and his companion is currently Petra Blaisse, an interior and landscape designer. The building consists of three interconnected towers that share a thirty feet high base which includes six floors, the lower two layers form a large glass plinth. In the original design the towers did not touch each other, the facade provides the option of natural ventilation. On the west side there are balconies that are accessible from the apartments, De Rotterdam is designed for residency, labor and leisure. The largest part is intended as space and residency. For fitness facilities 2,500 m2 is reserved and for shops 5,000 m2, the functions are grouped into blocks, but the different user groups meet at various places in the building, a concept that is defined by the architectural firm OMA as a vertical city. De Rotterdam will be used daily by about 5,000 people and with a floor space index of 32 De Rotterdam forms the most densely built part of the Netherlands
11.
Seattle Central Library
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The Seattle Public Librarys Central Library is the flagship library of The Seattle Public Library system. The 11-story glass and steel building in downtown Seattle, Washington was opened to the public on Sunday, May 23,2004. The 362,987 square feet public library can hold about 1.45 million books and other materials, features underground parking for 143 vehicles. Over 2 million individuals visited the new library in its first year and it is the third Seattle Central Library building to be located on the same site at 1000 Fourth Avenue, the block bounded by Fourth and Fifth Avenues and Madison and Spring Streets. The library has a unique, striking appearance, consisting of several discrete floating platforms seemingly wrapped in a steel net around glass skin. Architectural tours of the began in June 2004. In 2007, the building was voted #108 on the American Institute of Architects list of Americans 150 favorite structures in the US and it was one of two Seattle buildings included on the list of 150 structures, the other being Safeco Field. There has been a library located in downtown Seattle as far back as 1891, however, the Seattle Carnegie Library, the first permanent library located in its own dedicated building at Fourth Avenue and Madison Street, opened in 1906 with a Beaux-Arts design by Peter J. Weber. Andrew Carnegie, whose patronage of libraries later included five others in Seattle, a second library, at five stories and 206,000 square feet, was built at the site of the old Carnegie library in 1960. George Tsutakawas Fountain of Wisdom on the Fifth Avenue side was the first of that artists many sculptural fountains, a remodeling finished in 1972 gave the public access to the fourth story, dedicated to the arts and sound recordings. By the late 1990s, the library became too cramped again, renewed consciousness of regional earthquake dangers drew concern from public officials about the seismic risks inherent to the buildings design. The current Seattle Central Library is the library building to inhabit the city block between Fourth and Fifth Avenues. The project also received a $20 million donation from Bill Gates, rem Koolhaas and Joshua Prince-Ramus of the Dutch firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture, working in conjunction with the Seattle firm LMN Architects, served as the buildings principal architects. Ramus served as the partner in charge, bjarke Ingels designed the interior boxes for OMA. Ironically, OMA was not one of the invited to compete for the project. Ramus, formerly a Seattle resident, found out from his one day in advance that the library board was inviting interested firms to attend a mandatory public meeting. He flew in, and OMA ended up winning the project, the 11-story Central Library has a capacity for over 1.5 million books, in comparison to only 900,000 in the old library building. The architects also worked to make the library inviting to the public, rather than stuffy, for example, a major section of the building is the Books Spiral
12.
Embassy of the Netherlands, Berlin
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The Embassy of the Netherlands in Berlin is the Netherlandss diplomatic mission in Berlin, Germany. Designed by Rem Koolhaas of OMA, the building was opened in 2004, in the wake of the reunification the German government decided to relocate the capital to Berlin ‘Mitte’. Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands opened the Embassy on March 2,2004 together with the Ministers of Foreign Affairs Ben Bot of the Netherlands, a solitary building, integrating requirements of conventional civil service security with Dutch openness was needed. The office in the end realized the building in a combination of obedience and disobedience, the workspaces are the ‘leftover areas’ after the trajectory was ‘carved’ out of the cube and are situated along the facade. Reception spaces are activated inside the cube, other semi-public spaces are located closer to the facade and at one point cantilever out over the drop-off area. From the entry, the leads on via the library, meeting rooms, fitness area. The trajectory works as a main airduct from which fresh air percolates to the offices to be drawn off via the double facade and this ventilation concept is part of a strategy to integrate more functions into one element. Koolhaass design won the Architekturpreis Berlin in 2003 and the Mies van der Rohe Award for European Architecture in 2005, Royal Netherlands Embassy in Berlin, Germany Office for Metropolitan Architecture Royal Netherlands Embassy in Berlin, Germany on Architecture-Page
13.
