1.
Setauket-East Setauket, New York
–
Setauket-East Setauket /səˈtɔːkɪt/, more commonly known as the Setaukets, is a census-designated place in Suffolk County, New York, on the North Shore of Long Island. As of the 2010 United States Census, the CDP population was 15,477, the CDP encompasses the hamlets of Setauket and East Setauket. It was founded in 1655, the first settlement in what would become the Town of Brookhaven, many of Setaukets early structures are intact and now form the Old Setauket Historic District. The Setaukets remain a residential area, while bordering the more commercial enclaves of Port Jefferson. The handful of businesses within the community largely cater to the over 24,500 students of Stony Brook University, the name Setauket is derived from the historic Algonquian-speaking Setalcott Indians, who had lived in the area prior to its colonial period. In 1655, a handful of land-speculating colonists orchestrated the purchase of the Setauket area from the local natives, the regions first European settlers were English migrants from New England and further east on Long Island, who arrived shortly thereafter. This was the first settlement in what became the Town of Brookhaven. During the 17th century, Setauket was synonymous with the town of Brookhaven. During the 1660s the settlement was renamed to Ashford. This change was facilitated by Captain John Scott, a settler of Setauket. A crafty land speculator, Scott claimed at one point to own a third of the island including the Setauket area, John Woolman, a well known preacher and journalist, noted having attended a Quaker meeting at Setawket in the spring of 1747. In the American Revolutionary War, the 1777 Battle of Setauket was fought on the village green, at the time, Loyalists controlled Setauket and had fortified the Presbyterian church for use as their stronghold. A Patriot force led by General Samuel Holden Parsons sailed across the Long Island Sound from Fairfield, Connecticut, Three hours of gunfire ensued before Parsons withdrew and returned to Connecticut with minimal casualties for either side. During the gunfight, Parsons men took cover behind Patriots Rock, some of the bullets were embedded into the walls of the extant Caroline Church of Brookhaven. From 1778 to 1781, the Culper Spy Ring passed information about British troop movements gathered in New York City to George Washington, the spy ring consisted primarily of Setauket residents, including its leader Benjamin Tallmadge and key agent Abraham Woodhull. Washington later spent a night in Setauket during his 1790 tour of Long Island, during the British occupation, residents held religious services at the c.1729 Caroline Church while British forces occupied the Setauket Presbyterian Church. The pulpit of the Presbyterian church was destroyed and a number of gravestones from the cemetery were moved as part of the fortifications. Services resumed after the war until lightning hit the church in 1812, the Presbyterian church was rebuilt in 1812
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
James Harris Simons
–
James Harris Jim Simons is an American mathematician, hedge fund manager, and philanthropist. He is known as an investor and in 1982 founded Renaissance Technologies. Although Simons retired from the fund in 2009, he remains its non-executive chairman, Simons was a mathematics professor and subsequent chair of the mathematics department at Stony Brook University. As a consequence of his investment career, Forbes Magazine estimated Simons net worth is to be US$18 billion as of February 2017, james Harris Simons was born to a Jewish family, the only child of Marcia and Matthew Simons, and raised in Brookline, Massachusetts. His father owned a shoe factory, for more than two decades, Simons Renaissance Technologies hedge funds, which trade in markets around the world, have employed mathematical models to analyze and execute trades, many automated. Renaissance uses computer-based models to price changes in financial instruments. These models are based on analyzing as much data as can be gathered, Renaissance employs specialists with non-financial backgrounds, including mathematicians, physicists, signal processing experts and statisticians. The firms latest fund is the Renaissance Institutional Equities Fund, RIEF has historically trailed the firms better-known Medallion fund, a separate fund that contains only the personal money of the firms executives. In 2006, Simons was named Financial Engineer of the Year by the International Association of Financial Engineers. In 2007, he was estimated to have personally earned $2.8 billion, $1.7 billion in 2006, $1.5 billion in 2005, Simons mathematical work has primarily focused on the geometry and topology of manifolds. These and other contributions to geometry and topology led to Simons becoming the 1976 recipient of the AMS Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry, in 2014, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. In 1964, Simons worked with the National Security Agency to break codes, in 1968, he was appointed chairman of the math department at Stony Brook University. Simons was asked by IBM in 1973 to attack the block cipher Lucifer and he funds a variety of research projects. Simons shuns the limelight and rarely gives interviews, citing Benjamin the Donkey in Animal Farm for explanation, but Id rather have had no tail and no flies. On October 10,2009, Simons announced he would retire on January 1,2010, Simons is a major contributor to Democratic Party political action committees. Simons has donated $7 million to Hillary Clintons Priorities USA Action, $2.6 million to the House and Senate Majority PACs and he also donated $25,000 to Republican Senator Lindsey Grahams super PAC. Since 2006 Simons has contributed about $30.6 million to federal campaigns, since 1990, Renaissance Technologies has contributed $59,081,152 to federal campaigns and since 2001, has spent $3,730,000 on lobbying. According to the Wall Street Journal in May 2009, Simons was questioned by investors on the performance gap of Renaissance Technologies portfolios
4.
