1.
Renault
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Groupe Renault is a French multinational automobile manufacturer established in 1899. The company produces a range of cars and vans, and in the past has manufactured trucks, tractors, tanks, buses/coaches, the Renault–Nissan Alliance is the fourth-largest automotive group. Renault has a 43. 4% controlling stake in Nissan of Japan, a 37% indirectly-owned stake in AvtoVAZ of Russia, Renault also owns subsidiaries RCI Banque, Renault Retail Group and Motrio. Renault has various joint ventures, including Oyak-Renault, Renault Pars, Carlos Ghosn is the current chairman and CEO. The French government owns a 19. 73% share of Renault as of April 2015, Renault Trucks, previously known as Renault Véhicules Industriels, has been part of Volvo Trucks since 2001. Renault Agriculture became 100% owned by German agricultural equipment manufacturer CLAAS in 2008, together Renault and Nissan invested €4 billion in eight electric vehicles over three to four years beginning in 2011. Renault is known for its role in sport, particularly rallying, Formula 1. Its early work on mathematical curve modeling for car bodies is important in the history of computer graphics, the Renault corporation was founded in 1899 as Société Renault Frères by Louis Renault and his brothers Marcel and Fernand. While Louis handled design and production, Marcel and Fernand managed the business, the first Renault car, the Renault Voiturette 1CV, was sold to a friend of Louis father after giving him a test ride on 24 December 1898. In 1903, Renault began to manufacture its own engines, until then it had purchased them from De Dion-Bouton, the first major volume sale came in 1905 when Société des Automobiles de Place bought Renault AG1 cars to establish a fleet of taxis. These vehicles were used by the French military to transport troops during World War I which earned them the nickname Taxi de la Marne. By 1907, a significant percentage London and Paris taxis had been built by Renault, Renault was also the best-selling foreign brand in New York in 1907 and 1908. In 1908 the company produced 3,575 units, becoming the countrys largest car manufacturer, the brothers recognised the value of publicity that participation in motor racing could generate for their vehicles. Renault made itself known through succeeding in the first city-to-city races held in Switzerland, both Louis and Marcel raced company vehicles, but Marcel was killed in an accident during the 1903 Paris-Madrid race. Although Louis never raced again, his company remained very involved, Louis took full control of the company as the only remaining brother in 1906 when Fernand retired for health reasons. Fernand died in 1909 and Louis became the owner, renaming the company Société des Automobiles Renault. Renault fostered its reputation for innovation from very early on, at the time, cars were luxury items. The price of the smallest Renaults at the time were ₣3000 francs, in 1905 the company introduced mass-production techniques and Taylorism in 1913
2.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
4.
Executive car
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Executive car is a British term for an automobile larger than a large family car. In official use, the term is adopted by Euro NCAP, the term was coined in the 1960s to describe cars targeted at successful professionals and middle-to-senior managers. It was often a car but retained enough performance and comfort to be desirable to private motorists. Early executive cars typically offered engines of between 2.0 and 3.5 litres in size, compared with 1.6 to 2.4 litres of a family car. One of the earliest modern executive cars was introduced by Jaguar Cars in 1955 and its retrospectively known as the Mark 1 but was sold as the 2.4 Litre and 3.4 Litre. The unitary construction Mark 1 evolved into the Mark 2 and was offered with a larger 3.8 litre engine, the Jaguar S-Type and Jaguar 420 were derived from this model. This was replaced by the avant-garde XF in 2007 which is currently in its second generation. Daimler created ultra-luxurious versions of both the Jaguar Mark 2, called the Daimler 2.5 V8 and later Daimler V8-250, the executive car market was further defined in the 1960s with sporty, upmarket mid-size saloons appearing from numerous brands. In 1962 Rover previewed the innovative 2000, later available as 2200 and 3500 models, in 1963 Triumph debuted their own 2000, later expanded to 2500, which competed head-on with the Rover even when both companies became subsidiaries of British Leyland in 1968. Both cars were successful and dominated executive car sales in Britain. These cars offered the sophistication expected of a car but in a smaller. Luxurious trim, an engine and automatic transmission were available to give the cars an upmarket positioning. They were replaced in 1981 by a car with a hatchback body. The Princess and Ambassador were closer in spirit to the FWD Renault 20/30 than their in-house rivals, in the 1970s Rover replaced the P6 with the larger SD1, marketed as either 2000,2300,2600,3500 or 2400 D, depending on engine size. It was this car that was converted to the Standard 2000 in India long after Rover replaced the SD1 with the front-wheel drive Rover 800. Rovers last executive car, the 75, appeared in 1998, ford identified some of the higher-equipped Cortina models as Executives. An example of Fords executive car of the 1970s and 1980s was the Granada, larger Vauxhall models from the VX4/90 and Ventora through to the Carlton firmly fitted into this category. In the twenty-first century it is German executive models like the BMW 5-Series which are the biggest sellers in the car market
5.