CCTV Headquarters
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The CCTV Headquarters is a 234 m, 44-story skyscraper on East Third Ring Road, Guanghua Road in the Beijing Central Business District. The tower serves as headquarters for China Central Television that was formerly at the China Central Television Building located at 11 Fuxin Road some 15 km to the west, groundbreaking took place on 1 June 2004 and the buildings facade was completed in January 2008. After the construction having been delayed as result of a fire which in February 2009 engulfed the adjacent Television Cultural Center, the CCTV Headquarters won the 2013 Best Tall Building Worldwide from the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Rem Koolhaas and Ole Scheeren of OMA were the architects in charge for the building, the construction of the building is considered to be a structural challenge, especially because it is in a seismic zone. Rem Koolhaas has said the building could never have been conceived by the Chinese and it is a hybrid by definition. Because of its shape, its said that a taxi driver first came up with its nickname dà kùchǎ, roughly translated as. Locals often refer to it as big pants, a Chinese critic said that the structure was modeled after a pornographic image of a woman on her hands and knees, which Koolhaas has officially denied. The building was built in three buildings that were joined to one and a half buildings on 30 May 2007. In order not to lock in structural differentials this connection was scheduled in the morning when the steel in the two towers cooled to the same temperature. The CCTV building was part of a park intended to form a landscape of public entertainment, outdoor filming areas. The jury included architect Arata Isozaki and critic Charles Jencks and it is among the first of 300 new towers in the new Beijing CBD. Administration, news, broadcasting, and program offices and studios are all contained inside. CCTV Headquarters was officially opened by the Chairman on 1 January 2008, among the distinguished guests at the opening were Hu Jintao, Jiang Zemin, Wen Jiabao and Guo Jinlong. It was to have the Beijing Mandarin Oriental Hotel, a visitors center, the 160 m Mandarin Oriental Hotel was badly damaged and one fire fighter was killed. The director of the project and 19 others were arrested, on 25 October 2009, scaffolds were set up in the front gate of CCTV which indicated the renovation of the building had begun. As of 9 February 2010, the main CCTV tower was still unoccupied
14.
Harvard Graduate School of Design
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The Harvard Graduate School of Design is a professional graduate school at Harvard University, located at Gund Hall, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The GSD offers masters and doctoral programs in architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, urban design, real estate, design engineering, the GSD has over 13,000 alumni and has graduated many famous architects, urban planners, and landscape architects. The school is considered an academic leader in the design fields. The GSD has the worlds oldest landscape architecture program, and North Americas oldest urban planning program, Architecture courses were first taught at Harvard University in 1874. The Graduate School of Design was officially established in 1936, combining the three fields of architecture, urban planning, and landscape architecture under one graduate school, the market value of the schools endowment for the fiscal year 2013 was approximately $396 million. Charles Eliot Norton brought the first architecture classes to Harvard University in 1874, in 1900, the first urban planning courses were taught at Harvard University, and by 1909, urban planning was added into Harvards design curriculum. In 1923, North Americas first urban planning degree was established at Harvard, in 1980, the program was temporarily moved to the Harvard Kennedy School of Government until it returned to the GSD in 1984. In 1893, the nations first professional course in architecture was offered at Harvard University. In 1900, the worlds first landscape architecture program was established by Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. the School of Landscape Architecture was established in 1913. The three major design professions were officially united in 1936 to form the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1937, Walter Gropius joined the GSD faculty as chair of the Department of Architecture and brought modern designers, including Marcel Breuer to help revamp the curriculum. In 1960, Josep Lluís Sert established the nations first Urban Design program, george Gund Hall, which is the present iconic home GSD, opened in 1972 and was designed by Australian architect and GSD graduate John Andrews. More recent research include the Design Robotics Group, a unit that investigates new material systems and fabrication technologies in the context of architectural design. Executive Education operates within GSD providing continuing education classes, they are located at 7 Sumner Rd, advanced Management Development Program in Real Estate is a six-week executive development course. The program is open to established professionals with 15+ years of experience in real estate, upon graduating from AMDP, participants are full-fledged Harvard University Alumni. As of 2013, AMDP is in its 13th year, the other large program organized by Executive Education is summer Open Enrollment. In 2013, Executive Education held 18 classes throughout the month of July, Open Enrollment classes are open to everyone, though basic knowledge of the subject is recommended. As of 2012-2013, there were 878 students enrolled, approximately, 65% of students were Americans. The average student is 27 years old, in addition to its degree programs, the GSD administers the Loeb Fellowship, and numerous research initiatives such as the Zofnass Program for Sustainable Infrastructure
15.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
16.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
17.