Howard L. Morgan
–
Howard Lee Morgan is an American venture capitalist, philanthropist, socialite, angel investor, author and contributing writer for Business Insider. According to Business Week Morgan is said to be connected to 31 board members in 31 organizations across 32 different industries. He has been listed on the Forbes 2009 list of Executives and Directors, currently ranked #12 on CouldAve’s Top 30 Most Respected Venture Capitalist for 2011 and rank #1 in Philadelphia. Howard Morgan attended the City College of the City University of New York in 1965 where he earned a Bachelor of Science in physics and he then received a Ph. D. in operations research from Cornell University in 1968. Morgan was also awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree in 1974 from the University of Pennsylvania, after earning his Ph. D from Cornell University Dr. Morgan was granted a faculty position with their Department of Computer Science in September 1968. During his academic career Morgan also served as an editor of Communications of the ACM, Management Science, Transactions on Office Information Systems and his research on user interface technology, and on optimization of computer networks led to his bringing the ARPAnet to Philadelphia in 1974. Morgan continued to work as a professor from 1972 through 1985, after working with the Association for Computing Machinery he was published continuously in a number of their publications from the mid 70s to the early 80s. The notice from his work in the stages of the Internet prompted Morgan to begin authoring a number of his own books on the subject. Since the early 70s to the present he has published many books ranging from science, business investment. Implementation of Complex Management Information Systems, ASAP to REL, Efficient Relational Data Bases from Very Large Files. MDM, embedding the time dimension in information systems, Entrepreneurial Marketing, Lessons from Wharton‘s Pioneering M. B. A. Marketing That Works, How Entrepreneurial Marketing Can Add Sustainable Value to Any Sized Company, Howard Morgans decision to transition from class to corporate capital was based on the technological expansions of the 1980s. The private sector of the time saw small startups like Microsoft make billions, in 1982 he co-founded Renaissance Technologies Corp. in New York with James Simons. And from 1983 to 1989 served as President where he supervised venture capital investments in technology companies. He was also a board member and technical advisor of Franklin Electronic Publishers, one of the first manufacturers of personal computers. He has been involved in more than three dozen startups and was an investor in the formation of Bill Gross’s Idealab, a Pasadena based incubator for internet companies. Idealab also founded Internet Brands which operates many media, community, Howard Morgan served as a board member on Internet Brands until the media company was acquired in December 2010 by Hellman & Friedman for a reported $640 million. In 2004 Morgan partnered with Josh Kopelman, Chris Fralic, the group specialized in providing seed-stage funds to technology companies
5.
Assets under management
–
Methods of calculating AUM vary between firms. The fee structure depends on the contract between each client and the firm or fund, Assets under management rise and fall. They may increase when investment performance is positive, or when new customers, rising AUM normally increases the fees which the firm generates. Conversely, AUM are reduced by negative investment performance, as well as redemptions or withdrawals, including fund closures, client defections, lower AUM tend to result in lower fees generated. Assets under management includes, Capital raised from investors, Capital belonging to the principals of the management firm. For example, if fund managers contribute $2B of their own capital to the fund and raise additional $10B from investors, net asset value Fund Management Activities Survey 2005 Sovereign Wealth Fund Assets Under Management
6.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
7.
Hedge fund
–
It is administered by a professional investment management firm, and often structured as a limited partnership, limited liability company, or similar vehicle. The name hedge fund originated from the long and short positions that the first of these funds used to hedge market risk. Over time, the types and nature of the hedging concepts expanded, today, hedge funds engage in a diverse range of markets and strategies and employ a wide variety of financial instruments and risk management techniques. Hedge funds are available only to certain accredited investors and cannot be offered or sold to the general public. Hedge funds have existed for decades, and became increasingly popular, growing to be a substantial fraction of asset management. Hedge funds are almost always open-ended and allow additions or withdrawals by their investors, the value of an investors holding is directly related to the fund net asset value. Many hedge fund investment strategies aim to achieve a return on investment regardless of whether markets are rising or falling. Hedge fund managers often invest money of their own in the fund they manage, a hedge fund typically pays its investment manager an annual management fee, and a performance fee. Both co-investment and performance fees serve to align the interests of managers with those of the investors in the fund, some hedge funds have several billion dollars of assets under management. The word hedge, meaning a line of bushes around a field, has long used as a metaphor for the placing of limits on risk. Early hedge funds sought to hedge specific investments against general market fluctuations by shorting the market, nowadays, however, many different investment strategies are used, many of which do not hedge risk. During the US bull market of the 1920s, there were numerous private investment vehicles available to wealthy investors. The sociologist Alfred W. Jones is credited with coining the phrase hedged fund and is credited with creating the first hedge fund structure in 1949, although this has been disputed. Jones referred to his fund as being hedged, a term commonly used on Wall Street to describe the management of investment risk due to changes in the financial markets. In the 1970s, hedge funds specialized in a single strategy, many hedge funds closed during the recession of 1969–70 and the 1973–1974 stock market crash due to heavy losses. They received renewed attention in the late 1980s, during the 1990s, the number of hedge funds increased significantly, funded with wealth created during the 1990s stock market rise. The increased interest was due to the aligned-interest compensation structure and the promise of high returns. Over the next decade hedge fund strategies expanded to include, credit arbitrage, distressed debt, fixed income, quantitative, US institutional investors such as pension and endowment funds began allocating greater portions of their portfolios to hedge funds
8.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
9.