E-segment
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E-segment is defined by European Commission as the fifth segment in European market car classification. It approximately corresponds to Full-size car and Mid-size luxury car segment in North America and these cars are usually denoted for their length and luxury interior styling. Body types are diverse in this segment, this includes sedans, wagons. Being large, they are often used as taxis in certain countries. Several carmakers, especially mainstream manufacturers whose best selling models have traditionally been superminis, the decision to axe the Scorpio without a successor came due to falling sales as well as the rising popularity of MPVs, SUVs and well-equipped large family cars. The earlier Granada, on the hand, had been a strong seller for Ford, regularly featuring among the top 10 selling cars in Britain during the 1970s. General Motors axed its Omega in 2003 without replacing it, the original Omega had been European Car of the Year for 1987. Rover, when still under the ownership of BMW in the late 1990s, replaced its 800 Series and 600 Series saloons with the Rover 75, peugeot took a similar step in 2010 when replacing the 407 and long-running but unpopular 607 with a single model, the 508. The current E-segment offering in Europe is limited to only 15 models, the segment has a 2. 8% market share in Europe, with models like the BMW 5-series, Mercedes E-Class, and Audi A6 accounting for the bulk of sales in the segment. The Volvo S80 and Jaguar XF also sell appreciably, the Citroen C6 has not been a great seller for PSA Group, while Tesla successfully launched their Tesla Model S electric car. FCA Group has attempted to re-badge the Chrysler 300 as the Lancia Thema in Europe and this was different for the luxury brand Maserati, which re-entered the segment with the new Maserati Ghibli, best performer in 2014
6.
Sedan (automobile)
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A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles
7.
Station wagon
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The body style transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design — to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Can be loaded through a tailgate, when a model range includes multiple body styles, such as sedan, hatchback and station wagon, the models typically share their platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. In 1969, Popular Mechanics said, Station wagon-style, follows that of the production sedan of which it is the counterpart. Most are on the wheelbase, offer the same transmission and engine options. Station wagons have evolved from their use as specialized vehicles to carry people and luggage to and from a train station. Station wagon and wagon are the names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car. Both names harken to the role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage. Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake, station wagons have been marketed as breaks, early U. S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies. Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include Estate, Avant, Touring, Tourer and Cross-Tourer, SW for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon, Estate, MCV, Tourer, Kombi or Variant and Sports Tourer, SW - Sportswagon or Caravan. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo — and a rear door for cargo access. Further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar, cargo Volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks may only have one or two. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the area is very sloped. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon and three and five-door hatchback models. The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel and they were originally called depot hacks because they worked around train depots as hacks
8.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
9.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
10.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
11.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
12.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
13.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
14.
Semi-automatic transmission
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It uses electronic sensors, pneumatics, processors and actuators to execute gear shifts on input from the driver or by a computer. The system was designed by manufacturers to provide a better driving experience through fast overtaking maneuvers on highways. Some motorcycles also use a system with a conventional gearchange but without the need for manual clutch operation, in the 1930s, automakers began to market cars with some sort of device that would reduce the amount of clutching and de-clutching and shifting required in stop and go driving. Most typically, a fluid coupling or a centrifugal clutch replaced the manual clutch to allow for stop. More sophisticated systems allowed for shifting while driving using the clutch. Semi-automatic transmissions were phased out as technology advanced and automatic controls were developed to take care of changing gear ratios, smaller, lower powered cars used Semi-automatic transmissions with a dry clutch because the mechanical connection offered a more efficient powertrain compared to a fluid coupling. Another early semi-automatic transmission was the Sinclair S. S. S, which was applied to Huwood-Hudswell diesel mines locomotives. It was also applied to road vehicles. It is covered by US patent 2505842, the ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automatic transmissions and continuous variable transmissions. Despite superficial similarity to other automated transmissions, semi-automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from manumatics, many sport luxury manufacturers such as BMW offer the manumatic transmissions for their mainstream lineup and the semi-automatic gearbox for their high-performance models. The operation of semi-automatic transmissions has evolved as vehicle manufacturers experimented with different systems, in one early mass-production example, Ferrari offered their Mondial model with a clutchless manual, which Ferrari called the Valeo transmission. In this system, the stick of a traditional manual transmission was retained. Saabs Sensonic transmission worked in a similar fashion, the Bugatti Veyron uses this approach for its seven-speed transmission. Numerous road cars have inherited the same mechanism, the central processing unit powers a hydro-mechanical unit to either engage or disengage the clutch, which is kept in close synchronization with the gear-shifting action the driver has started. In other cases, the clutch actuator may be completely electric, for the needs of parking, reversing and neutralizing the transmission, the driver must engage both paddles at once, after this has been accomplished, the car will prompt for one of the three options. The clutch is really only needed to get the car in motion, for a quicker upshift, the engine power can be cut, and the collar disengaged until the engine drops to the correct speed for the next gear. For the teeth of the collar to slide into the teeth of the rings and this needs sensors to measure not only the speed, but the positions of the teeth, and the throttle may need to be opened softer or harder. The even-faster shifting techniques like powershifting require a heavier gearbox or clutch or even a dual clutch transmission, selespeed was introduced in 1999 in the Alfa Romeo 156
15.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
16.