Ithaca, New York
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Ithaca /ˈɪθəkə/ is a city in the Southern Tier-Finger Lakes region of New York. It is the seat of Tompkins County, as well as the largest community in the Ithaca-Tompkins County metropolitan area and this area contains the municipalities of the Town of Ithaca, the village of Cayuga Heights, and other towns and villages in Tompkins County. The city of Ithaca is located on the shore of Cayuga Lake. It is named for the Greek island of Ithaca, Ithaca is home to Cornell University, an Ivy League school of over 20,000 students, most of whom study at its local campus. Ithaca College is located just south of the city in the Town of Ithaca, nearby is Tompkins Cortland Community College. These three colleges bring tens of thousands of students who increase Ithacas seasonal population during the school year, some students settle in the area after graduation. The citys voters are more liberal than those in the remainder of Tompkins County or in upstate New York. In 2010, the population was 30,014. Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca is the North American seat of Tenzin Gyatso, indigenous people occupied this area for thousands of years. At the time of European contact, this area was controlled by the Cayuga Indians, jesuit missionaries from New France are said to have had a mission to the Cayuga as early as 1657. Saponi and Tutelo Indians, Algonquian-speaking tribes, later occupied lands at the end of Cayuga Lake. Remnants of these tribes had been forced from North Carolina by tribal conflicts, during the Revolutionary War, four of the then six Iroquois nations were allied with the British, although bands made decisions on fighting in a highly decentralized way. Conflict with the colonists was fierce throughout the Mohawk Valley. In retaliation for conflicts to the east, the 1779 Sullivan Expedition was conducted against the Iroquois peoples in the west of the state, destroying more than 40 villages and stored winter crops. It destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near what is now the junction of state routes 13, most Iroquois were forced from the state after the Revolutionary War, but some remnants remained. The state sold off the former Iroquois lands to development and settlement by European Americans. Within the current boundaries of the City of Ithaca, Native Americans maintained only a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge, in 1788 eleven men from Kingston, New York came to the area with two Delaware people guides, to explore what they considered wilderness. The following year Jacob Yaple, Isaac Dumond, and Peter Hinepaw returned with their families and that same year Abraham Bloodgood of Albany obtained a patent from the state for 1400 acres, which included all of the present downtown west of Tioga Street
18.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
19.
Time 100
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Time 100 is an annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world assembled by the American news magazine Time. First published in 1999 as the result of a debate among American academics, politicians, and journalists, although appearing on the list is often seen as an honor, Time makes it clear that entrants are recognized for changing the world, regardless of the consequences of their actions. The final list of individuals is exclusively chosen by Time editors with nominations coming from the TIME100 alumni. Only the winner of the Readers Poll, conducted days before the official list is revealed, is chosen by the general public, included in the list eleven times, Barack Obama is the person who has been listed most often. The list was started with a debate at a symposium in Washington, the list was first published in 1999, when Time magazine named the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. Based on the popularity of the installment, in 2004, Time magazine decided to make it an annual issue and those recognized fall in one of five categories, Leaders & Revolutionaries, Builders & Titans, Artists & Entertainers, Scientists & Thinkers, Heroes & Icons. A record of 41 women are included in the edition, the highest number of personalities in the lists history. The annual gala was held on April 29,2014 in New York City and they are artists and activists, reformers and researchers, heads of state and captains of industry. Their ideas spark dialogue and dissent and sometimes even revolution, welcome to this years TIME100. The announcement was celebrated with an event in New York City on April 26,2011. The honorees were joined by A-list celebrities at Frederick P. Rose Hall, Time readers contributed to the selection by an online vote of over 200 finalists. The list included familiar global newsmakers such as U. S. President Barack Obama, the list included numerous figures representing the year of upheaval in the Middle East ranging from rebels, to political leaders to news correspondents. Although the events of what has been dubbed the Arab Spring were prominent, additionally, Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton were part of the list during the week before their wedding. The list also included Katsunobu Sakurai, mayor of Minamisōma, Fukushima, list of individuals included in the TIME100 in 2010 In its online presentation, Time introduced the list as follows, In our annual TIME100 issue, we name the people who most affect our world. Oprah Winfrey continued her streak of having been included on every Time 100 list and was one of women on the list. The list included many expected names and some such as Scott Brown. Others who were considered surprise selections included Elton John, Ashton Kutcher, the announcement of the list was celebrated by a black tie gala at the Time Warner Center in New York City on May 4,2010. The list was published the following day, Time readers contributed to the selection by an online vote of over 200 finalists
20.
Anton Koolhaas
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Anthonie Anton Koolhaas was a Dutch journalist, novelist, and scenario writer. Anthonie Koolhaas was born on 16 November 1912 in Utrecht, Netherlands and he was the son of Teunis Koolhaas and Trijntje de Boer, and he had two elder brothers and an elder sister. He grew up in Utrecht, where the Remonstrant family lived and he had little connection with the members of his family and he developed a rich imagination. He wrote his first play at the age of seven and he attended the hogere burgerschool in Utrecht. Between 1931 and 1935 he attended Utrecht University, studying an individual program related to journalism and he wrote the scenario of the Academy Award-nominated films Everyman and Ape and Super-Ape, both directed by Bert Haanstra. He is the father of architect Rem Koolhaas and he won the Constantijn Huygens Prize for his complete works in 1989 and the P. C. Hooft Award, an oeuvre award, in 1992. He died on 16 December 1992, age 80, in Amsterdam, slotters Jubilee Juliana in Seventy Turbulent Years Anton Koolhaas at the Internet Movie Database
21.