Computer science
–
Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
10.
IBM Research
–
IBM Research is IBMs research and development division. It is the largest industrial research organization in the world, with twelve labs on six continents, the roots of todays IBM Research began with the 1945 opening of the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University. IBM employees have garnered five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, as of 2014 the company held the record for most patents generated by a business for 22 consecutive years. It was the first time atoms had been positioned on a flat surface. The Watson technology is now being commercialized as part of a project with healthcare company Anthem Inc. IBM Research is home to 5 Nobel Laureates,9 US National Medals of Technology,5 US National Medals of Science,6 Turing Awards, there are a number of computer scientists who made IBM Research famous. Johnson, Benoit Mandelbrot, Robert Mercer, C, mohan, Michael O. Rabin, Arthur Samuel, Alfred Spector, Moshe Vardi, John Vlissides, Mark N. Wegman and Shmuel Winograd. Data Encryption Standard Fast Fourier Transform Benoît B, the IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University, A History
11.
Algorithmic trading
–
They were developed so that traders do not need to constantly watch a stock and repeatedly send those slices out manually. Popular algos include Percentage of Volume, Pegged, VWAP, TWAP, Implementation Shortfall, Algorithmic trading is not an attempt to make a trading profit. It is simply a way to minimise the cost, market impact, the term is also used to mean automated trading system. These do indeed have the goal of making a profit, also known as black box trading, these encompass trading strategies that are heavily reliant on complex mathematical formulas and high-speed computer programs. Much of the rest of this article should be moved to the page on automated trading systems, such systems run strategies including market making, inter-market spreading, arbitrage, or pure speculation such as trend following. Many fall into the category of high-frequency trading, which are characterized by high turnover, as a result, in February 2012, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission formed a special working group that included academics and industry experts to advise the CFTC on how best to define HFT. Algorithmic trading and HFT have resulted in a change of the market microstructure. Profitability projections by the TABB Group, a services industry research firm. A third of all European Union and United States stock trades in 2006 were driven by automatic programs, as of 2009, studies suggested HFT firms accounted for 60-73% of all US equity trading volume, with that number falling to approximately 50% in 2012. In 2006, at the London Stock Exchange, over 40% of all orders were entered by algorithmic traders, american markets and European markets generally have a higher proportion of algorithmic trades than other markets, and estimates for 2008 range as high as an 80% proportion in some markets. Foreign exchange markets also have active algorithmic trading, Futures markets are considered fairly easy to integrate into algorithmic trading, with about 20% of options volume expected to be computer-generated by 2010. Bond markets are moving toward more access to algorithmic traders, Algorithmic trading and HFT have been the subject of much public debate since the U. S. The same reports found HFT strategies may have contributed to subsequent volatility by rapidly pulling liquidity from the market, as a result of these events, the Dow Jones Industrial Average suffered its second largest intraday point swing ever to that date, though prices quickly recovered. However, other researchers have reached a different conclusion, One 2010 study found that HFT did not significantly alter trading inventory during the Flash Crash. Some algorithmic trading ahead of index fund rebalancing transfers profits from investors, the opening automated reporting system aided the specialist in determining the market clearing opening price. Program trading is defined by the New York Stock Exchange as an order to buy or sell 15 or more stocks valued at over US$1 million total, in practice this means that all program trades are entered with the aid of a computer. In the 1980s, program trading became widely used in trading between the S&P500 equity and futures markets. In stock index arbitrage a trader buys a stock index futures contract such as the S&P500 futures, both strategies, often simply lumped together as program trading, were blamed by many people for exacerbating or even starting the 1987 stock market crash
12.
Stony Brook University
–
The State University of New York at Stony Brook is a public sea-grant and space-grant research university located in Stony Brook, New York in the United States. It is part of the State University of New York system, the institution was founded in 1957 in Oyster Bay as State University College on Long Island, and would evolve into the present university after a move to Stony Brook in 1962. Since its establishment in Stony Brook, the university has expanded to more than 200 major buildings with a combined area of more than 11 million gross square feet across 1,454 acres of land. In 2001, SUNY Stony Brook was elected to the Association of American Universities, joining four private universities and it is also a member of the larger Universities Research Association for which its president Samuel Stanley is a council president. Stony Brook is the largest single-site employer on Long Island, more than 24,500 students are enrolled at the university, which has over 14,500 employees and over 2,400 faculty. Stony Brook has a number of athletics teams, the Stony Brook Seawolves are members of the America East Conference and the Colonial Athletic Association competing at the Division I level of the NCAA since 1994. The State University of New York at Stony Brook was established in Oyster Bay in 1957 as the State University College on Long Island, by the governor and state of New York. Established almost a decade after the creation of New York’s public higher education system, leonard K. Olson was appointed as the first dean of the institution and was instrumental in the recruitment of faculty staff and planning of the later Stony Brook campus. SUCOLI opened with an class of 148 students, on the grounds of the William Robertson Coe Planting Fields estate. These first students were admitted on a tuition-free basis,1961 was a year of firsts as thirty students were conferred degrees in the first commencement and the University was appointed its first president, John Francis Lee. Lee left later that year due to political and bureaucratic matters regarding the future of the University, more recently, it has adopted the short-form name Stony Brook University. In 1963, only three years after the release of the Heald Report, the Governor commissioned the “Education of Health Professions” report, the report outlined the need for expansion of the university system to prepare medical professionals for the future needs of the state. In 1965 the State University appointed John S. Toll, a renowned physicist from the University of Maryland as the president of Stony Brook. In 1966 the University set forth initial timetables for the development of the Health Science Center which would house the University’s health programs, despite the budgetary concerns and challenges from Albany the University released a formalized plan early in 1968 and funding for recruitment of faculty was provided. At the same time, residential housing was expanded to 3,000, the Stony Brook Union opened in 1970, and in 1971, but the University lagged significantly in undergraduate education, prioritizing graduate education and research over undergraduate studies and student life. By 1975, enrollment had reached 16,000 and expansion crossed over Nicolls Road with the construction of the Health Science Center which would be completed in 1980, in 1981 John Marburger was inaugurated as the third president of the University and would continue the expansion of the institution. By the late 1980s the administration affirmed the need to other areas of the institution which included undergraduate education, student and residential life. The University approved a decision to transition athletics to the Division I of the NCAA and followed with the construction of the Stony Brook Arena, the 1990s affirmed Stony Brook’s success at building a research university with a strong undergraduate education
13.