Renault Vivastella
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The Renault Vivastella was an executive car introduced by Renault in October 1928 and produced for the model years 1929 -1939. The Vivastella was introduced at the 22nd Paris Motor Show in October 1928 as a luxurious version of the Renault Vivasix. 1929 The Renault Vivastella Type PG2 had an engine of 3180cc with claimed output of 52 HP1930 The Renault Vivastella Type PG4 was 15 cm larger than the previous model,1932, a 65 horsepower engine was introduced. The 6-cylinder units shared the same 120mm cylinder stroke length, although a new more modern Vivcastella was introduced for 1934, the earlier model continued to be listed, at an attractively lower price, in the catalogue. It incorporated most of the new elements of the new car. Derivative models, the Renault Vivasport and the sporting Renault Viva Grand Sport were also introduced, in 1935, the new Vivastella was introduced with a new aerodynamic body
17.
Renault Primaquatre
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The Renault Primaquatre was an automobile produced from 1931 to 1941 by Renault, the last car built before Louis Renaults death in 1944. The Primaquatre was first exhibited on 29 December 1930 as the Type KZ6 and its 4-cylinder engine was of 2120 cc providing a published maximum output of 35 horsepower at 2900 rpm. The claimed maximum speed was 100 km/h, the rear wheels were driven via an unsynchronised 3-speed manual transmission. In 1932 arrived the new model Type KZ8 more width to difference of the Renault Monaquatre, in 1933 appeared the Type KZ10 larger from 3,700 mm to 3,900 mm, with an engine powerest. In 1933 the KZ11 appeared, was a taxis G7 company, in 1934 arrived the Type KZ18 larger than 4,000 mm. In 1935 arrived the Type KZ24 with 4,150 mm of large and 1,600 mm of width, in January 1936 the New Primaquatre appeared, featuring with a new 2383 cc engine providing up to 48 PS at 3200 rpm. The last Primaquatre was the Primaquatre Sport with the 2. 4-litre engine, one final technical enhancement came in 1940 when Lockheed hydraulic brakes replaced the cable brakes specified for the original design. First generation, KZ6 KZ8 KZ10 KZ11 KZ18 KZ24 Second generation, ACL1 ACL2 BDF1 BDF2 BDS1 BDS2 Speed,120 km/h Power,35 hp,48 hp,56 hp,62 hp Brakes, with cables on drums AV and AR Battery,6 V
18.