Novelist
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A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, Novelists come from a variety of backgrounds and social classes, and frequently this shapes the content of their works. Similarly, some novelists have creative identities derived from their focus on different genres of fiction, such as crime, while many novelists compose fiction to satisfy personal desires, novelists and commentators often ascribe a particular social responsibility or role to novel writers. Many authors use such moral imperatives to justify different approaches to writing, including activism or different approaches to representing reality truthfully. Novelist is a derivative from the term novel describing the writer of novels. However, the OED attributes the primary meaning of a writer of novels as first appearing in the 1633 book East-India Colation by C. The difference between professional and amateur novelists often is the ability to publish. Many people take up writing as a hobby, but the difficulties of completing large scale fictional works of quality prevent the completion of novels. Once authors have completed a novel, they often try to get it published. The publishing industry requires novels to have accessible profitable markets, thus many novelists will self-publish to circumvent the editorial control of publishers, self-publishing has long been an option for writers, with vanity presses printing bound books for a fee paid by the writer. The rise of the Internet and electronic books has made self publishing far less expensive, Novelists apply a number of different methods to writing their novels, relying on a variety of approaches to inspire creativity. Some communities actively encourage amateurs to practice writing novels to develop these unique practices, for example, the internet-based group, National Novel Writing Month, encourages people to write 50, 000-word novels in the month of November, to give novelists practice completing such works. In the 2010 event, over 200,000 people took part – writing a total of over 2.8 billion words, Novelists dont usually publish their first novels until later in life. However, many novelists begin writing at a young age, for example, Iain Banks began writing at eleven, and at sixteen completed his first novel, The Hungarian Lift-Jet, about international arms dealers, in pencil in a larger-than-foolscap log book. However, he was thirty before he published his first novel, the success of this novel enabled Banks to become a full-time novelist. Occasionally, novelists publish as early as their teens, for example, Patrick OBrian published his first novel, Caesar, The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard, at the age of 15, which brought him considerable critical attention. Occasionally, these works will achieve popular success as well, for example, though Christopher Paolinis Eragon, was not a great critical success, but its popularity among readers placed it on the New York Times Childrens Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks. First-time novelists of any age often find themselves unable to get published, because of a number of reasons reflecting the inexperience of the author
22.
Critic
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A critic is a professional who communicates an assessment and an opinion of various forms of creative works such as art, literature, music, cinema, theater, fashion, architecture, and food. Critics may also take as their social or government policy. They may also include a positive or negative personal response, characteristics of a good critic are articulateness, preferably having the ability to use language with a high level of appeal and skill. Sympathy, sensitivity and insight are important too, form, style and medium are all considered by the critic. In architecture and food criticism, the function, value. Formally, the word is applied to persons who are accepted and, to a significant degree. Influential critics of art, music, theatre and architecture often present their arguments in complete books, one very famous example is John Ruskins Seven Lamps of Architecture and The Stones of Venice. Critics may base their assessment on a range of theoretical positions, for instance, they may take a Feminist or Freudian perspective. Critics are themselves subject to competing critics, since the critical judgment always entails some subjectivity. An established critic can play a role as a public arbiter of taste or opinion. Also, critics or a group of critics, may award symbols of recognition. Early English meaning of criticism was based mainly on the criticism of literature, schonberg was the first music critic to receive the Pulitzer Prize for criticism. Daniel Mendelsohn described the equation of criticism for critics as knowledge + taste = meaningful judgement, social and political critics have used various forms of art to express their criticism, including literature and music. Pierre Beaumarchais, for example, prior to the French Revolution, a critics influence is enhanced by subsequent reworkings such as the operatic versions of Beaumarchaiss play by Rossini and by Mozart. Among the most famous social/political criticism in literary form are Jonathan Swifts satire Gullivers Travels, some political critics, such as Ai Weiwei use visual art as their medium. Throughout history, political critics have faced higher risks, including the risk of imprisonment or death, several websites have developed for the purpose of compiling or publishing original critical reviews. Examples include BlogCritics Magazine, Rotten Tomatoes, and Yelp, according to A. O. Scott, chief film critic for The New York Times, everyone on the Internet is a critic. Some critics like Roger Ebert achieve iconic status in pop culture, people whose work is the subject of criticism have a full range of responses to it
23.