Data warehouse
–
In computing, a data warehouse, also known as an enterprise data warehouse, is a system used for reporting and data analysis, and is considered a core component of business intelligence. DWs are central repositories of integrated data from one or more disparate sources and they store current and historical data in one single place and are used for creating analytical reports for knowledge workers throughout the enterprise. Examples of reports could range from annual and quarterly comparisons and trends to detailed daily sales analysis, the data stored in the warehouse is uploaded from the operational systems. The data may pass through a data store and may require data cleansing for additional operations to ensure data quality before it is used in the DW for reporting. The typical Extract, transform, load -based data warehouse uses staging, data integration, the staging layer or staging database stores raw data extracted from each of the disparate source data systems. The integration layer integrates the disparate data sets by transforming the data from the staging layer often storing this transformed data in a data store database. The combination of facts and dimensions is called a star schema. The access layer helps users retrieve data and this definition of the data warehouse focuses on data storage. However, the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform, and load data, many references to data warehousing use this broader context. Thus, a definition for data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository. A data warehouse maintains a copy of information from the source transaction systems and this architectural complexity provides the opportunity to, Integrate data from multiple sources into a single database and data model. Mere congregation of data to single database so a single query engine can be used to present data is an ODS, mitigate the problem of database isolation level lock contention in transaction processing systems caused by attempts to run large, long running, analysis queries in transaction processing databases. Maintain data history, even if the source transaction systems do not, Integrate data from multiple source systems, enabling a central view across the enterprise. This benefit is always valuable, but particularly so when the organization has grown by merger, improve data quality, by providing consistent codes and descriptions, flagging or even fixing bad data. Provide a single common data model for all data of interest regardless of the datas source, restructure the data so that it makes sense to the business users. Restructure the data so that it delivers excellent query performance, even for complex analytic queries, add value to operational business applications, notably customer relationship management systems. Make decision–support queries easier to write, optimized data warehouse architectures allow data scientists to organize and disambiguate repetitive data. In regards to source systems listed above, Rainer states, A common source for the data in data warehouses is the companys operational databases, which can be relational databases
14.
Security (finance)
–
A security is a tradable financial asset. The term commonly refers to any form of instrument. In some jurisdictions the term specifically excludes financial instruments other than equities, in some jurisdictions it includes some instruments that are close to equities and fixed income, e. g. equity warrants. In the United States, a security is a financial asset of any kind. Securities are broadly categorized into, debt securities equity securities derivatives, the company or other entity issuing the security is called the issuer. A countrys regulatory structure determines what qualifies as a security, for example, private investment pools may have some features of securities, but they may not be registered or regulated as such if they meet various restrictions. Securities may be represented by a certificate or, more typically, non-certificated, region or country Market capitalization State Securities are the traditional way that commercial enterprises raise new capital. These may be an alternative to bank loans depending on their pricing. Another disadvantage of bank loans as a source of financing is that the bank may seek a measure of protection against default by the borrower via extensive financial covenants, through securities, capital is provided by investors who purchase the securities upon their initial issuance. In a similar way, a government may issue securities too when it needs to increase government debt, investors in securities may be retail, i. e. members of the public investing other than by way of business. The greatest part of investment, in terms of volume, is wholesale, i. e. by financial institutions acting on their own account, important institutional investors include investment banks, insurance companies, pension funds and other managed funds. The traditional economic function of the purchase of securities is investment, debt securities generally offer a higher rate of interest than bank deposits, and equities may offer the prospect of capital growth. Equity investment may also control of the business of the issuer. Debt holdings may also offer some measure of control to the if the company is a fledgling start-up or an old giant undergoing restructuring. In these cases, if interest payments are missed, the creditors may take control of the company, the last decade has seen an enormous growth in the use of securities as collateral. Purchasing securities with borrowed money secured by other securities or cash itself is called buying on margin, where A is owed a debt or other obligation by B, A may require B to deliver property rights in securities to A, either at inception or only in default. Collateral arrangements are divided into two categories, namely security interests and outright collateral transfers. Commonly, commercial banks, investment banks, government agencies and other investors such as mutual funds are significant collateral takers as well as providers
15.