Renault 16
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The Renault 16 is a large family hatchback produced by French automaker Renault between 1965 and 1980 in Le Havre, France. The R16 was a success, with 1,845,959 R16s produced during a production run of 15 years. The car sold well in most of Europe, winning praise for its spacious and it was marketed in the United States, but was not successful and only a few were sold. Interestingly, Citroën was designing a similar car in the early 1960s. When Citroën realized that Renault was introducing the R16, they took the step of canceling Projet F. Due to the similarity of construction, rumours of Renault conducting industrial espionage abounded, under the skin, the layout of the R16 is similar to the Citroën Traction Avant – front-wheel drive, engine mounted inline behind the transmission. Torsion bar suspension, and column mounted shift, in addition the car had an aluminum engine and an electric cooling fan, both technical innovations. The big innovation was the modern, practical body style – introducing the hatchback to the mid-size family segment and this allowed the interior to be immensely flexible, and could be configured in seven different ways. This body style is halfway between a saloon and an estate, and, before the term hatchback was coined, journalists struggled to describe it, but, importantly, it is a little different. One peculiarity of the R16, and later Renault 5, design is that the two back wheel axle shafts are not in-line, the left wheelbase is 70 mm longer than the right wheelbase, to accommodate the torsion bar suspension. This and the front seats gives the car a particularly smooth ride even over big bumps. The suspension has the longest travel on a car of this size, if the handbrake is applied and reverse gear engaged, the engine was mounted north-south in the front, behind the gearbox/transaxle. This contributed to the handling and balance of this car by keeping the weight closer to the centre of the car, traditional front drive layouts are either east-west or in some cases north-south but with the engine in front of the transmission. Gear changing was performed by means of a lever which allowed for a more spacious front cabin. The column-mounted gear change was rare in West European markets, series production started in March 1965 at the companys recently completed Sandouville plant, a few kilometers to the east of Le Havre. The car had its launch in March 1965 at the Geneva Motor Show. Equipment levels were high for the price, an automatic transmission version, designated the Renault 16 TA, was introduced at the Geneva Motor Show early in 1969. The top-line model was the TX, launched at the Paris Motor Show in October 1973, equipment included power windows for the front doors and central door locking, one of the first family cars in Europe to feature such equipment
19.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
20.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Rear-engine design
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In automobile design, a rear-engine design layout places the engine at the rear of the vehicle. The center of gravity of the engine itself is past the rear axle and this is not to be confused with the center of gravity of the whole vehicle, as an imbalance of such proportions would make it impossible to keep the front wheels on the ground. Rear-engined cars are almost always rear wheel drive, a known as RR. The exception is certain high performance four wheel drive models from the German automaker Porsche. This layout is chosen for three reasons - packaging, traction, and ease of manufacture, Since the engine is located at an extremity, having the engine located over the driven wheels increases downward pressure, which is helpful for grip on loose surfaces. The drivetrain can be assembled as a unit and installed easily at the factory - easier than a front wheel drive layout where the wheels also steer the car. For this reason rear engine has been abandoned as an option for regular passenger cars. Although this layout was popular, it was mainly found in small, inexpensive cars. The most popular current application of this layout is in low-floor buses where its space-saving attributes are best applied. On the DeLorean DMC-12, to compensate for the weight distribution caused by the rear-mounted engine
22.
Renault 4CV
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The Renault 4CV is a rear-engined, rear-wheel-drive, 4-door economy supermini manufactured and marketed by the French manufacturer Renault from August 1947 through July 1961. It was the first French car to sell over a million units, the 4CV was of monocoque construction,3.6 m in length with front suicide doors and using Renaults Ventoux engine in a rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout. CV is the abbreviation of cheval-vapeur, the French equivalent to horsepower as a unit of power, the name 4CV refers to the cars tax horsepower. This was in contrast to Louis Renault himself who in 1940 believed that after the war Renault would need to concentrate on its traditional mid-range cars. Jean-Auguste Riolfo, head of the test department, was aware of the project from an early stage as were several other heads of department. In May 1941 Louis Renault himself burst into an office to find Serre, by the end of an uncomfortable ad hoc meeting Renaults approval for the project, now accorded the code 106E, was provided. In November 1945 the government invited Ferdinand Porsche to France to explore the possibility of relocating the Volkswagen project to France as part of the package then under discussion. On 15 December 1945, Porsche found himself invited to provide Renault with advice concerning their forthcoming Renault 4CV, earlier that year, newly nationalised Renault had officially acquired a new boss, the former resistance hero Pierre Lefaucheux. He had been arrested by the Gestapo in June 1944, the Gestapo transferred him to Metz for interrogation, but the city was deserted because of the advancing allied front, the Germans abandoned their prisoner. The government insisted on nine meetings involving Porsche which took place in rapid succession, Lefaucheux was a man with contacts. Porsche was accompanied on his visit to the Renault plant by his son Ferry, the first prototype had only two doors and was completed in 1942, and two more prototypes were produced in the following three years. Later Pierre Lefaucheux, appointed to the top job at Renault early in 1945, in 1940, Louis Renault had, according to one source, directed his engineering team to make him a car like the Germans. An important part of the 4CVs success was due to the new methodologies used in its manufacture, Bézier had begun his 42-year tenure at Renault as a tool setter, moving up to tool designer and then becoming head of the Tool Design Office. As Director of Production Engineering in 1949, he designed the transfer lines producing most of the parts for the 4CV. The transfer machines were high-performance work tools designed to machine engine blocks, while imprisoned during World War II, Bézier developed and improved on the automatic machine principle, introduced before the war by General Motors. The 4CV was ultimately presented to the public and media at the 1946 Paris Motor Show, later it was known affectionately as the quatre pattes, four paws. The 4CV was initially powered by a 760 cc rear-mounted four-cylinder engine coupled to a three-speed manual transmission. In 1950, the 760 cc unit was replaced by a 747 cc version of the Billancourt engine producing 17 hp. Despite an initial period of uncertainty and poor sales due to the state of the French economy
23.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
24.