Screenwriter
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One famous screenwriter is Jack Rosenthal, who has written for various TV shows over the years, including Londons Burning and Coronation Street. No education is required to become a screenwriter, just good storytelling abilities. Screenwriters are not hired employees, they are contracted freelancers, most, if not all, screenwriters start their careers writing on speculation, meaning they write without being hired or paid for it. If such a script is sold, it is called a spec script, what separates a professional screenwriter from an amateur screenwriter is that professional screenwriters are usually represented by a talent agency. Also, professional screenwriters do not often work for free, whereas amateur screenwriters will often work for free and are considered writers in training, spec scripts are usually penned by unknown professional screenwriters and amateur screenwriters. There are a legion of would-be screenwriters who attempt to enter the industry but it often takes years of trial-and-error, failure. In Writing Screenplays that Sell, Michael Hague writes Screenplays have become, for the last half of century, closet writers who used to dream of the glory of getting into print now dream of seeing their story on the big or small screen. Every screenplay and teleplay begins with a thought or idea, and screenwriters use those ideas to write scripts, with the intention of selling them and having them produced. In some cases, the script is based on a property, such as a book or persons life story. The majority of the time, a film project gets initiated by a screenwriter and because they initiated the project and these are referred to as exclusive assignments or pitched assignments. Screenwriters who often pitch new projects, whether original or an adaptation, when word is put out about a project a film studio, production company, or producer wants done, these are referred to as open assignments. In situations where screenwriters are competing for an assignment, more established writers will usually win these assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and personally offered a writing assignment, many screenwriters also work as full or part-time script doctors, attempting to better a script to suit the desires of a director or studio. For instance, studio management may have a complaint that the motivations of the characters are unclear or that the dialogue is weak, script-doctoring can be quite lucrative, especially for the better known writers. David Mamet and John Sayles, for instance, fund the movies they direct themselves, usually from their own screenplays, by writing and doctoring scripts for others. In fact, some writers make very profitable careers out of being the ninth or tenth writer to work on a piece, in many cases, working on projects that never see exposure to an audience of any size. Many up and coming screenwriters also ghost write projects and allow more established screenwriters to take credit for the project to increase the chances of it getting picked up. After a screenwriter finishes a project, he or she pairs with a representative, such as a producer, director, literary agent, entertainment lawyer
24.
Bert Haanstra
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Albert Bert Haanstra was a Dutch film director of films and documentaries. His documentary Glass won the Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject in 1959 and his feature film Fanfare was the most visited Dutch film at the time, and has since only been surpassed by Turkish Delight. Albert Haanstra was born on 31 May 1916 in Espelo, a village near Holten. His father was Folkert Haanstra, a schoolteacher, and his mother Jansje Schuiveling, Haanstra grew up in the village of Goor. Haanstras father retired early as a schoolteacher and started his long dream of becoming a painter. Haanstra himself, after realizing teaching didnt interest him, became a painter himself, Haanstra became a professional Dutch documentary film maker in 1947. He won international acclaim with his short documentary Spiegel van Holland / Mirror of Holland, during the fifties he made six films for Shell, among others The Rival World on insects spreading deadly diseases and how to fight them. In 1958 his documentary Glass, a filming improvisation made in a glass factory, Fanfare, a comedy situated in a small Dutch village, is still the Netherlands second most popular film ever, only surpassed by Paul Verhoevens Turkish Delight. Abroad however, Fanfare was hardly noticed, but it was entered into the 1959 Cannes Film Festival, in several shorts and in long documentaries like Alleman / The Human Dutch and Stem van het water / The Voice of the Water Haansta reflected on The Netherlands and its inhabitants. All these films made him one of the most popular filmmakers in the history of Dutch cinema, the documentary Alleman was seen in the cinema by 20 percent of the total Dutch population. In the seventies and eighties Haanstra addressed a new subject and he made several films about animals. In the long documentary Bij de beesten af / Ape and Super-Ape, for which he collaborated with Frans de Waal and Jane Goodall, among others, he compared the behavior of animals, in total Haanstra received close to a hundred awards. Haanstra was Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau, Haanstra died on 23 October 1997 at the age of 81 in a nursing home in the town of Hilversum in the Netherlands. Jo Daems, Teder testament, de films van Bert Haanstra Hans Schoots, Bert Haanstra - Filmer van Nederland Bert Haanstra Bert Haanstra at the Internet Movie Database Bert Haanstra at AllMovie
25.
Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
26.
Hendrik Petrus Berlage
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Hendrik Petrus Berlage was a prominent Dutch architect. He studied architecture at the Zurich Institute of Technology between 1875 and 1878 after which he traveled extensively for 3 years through Europe, in the 1880s he formed a partnership in the Netherlands with Theodore Sanders which produced a mixture of practical and utopian projects. A published author, Berlage held memberships in various architectural societies including CIAM I and this influence is visible in his design for the Amsterdam Commodities Exchange, for which he would also draw on the ideas of Viollet-le-Duc. The load-bearing bare brick walls and the notion of the primacy of space, a visit Berlage made to the U. S. in 1911 greatly affected his architecture. From then on the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright would be a significant influence. Lectures he gave when returned to Europe would help to disseminate Wrights thoughts in Germany, a notable overseas commission was the 1916 Holland House, built as offices for a Dutch shipping company in Bury Street in the City of London. He received the British RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1932, Berlage died at The Hague in 1934. In 1970, the IAU named the lunar crater Berlage after him. P, Berlage, Schriften zur Architektur, Birkhäuser Basel, ISBN 3-7643-2587-9 Singelenberg, Pieter, H. P
27.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
28.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
29.