Big data
–
Big data is a term for data sets that are so large or complex that traditional data processing application software is inadequate to deal with them. Challenges include capture, storage, analysis, data curation, search, sharing, transfer, visualization, querying, updating, there is little doubt that the quantities of data now available are indeed large, but that’s not the most relevant characteristic of this new data ecosystem. Analysis of data sets can find new correlations to spot trends, prevent diseases, combat crime. Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work, including meteorology, genomics, connectomics, complex physics simulations, biology and environmental research. The worlds technological capacity to store information has roughly doubled every 40 months since the 1980s, as of 2012. One question for large enterprises is determining who should own big-data initiatives that affect the entire organization, relational database management systems and desktop statistics- and visualization-packages often have difficulty handling big data. The work may require massively parallel software running on tens, hundreds, what counts as big data varies depending on the capabilities of the users and their tools, and expanding capabilities make big data a moving target. For some organizations, facing hundreds of gigabytes of data for the first time may trigger a need to reconsider data management options, for others, it may take tens or hundreds of terabytes before data size becomes a significant consideration. The term has been in use since the 1990s, with some giving credit to John Mashey for coining or at least making it popular. Big data usually includes data sets with sizes beyond the ability of commonly used tools to capture, curate, manage. Big data size is a moving target, as of 2012 ranging from a few dozen terabytes to many petabytes of data. Big data requires a set of techniques and technologies with new forms of integration to reveal insights from datasets that are diverse, complex, and of a massive scale. In a 2001 research report and related lectures, META Group defined data growth challenges and opportunities as being three-dimensional, i. e. increasing volume, velocity, gartner, and now much of the industry, continue to use this 3Vs model for describing big data. Additionally, a new V Veracity is added by some organizations to describe it, Big data can be described by the following characteristics, Volume The quantity of generated and stored data. The size of the data determines the value and potential insight-, variety The type and nature of the data. This helps people who analyze it to use the resulting insight. Velocity In this context, the speed at which the data is generated and processed to meet the demands and challenges that lie in the path of growth, variability Inconsistency of the data set can hamper processes to handle and manage it. Veracity The quality of captured data can vary greatly, affecting accurate analysis, for example, to manage a factory one must consider both visible and invisible issues with various components
16.
The Quants
–
The Quants is the debut New York Times best selling book by Wall Street journalist Scott Patterson. It was released on February 2,2010 by Crown Business, the book describes the world of quantitative analysis and the various hedge funds that use the technique. Patterson began writing The Quants in 2008 and he was first exposed to the quantitative analysis investment strategies while covering the financial industry for the Wall Street Journal. As he became acquainted with the players involved, he found that many of the most successful quants knew each other. Realizing this was a world that the average investor knew little of, Patterson wrote the book to shed light on the strategies, players, and related risks of such trading strategies. The introduction to The Quants describes the real-life, annual, high-stakes poker match between Wall Streets hedge fund managers and compares their trading styles to their poker strategies. It focuses on, among other things, the 2007 subprime mortgage crisis and how it helped trigger a sudden and massive unwind of complex, the book also delves into the background of the various vanguards of quantitative analysis. Asness and Aaron Brown from AQR Capital Management, and Boaz Weinstein from Deutsche Bank, the Quants debuted on The New York Times bestseller list. Jon Stewart featured Patterson as a guest on The Daily Show, Patterson was a guest on NPR, and Ed Thorp, one of the books main characters, joined Patterson for a live interview. The New York Times profiled the book, calling it fascinating, the Quants received additional profiles in Bloomberg, BusinessWeek, Scientific American, Financial Times, and Minyanville. More Money Than God, a book by Sebastian Mallaby The Big Short by Michael Lewis The Quants, How a New Breed of Math Whizzes Conquered Wall Street. The Minds Behind the Meltdown, How a swashbuckling breed of mathematicians and computer scientists nearly destroyed Wall Street
17.
Mathematician
–
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
18.
Physicist
–
A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
19.
Signal processing
–
According to Alan V. Oppenheim and Ronald W. Schafer, the principles of signal processing can be found in the classical numerical analysis techniques of the 17th century. Oppenheim and Schafer further state that the digitalization or digital refinement of techniques can be found in the digital control systems of the 1940s and 1950s. Feature extraction, such as understanding and speech recognition. Quality improvement, such as reduction, image enhancement. Including audio compression, image compression, and video compression and this involves linear electronic circuits as well as non-linear ones. The former are, for instance, passive filters, active filters, additive mixers, integrators, non-linear circuits include compandors, multiplicators, voltage-controlled filters, voltage-controlled oscillators and phase-locked loops. Continuous-time signal processing is for signals that vary with the change of continuous domain, the methods of signal processing include time domain, frequency domain, and complex frequency domain. This technology was a predecessor of digital processing, and is still used in advanced processing of gigahertz signals. Digital signal processing is the processing of digitized discrete-time sampled signals, processing is done by general-purpose computers or by digital circuits such as ASICs, field-programmable gate arrays or specialized digital signal processors. Typical arithmetical operations include fixed-point and floating-point, real-valued and complex-valued, other typical operations supported by the hardware are circular buffers and look-up tables. Examples of algorithms are the Fast Fourier transform, finite impulse response filter, Infinite impulse response filter, nonlinear signal processing involves the analysis and processing of signals produced from nonlinear systems and can be in the time, frequency, or spatio-temporal domains. Nonlinear systems can produce complex behaviors including bifurcations, chaos, harmonics
20.