Oswald Mathias Ungers
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Oswald Mathias Ungers was a German architect and architectural theorist, known for his rationalist designs and the use of cubic forms. Among his notable projects are museums in Frankfurt, Hamburg and Cologne, oswald Mathias Ungers was born in Kaisersesch in the Eifel region. From 1947 to 1950 he studied architecture at the University of Karlsruhe under Egon Eiermann and he set up an architectural practice in Cologne in 1950, and opened offices in Berlin in 1964, Frankfurt in 1974 and Karlsruhe in 1983. He was a professor at the Technical University of Berlin from 1963 to 1967, in 1968 he moved to the United States, where he became the chair of the department of architecture at Cornell University from 1969 to 1975. In 1971 he became a member of the American Institute of Architects and he was also a visiting professor at Harvard University and the University of California, Los Angeles. He returned to Germany in 1976, becoming a professor at the University of Applied Arts Vienna. Oswald Mathias Ungers died on September 30,2007 from pneumonia and he was married to Liselotte Gabler and had one son and two daughters. C. His controversial plan proposes large alterations to the complex which has remained unchanged since 1930. The rebuilding is scheduled to end in 2010, entwerfen mit Vorstellungsbildern, Metaphern und Analogien. Anmerkungen zu einem morphologischen Konzept, in, Architektur 1951-1990, Stuttgart,1991 Morphologie, city Metaphors, König,1982 Die Thematisierung der Architektur,1983, published by Technische Universität Dortmund and Walter A
30.
Ithaca
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Ithaca or Ithaka is a Greek island located in the Ionian Sea, off the northeast coast of Kefalonia and to the west of continental Greece. Ithacas main island has an area of 96 square kilometres and had a population in 2011 of 3,231 and it is the second-smallest of seven main Ionian Islands, after Paxi. Ithaca is a regional unit of the Ionian Islands region. Modern Ithaca is generally identified with Homers Ithaca, the home of Odysseus, the fact that classical Greek authors often used eponymous explanations to explain away names through folk etymology makes it more likely that Ithakos derives from Ithaca rather than vice versa. It may have been the capital of Cephalonia during the Mycenaean period, the Romans occupied the island in the 2nd century BC, and later it became part of the Byzantine Empire. The Normans ruled Ithaca in the 13th century, and after a short Turkish rule it fell into Venetian hands, Ithaca was subsequently occupied by France under the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio. It became a French possession again in 1807, until it was taken over by the United Kingdom in 1809, under the 1815 Treaty of Paris, Ithaca became a state of the United States of the Ionian Islands, a protectorate of the British Empire. In 1830 the local community requested to join with the rest of the newly restored nation-state of Greece. Under the 1864 Treaty of London, Ithaca, along with the remaining six Ionian islands, were ceded to Greece as a gesture of friendship to Greeces new Anglophile king. The United Kingdom kept its use of the harbour at Corfu. The origins of the first people to inhabit the island, which occurred during the last years of the Neolithic period, are not clear. The traces of buildings, walls and a road from time period prove that life existed and continued to do so during the Early Hellenic era. In the years some of the migrated to part of the island. The buildings and walls that were excavated showed the lifestyle of this period had remained primitive, during the Mycenaean period, Ithaca rose to the highest level of its ancient history. The Ithacans were characterized as great navigators and explorers with daring expeditions reaching further than the Mediterranean Sea, the epic poems of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, shed some light on Bronze-Age Ithaca. Recent studies concluded that Homer recorded oral history from elders, after the end of the Mycenaean period Ithacas influence diminished, and it came under the jurisdiction of the nearest large island. During the ancient Hellenic prime, independent organized life continued in the northern and southern part of the island, in the southern part, in the area of Aetos, the town Alalcomenae was founded. From this period, many objects of important historical value have been found during excavations, among these objects are coins imprinted with the name Ithaca and the image of Odysseus which suggest that the island was self-governed
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New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
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Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies
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The Institute for Architecture & Urban Studies is a non-profit architecture studio and think tank located in Manhattan, New York, United States. The Institute of Architecture and Urban Studies was founded in 1967 as an independent agency concerned with research, education. It began as a group of young architects seeking alternatives to traditional forms of education. The IAUS developed its curriculum in collaboration with a group of arts colleges and universities. The program was open to students from a consortium of liberal arts colleges, five schools and twelve students participated in the institute’s first academic year, rising to sixteen colleges and 35 students in 1978. The program was organized around a sequence in the history and theory of architecture. Like Princeton University, Columbia University, and Yale University, where architecture is taught at the level as a concentration. In 1977 began the design/study options to students enrolled in a six-year professional degree program the opportunity to participate in the academic program. Since the IAUS was not an institution, credit for the program was provided by the student’s own institution. Peter Eisenman was appointed as the Institute’s first Executive Director followed by Anthony Vidler, Mario Gandelsonas, in 1985 the Institute ceased to exist. While there are other organizations in New York they are primarily places for exhibitions. They provided little in the way of debate, criticism, multidisciplinary experimentation, progressive education, improvisation and applied theory