Statistician
–
A statistician is someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics. The profession exists in both the private and public sectors and it is common to combine statistical knowledge with expertise in other subjects, and statisticians may work as employees or as statistical consultants. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2014,26,970 jobs were classified as statistician in the United States, of these people, approximately 30 percent worked for governments. Statisticians are included with the professions in various national and international occupational classifications, in the United States most employment in the field requires either a masters degree in statistics or a related field or a PhD. List of statisticians Statistician entry, Occupational Outlook Handbook, U. S
21.
The Daily Telegraph
–
It was founded by Arthur B. Sleigh in 1855 as The Daily Telegraph and Courier, the papers motto, Was, is, and will be, appears in the editorial pages and has featured in every edition of the newspaper since April 19,1858. The paper had a circulation of 460,054 in December 2016 and its sister paper, The Sunday Telegraph, which started in 1961, had a circulation of 359,287 as of December 2016. The Daily Telegraph has the largest circulation for a newspaper in the UK. The two sister newspapers are run separately, with different editorial staff, but there is cross-usage of stories, articles published in either may be published on the Telegraph Media Groups www. telegraph. co. uk website, under the title of The Telegraph. However, critics, including an editor, accuse it of being unduly influenced by advertisers. The Daily Telegraph and Courier was founded by Colonel Arthur B, Sleigh in June 1855 to air a personal grievance against the future commander-in-chief of the British Army, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Joseph Moses Levy, the owner of The Sunday Times, agreed to print the newspaper, the paper cost 2d and was four pages long. Nevertheless, the first edition stressed the quality and independence of its articles and journalists, however, the paper was not a success, and Sleigh was unable to pay Levy the printing bill. Levy took over the newspaper, his aim being to produce a newspaper than his main competitors in London. The same principle should apply to all other events—to fashion, to new inventions, in 1876, Jules Verne published his novel Michael Strogoff, whose plot takes place during a fictional uprising and war in Siberia. In 1937, the newspaper absorbed The Morning Post, which espoused a conservative position. Originally William Ewart Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose, bought The Morning Post with the intention of publishing it alongside The Daily Telegraph, for some years the paper was retitled The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post before it reverted to just The Daily Telegraph. As an result, Gordon Lennox was monitored by MI5, in 1939, The Telegraph published Clare Hollingworths scoop that Germany was to invade Poland. In November 1940, with Fleet Street subjected to almost daily bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, The Telegraph started printing in Manchester at Kemsley House, Manchester quite often printed the entire run of The Telegraph when its Fleet Street offices were under threat. The name Kemsley House was changed to Thomson House in 1959, in 1986 printing of Northern editions of the Daily and Sunday Telegraph moved to Trafford Park and in 2008 to Newsprinters at Knowsley, Liverpool. During the Second World War, The Daily Telegraph covertly helped in the recruitment of code-breakers for Bletchley Park, the ability to solve The Telegraphs crossword in under 12 minutes was considered to be a recruitment test. The competition itself was won by F. H. W. Hawes of Dagenham who finished the crossword in less than eight minutes, both the Camrose and Burnham families remained involved in management until Conrad Black took control in 1986
22.
Wall Street
–
Wall Street is an eight-block-long street running roughly northwest to southeast from Broadway to South Street, at the East River, in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Over time, the term has become a metonym for the markets of the United States as a whole. Several other major exchanges have or had headquarters in the Wall Street area, including the New York Mercantile Exchange, the New York Board of Trade, there are varying accounts about how the Dutch-named de Walstraat got its name. A conflicting explanation is that Wall Street was named after Walloons— the Dutch name for a Walloon is Waal, among the first settlers that embarked on the ship Nieu Nederlandt in 1624 were 30 Walloon families. The Dutch word wal can be translated as rampart, however, even some English maps show the name as Waal Straat, and not as Wal Straat. But soon after that, the Dutch governor, Kieft, sent his men out there one night, few of them escaped, but they spread the story of what had been done, and this did much to antagonize all the remaining tribes against all the white settlers. Shortly after, Nieuw Amsterdam erected a palisade for defense against its now enraged red neighbors. The space between the walls is now called Wall Street, and its spirit is still that of a bulwark against the people. In the 1640s basic picket and plank fences denoted plots and residences in the colony, in 1685, surveyors laid out Wall Street along the lines of the original stockade. In these early days, local merchants and traders would gather at disparate spots to buy and sell shares and bonds, Wall Street was also the marketplace where owners could hire out their slaves by the day or week. The rampart was removed in 1699, the slave market operated from 1711 to 1762 at the corner of Wall and Pearl Streets. It was a structure with a roof and open sides, although walls may have been added over the years. The city directly benefited from the sale of slaves by implementing taxes on every person who was bought, in the late 18th century there was a buttonwood tree at the foot of Wall Street under which traders and speculators would gather to trade securities. The benefit was being in proximity to each other, in 1792, traders formalized their association with the Buttonwood Agreement which was the origin of the New York Stock Exchange. The idea of the agreement was to make the more structured and without the manipulative auctions. Persons signing the agreement agreed to each other a standard commission rate, persons not signing could still participate. In 1789 Wall Street was the scene of the United States first presidential inauguration when George Washington took the oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall on April 30,1789 and this was also the location of the passing of the Bill Of Rights. Alexander Hamilton, who was the first Treasury secretary and architect of the early United States financial system, is buried in the cemetery of Trinity Church, in the first few decades, both residences and businesses occupied the area, but increasingly business predominated
23.
Long Island
–
Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
24.
Isadore Singer
–
Isadore Manuel Singer is an Institute Professor in the Department of Mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is noted for his work with Michael Atiyah proving the Atiyah–Singer index theorem in 1962, Singer was born in Detroit, Michigan, and received his undergraduate degree from the University of Michigan in 1944. After obtaining his M. S. and Ph. D. from the University of Chicago in 1948 and 1950 respectively, he taught at UCLA and MIT, Singer is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, in 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. Quantum field theory, supersymmetry, and enumerative geometry, freed, Daniel S. and Morrison, David R. and Singer, Isadore editors. IAS/Park City Mathematics Series, Vol.11, American Mathematical Society Providence, RI viii+285. Papers from the Graduate Summer School of the IAS/Park City Mathematics Institute held in Princeton, atiyah–Hitchin–Singer theorem Atiyah–Patodi–Singer eta invariant Isadore Singer. OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Isadore Singer, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, Isadore Singer at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
25.
Manhattan
–
Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
26.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
27.
Intellectual property
–
Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
28.
Cryptanalysis
–
Cryptanalysis is the study of analyzing information systems in order to study the hidden aspects of the systems. Cryptanalysis is used to breach cryptographic security systems and gain access to the contents of encrypted messages, methods for breaking modern cryptosystems often involve solving carefully constructed problems in pure mathematics, the best-known being integer factorization. Given some encrypted data, the goal of the cryptanalyst is to gain as much information as possible about the original, attacks can be classified based on what type of information the attacker has available. Ciphertext-only, the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts or codetexts, known-plaintext, the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding plaintext. Chosen-plaintext, the attacker can obtain the corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts of his own choosing. Adaptive chosen-plaintext, like an attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions. Related-key attack, Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys, the keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known, for example, two keys that differ in the one bit. Attacks can also be characterised by the resources they require and those resources include, Time — the number of computation steps which must be performed. Memory — the amount of required to perform the attack. Data — the quantity and type of plaintexts and ciphertexts required for a particular approach and its sometimes difficult to predict these quantities precisely, especially when the attack isnt practical to actually implement for testing. But academic cryptanalysts tend to provide at least the estimated order of magnitude of their attacks difficulty, saying, for example, the results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness. Global deduction — the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent algorithm for encryption and decryption, instance deduction — the attacker discovers additional plaintexts not previously known. Information deduction — the attacker gains some Shannon information about plaintexts not previously known, distinguishing algorithm — the attacker can distinguish the cipher from a random permutation. Academic attacks are often against weakened versions of a cryptosystem, such as a cipher or hash function with some rounds removed. In academic cryptography, a weakness or a break in a scheme is defined quite conservatively, it might require impractical amounts of time, memory. Furthermore, it might reveal a small amount of information, enough to prove the cryptosystem imperfect. Finally, an attack might only apply to a version of cryptographic tools, like a reduced-round block cipher. In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the coin, secure cryptography requires design against possible cryptanalysis
29.
Elwyn Berlekamp
–
Elwyn Ralph Berlekamp is an American mathematician. He is an emeritus of mathematics and EECS at the University of California. Berlekamp is known for his work in coding theory and combinatorial game theory, Berlekamp was born in Dover, Ohio. His family moved to Northern Kentucky, where Berlekamp graduated from Ft. Thomas Highlands high school in Ft. Thomas, Campbell county, while an undergraduate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he was a Putnam Fellow in 1961. He completed his bachelors and masters degrees in engineering in 1962. Continuing his studies at MIT, he finished his Ph. D. in electrical engineering in 1964, his advisors were Robert G. Gallager, Peter Elias, Claude Shannon, and John Wozencraft. Berlekamp taught electrical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley from 1964 until 1966, in 1971, Berlekamp returned to Berkeley as professor of mathematics and EECS, where he served as the advisor for over twenty doctoral students. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Sciences and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996, and became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society in 2012. In 1991, he received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal, and in 1993, in 1998, he received a Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation from the IEEE Information Theory Society. He is on the board of directors of Gathering 4 Gardner, in the mid-1980s, he was president of Cyclotomics, Inc. a corporation that developed error-correcting code technology. With John Horton Conway and Richard K. Guy, he co-authored Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays and he has studied various games, including dots and boxes, Fox and Geese, and, especially, Go. With David Wolfe, Berlekamp co-authored the book Mathematical Go, which describes methods for analyzing certain classes of Go endgames, outside of mathematics and computer science, Berlekamp has also been active in money management. In 1986, he began studies of commodity and financial futures. In 1989, Berlekamp purchased the largest interest in a company named Axcom Trading Advisors. After the firms futures trading algorithms were rewritten, Axcoms Medallion Fund had a return of 55%, net of all management fees, the fund has subsequently continued to realize annualized returns exceeding 30% under management by James Harris Simons and his Renaissance Technologies Corporation. Berlekamp and his wife Jennifer have two daughters and a son and live in Piedmont, California, thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering,1964. Algebraic Coding Theory, New York, McGraw-Hill,1968, revised ed. Aegean Park Press,1984, ISBN 0-89412-063-8. Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays, 1st edition, New York, Academic Press,2 vols
30.