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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Zaha Hadid
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Dame Zaha Mohammad Hadid, DBE, RA was an Iraqi-born British architect. She was the first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize and she received the UKs most prestigious architectural award, the Stirling Prize, in 2010 and 2011. In 2012, she was made a Dame by Elizabeth II for services to architecture and she was described by the The Guardian of London as the Queen of the curve, who liberated architectural geometry, giving it a whole new expressive identity. Her major works include the centre for the London 2012 Olympics, Michigan State Universitys Broad Art Museum in the US. Hadid was born on 31 October 1950 in Baghdad, Iraq and her father, Muhammad al-Hajj Husayn Hadid, was a wealthy industrialist from Mosul. He co-founded the left-liberal al-Ahali group in 1932, a significant political organisation in the 1930s and 1940s and he was the co-founder of the National Democratic Party in Iraq. Her mother, Wajiha al-Sabunji, was an artist from Mosul, in the 1960s Hadid attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland. Hadid studied mathematics at the American University of Beirut before moving, in 1972, there she studied with Rem Koolhaas, Elia Zenghelis and Bernard Tschumi. Her former professor, Koolhaas, described her at graduation as a planet in her own orbit, Zenghelis described her as the most outstanding pupil he ever taught. ‘We called her the inventor of the 89 degrees, nothing was ever at 90 degrees. All the buildings were exploding into tiny little pieces and he recalled that she was less interested in details, such as staircases. The way she drew a staircase you would smash your head against the ceiling, and the space was reducing and reducing and she couldn’t care about tiny details. Her mind was on the broader pictures – when it came to the joinery she knew we could fix that later. She was right. ’ Her fourth-year student project was a painting of a hotel in the form of a bridge, Hadid became a naturalised citizen of the United Kingdom. She earned her reputation with her lecturing and colorful and radical early designs and projects. Her ambitious but unbuilt projects included a plan for Peak in Hong Kong, and her reputation in this period rested largely upon her teaching and the imaginative and colorful paintings she made of her proposed buildings. In 1989 Fehlbaum had invited Frank Gehry, then little-known, to build a museum at the Vitra factory in Weil-am-Rhein. In 1993, he invited Hadid to design a small station for the factory
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Postmodernism
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Postmodernism describes a broad movement that developed in the mid to late 20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture and criticism which marked a departure from modernism. Accordingly, postmodern thought is characterized by tendencies to epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, irreverence. The term postmodernism has been applied both to the era following modernity, and to a host of movements within that era that reacted against tendencies in modernism. Postmodernism includes skeptical critical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, linguistics, economics, architecture, fiction, feminist theory, and literary criticism. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of such as deconstruction and post-structuralism, as well as philosophers such as Jean-François Lyotard. The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s, John Watkins Chapman suggested a Postmodern style of painting as a way to depart from French Impressionism. In 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to new forms of art. In 1942 H. R. Hays described it as a new literary form, however, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee, Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918. Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post modern world happened between 1937 and 1957, post-structuralism resulted similarly to postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. It is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form, postmodernist describes part of a movement, Postmodern places it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of contemporary history. Martin Heidegger rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of subjectivity and objectivity, instead of resisting the admission of this paradox in the search for understanding, Heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the hermeneutic circle. He stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal, in this latter premise, Heidegger shares an affinity with the late Romantic philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, another principal forerunner of post-structuralist and postmodernist thought. Instead, Foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural hegemony, violence and his writings have had a major influence on the larger body of postmodern academic literature. These metanarratives still remain in Western society but are now being undermined by rapid Informatization, Richard Rorty argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. For Baudrillard, “simulation is no longer that of a territory and it is the generation by models of a real without origin or a reality, a hyperreal. In Analysis of the Journey, a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the assumptions and his terms defined in the depth of postmodernism are based on advancement, innovation, and adaptation. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of theory in real-life experiences and examples. Kellner used science and technology studies as a part of his analysis
36.
Venice Biennale
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The Venice Biennale is an arts organization based in Venice, and also the original and principal exhibition it organizes. The organization changed its name to the Biennale Foundation in 2009, while the exhibition is called the Art Biennale to distinguish it from the organisation. The Art Biennale, a visual art exhibition, is so called as it is held biennially. A year later, the council decreed to adopt a by invitation system, to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too, to works by uninvited Italian artists. The first Biennale, I Esposizione Internazionale dArte della Città di Venezia was opened on April 30,1895 by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I, the first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed- a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a show for Renoir. A work by Picasso was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public, by 1914 seven pavilions had been established, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia. During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled, in 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art,1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there, in 1928 the Istituto Storico dArte Contemporanea opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art, in 1933 the Biennale organised an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section, during World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted,1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, the Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her famous New York collection,1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964. From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of interventions in the Biennales exhibition spaces. In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe,1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Rays Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West,1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra
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Paolo Portoghesi
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Paolo Portoghesi is an Italian architect, theorist, historian and professor of architecture at the University La Sapienza in Rome. Portoghesi studied architecture at the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Rome and he began teaching the history of criticism at the same faculty in 1961. Portoghesi opened a practice with architect-engineer Vittorio Gigliotti in Rome in 1964. He has specialized in teaching and researching Classical architecture, especially Baroque architecture, and in particular Borromini and this attitude has continued throughout Portoghesis career, and is clearly visible in his own architecture. It is also evident in his concern for the studies of nature, headquarters of the Royalties Institute, St. Christian Norberg-Schulz, Alla ricerca dellarchitettura perduta, Rome 1982 G. C. Priori, Larchitettura ritrovata, Rome 1985 G. C. Priori, Paolo Portoghesi, Bologna 1985 M. Pisani, Dialogo con Paolo Portoghesi, Rome 1989 P. Zermani, Paolo Portoghesi a Palazzo Farnese, Parma 1990 M. Pisani, Paolo Portoghesi, il punto su Paolo Portoghesi, Rome 1993 C. Di Stefano and D. Scatena, Paolo Portoghesi designer, Rome 1998 C. Di Stefano and D. Scatena, Paolo Portoghesi architetto, Rome 1999 Paolo Portoghesi, After modern architecture, New York, Rizoli,1982 Stanley J. Grenz, A Primer on Postmodernism, Paolo Portoghesi, Nature and Architecture, Skira, Milan,2000. Paolo Portoghesi and Fulvio Irace, Emilio Ambasz, A Technological Arcadia, Skira, benjamin Chavardés, Paolo Portoghesi et la voie post-moderne, le débat architectural dans lItalie de la seconde moitié du XXe siècle, Phd, Université de Montpellier III Paul Valéry,2014
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Potemkin village
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In politics and economics, a Potemkin village is any construction built solely to deceive others into thinking that a situation is better than it really is. The term comes from stories of a fake portable village, built only to impress Empress Catherine II during her journey to Crimea in 1787, Grigory Potemkin was a favorite lover of the Russian Empress Catherine II. After the Russian annexation of Crimea from the Ottoman Empire and liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich, the region had been devastated by the war, Potemkins major tasks were to rebuild it and bring in Russian settlers. In 1787, as a new war was about to break out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Catherine II with her court and several ambassadors made an unprecedented trip to New Russia. The purpose of this trip was to impress Russias allies prior to the war, to help accomplish this, Potemkin set up mobile villages on the banks of the Dnieper River. As soon as the carrying the Empress and ambassadors arrived, Potemkins men, dressed as peasants. Once the barge left, the village was disassembled, then rebuilt downstream overnight, modern historians are divided on the degree of truth behind the Potemkin village story, and some writers argue that the story is an exaggeration. Some historians dismiss it as rumors spread by Potemkins opponents. These historians argue that Potemkin did mount efforts to develop the Crimea, aleksandr Panchenko, an established specialist on 19th-century Russia, used original correspondence and memoirs to conclude that the Potemkin villages are a myth. He writes, Based on the above said we must conclude that the myth of Potemkin villages is exactly a myth and he writes that Potyomkin indeed decorated cities and villages, but made no secret that this was a decoration. The close relationship between Potemkin and the empress would make it difficult for him to deceive her, thus, the deception would have been mainly directed towards the foreign ambassadors accompanying the imperial party. Regardless, Potemkin had supervised the building of fortresses, ships of the line, and thriving settlements, according to these historians, the claims of deception were part of a defamation campaign against Potemkin. It was meant to prove that the area was not under Japanese domination, whether the farce succeeded is moot, Japan withdrew from the League the following year. It ultimately served as a way-station to Auschwitz-Birkenau, henry A. Wallace visited a Soviet slave labor camp in Magadan in 1944 and believed that the prisoners were volunteers. In 1998, the energy services company Enron built and maintained a trading floor on the 6th story of its downtown Houston headquarters. The trading floor was used to impress Wall Street analysts attending Enrons annual shareholders meeting and even included rehearsals conducted by Enron executives Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling. In 2010,22 vacant houses in a part of Cleveland, USA, were disguised with fake doors and windows painted on the plywood panels used to close them up. A similar program has been undertaken in Chicago and in Detroit during the World Series festivities in 1984, in 2013 before Vladimir Putins visit to Suzdal some old and half-ruined houses in the city center were covered with large posters with doors and windows printed on them
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