Berkeley, California
–
Berkeley is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California. It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley and it borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north. Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills, the 2010 census recorded a population of 112,580. It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world and it is one of the most politically liberal cities in the United States. The site of todays City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun band of the Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived, other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek. The first people of European descent arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776, today, this is noted by signage on Interstate 80, which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley. The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay for a ranch, luis Peralta named his holding Rancho San Antonio. The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons. What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peraltas son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, no artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names. However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant, the Peraltas Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes, the rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants. Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County, on March 25,1853, Alameda County was created from a division within Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of land, farms and ranches. It was not yet Berkeley, but merely the part of the Oakland Township subdivision of Alameda County. In 1866, Oaklands private College of California looked for a new site, according to the Centennial Record of the University of California, In 1866…at Founders Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. Although the philosophers name is pronounced bark-lee, the pronunciation of the name has evolved to suit American English as burk-lee. The College of Californias College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land, to this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeleys modern street plan
31.
University of California, Berkeley
–
The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
32.
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
–
The U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission is an independent agency of the United States federal government. The SEC was created by Section 4 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the SEC has a three-part mission, to protect investors, maintain fair, orderly, and efficient markets, and facilitate capital formation. To achieve its mandate, the SEC enforces the requirement that public companies submit quarterly and annual reports. MD&A will usually touch on the upcoming year, outlining future goals. In an attempt to level the field for all investors. Quarterly and semiannual reports from companies are crucial for investors to make sound decisions when investing in the capital markets. Unlike banking, investment in the markets is not guaranteed by the federal government. The potential for big gains needs to be weighed against that of sizable losses, the SEC makes reports available to the public through the EDGAR system. The SEC also offers publications on investment-related topics for public education, the same online system also takes tips and complaints from investors to help the SEC track down violators of the securities laws. The SEC adheres to a policy of never commenting on the existence or status of an ongoing investigation. Prior to the enactment of the securities laws and the creation of the SEC. They were enacted and enforced at the level, and regulated the offering. Though the specific provisions of these laws varied among states, they all required the registration of all offerings and sales, as well as of every U. S. stockbroker. However, these blue sky laws were found to be ineffective. For example, the Investment Bankers Association told its members as early as 1915 that they could ignore blue sky laws by making securities offerings across state lines through the mail. After holding hearings on abuses on interstate frauds, Congress passed the Securities Act of 1933, the subsequent Securities Exchange Act of 1934 regulates sales of securities in the secondary market. The Securities Act of 1933 is also known as the Truth in Securities Act and its goal was to increase public trust in the capital markets by requiring uniform disclosure of information about public securities offerings. For the first year of the enactment, the enforcement of the statute rested with the Federal Trade Commission
33.
Short (finance)
–
In finance, short selling is the practice of selling securities or other financial instruments that are not currently owned, and subsequently repurchasing them. In the event of a price decline, the short seller profits. Conversely, the short position closes out at a if the price of a shorted instrument rises prior to repurchase. Potential loss on a sale is theoretically unlimited, as there is no theoretical limit to a rise in the price of the instrument. In the securities markets, the seller generally must borrow the securities to effect delivery in the short sale. In practical terms, going short can be considered the opposite of the practice of going long. Mathematically, the return from a position is equivalent to that of owning a negative amount of the instrument. A short sale may have a variety of objectives, traders or fund managers may hedge a long position or a portfolio through one or more short positions. In contrast to a merchant who starts out to buy low, sell high. Although some feel that short selling is morally wrong, research indicates that banning short selling is ineffective and has effects on markets. The following example describes the sale of a security. To profit from a decrease in the price of a security, when the seller decides that the time is right, the seller buys equivalent securities and returns them to the lender. In most market conditions there is a supply of securities to be borrowed, held by pension funds, mutual funds. The act of buying back the securities that were sold short is called covering the short or covering the position, a short position can be covered at any time before the securities are due to be returned. Once the position is covered, the seller is not affected by subsequent rises or falls in the price of the securities. Short selling refers broadly to any used by an investor to profit from the decline in price of a borrowed asset or financial instrument. Derivatives contracts include futures, options, and swaps, shares in ACME Inc. currently trade at $10 per share. A short seller investor borrows from a lender 100 shares of ACME Inc. subsequently, the price of the shares falls to $8 per share