Paris Motor Show
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The Paris Motor Show is a biennial auto show in Paris. Held during October, it is one of the most important auto shows, often with new production automobile. The show presently takes place in Paris expo Porte de Versailles, the Mondial is scheduled by the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs dAutomobiles, which considers it a major international auto show. In 2014, the Paris Motor Show welcomed 1,253,513 visitors, making it the most visited auto show in the world, ahead of Tokyo, until 1986, it was called the Salon de lAutomobile, it took the name Mondial de lAutomobile in 1988. The show was held annually through 1976, since, it has been biennial, the show was the first motor show in the world, started in 1898 by industry pioneer, Albert de Dion. After 1910 it was held at the Grand Palais in the Champs-Élysées, during the First World War motor shows were suspended, meaning that the show of October 1919 was only the 15th Salon. There was again no Paris Motor Show in 1925, the venue having been booked instead for an Exhibition of Decorative Arts, in October 1926 the Motor Show returned, this being the 26th Paris Salon de lAutomobile. The outbreak of war again intervened in 1939 when the 33rd Salon de lAutomobile was cancelled at short notice, normality of a sorts returned some six years later and the 33rd Salon finally opened in October 1946. 1898 1st 1913 14th Salon de lAutomobile 1919 15th Salon de lAutomobile The first Salon since 1913,9 October 191965 French automobile makers exhibited. At least 118 exhibitors in total, there was no Salon de lAutomobile in 19201921 16th Salon de lAutomobile 1922 17th Salon de lAutomobile 4 October 192281 French automobile makers exhibited 113 exhibitors in total. 1923 18th Salon de lAutomobile 1924 19th Salon de lAutomobile 2 October 192478 French automobile makers exhibited 116 exhibitors in total,1931 25th Salon de lAutomobile 1 October 193139 French automobile makers and 37 non-French automobile makers exhibited. 1932 26th Salon de lAutomobile 1933 27th Salon de lAutomobile 5 October 193326 French automobile makers exhibited,1934 28th Salon de lAutomobile 1935 29th Salon de lAutomobile 1936 30th Salon de lAutomobile 1937 31st Salon de lAutomobile 7 October 193722 French automobile makers exhibited. 1938 32nd 1946 33rd 1947 34th Salon de lAutomobile 23 October 194727 French automobile makers exhibited,1948 35th 1949 36th 1950 37th 1951 38th Salon de lAutomobile 4 October 195123 French automobile makers exhibited. 1952 39th 1953 40th 1954 41st 1955 42nd 1956 43rd 1957 44th Salon de lAutomobile 3 October 195724 French automobile makers exhibited,1958 45th 1959 46th 1960 47th 1961 48th Salon de lAutomobile 5 October 19619 French automobile makers exhibited. 1962 49th Salon This was the first year the show was held at the Porte de Versailles on the outskirts of Paris,1963 50th 1964 51st 1965 52nd Salon de lAutomobile October 19659 French automobile makers exhibited
25.
Flins Renault Factory
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The Flins Renault Factory is a car factory in France, straddling the towns of Flins and Aubergenville in Yvelines, approximately 40 km from Paris. It is the largest Renault Group factory in mainland France and it was designed by the architect Bernard Zehrfuss and opened in 1952. It is 237 hectares in extent, of which 67 are occupied by covered buildings, between 1952 and the summer break of July 2009 the plant had assembled 16,850,000 vehicles. Creating Flins plant was part of a plan for Renault with the aim of removing from the Billancourt plant the most repetitive and stressful tasks. The number of employees increased over the years, passing from 2,100 in 1953 to 10,600 in 1962, during the 1968 protests in France incidents were recorded around the factory. In November 2009 it was confirmed that Flins would build the companys first electric powered volume model, considerable capacity is also being created for the manufacture and assembly of batteries in connection with this project. As of 2013 the plant produces the fourth and third generation Renault Clio, in 2013, it assembled 129,884 units. The entry incorporates text translated from the corresponding French Wikipedia entry as at 2010-03-27
26.
Pierre Lefaucheux
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Pierre-André Lefaucheux was a leading French industrialist and recipient of the Order of Liberation, awarded to heroes of Frances Liberation during World War II. Lefaucheux was the subject of the 2009 biography, Patron de Renault, born at Triel-sur-Seine, and descended from the French inventor Casimir Lefaucheux, Lefaucheux was second of the four children of Pierre André Lefaucheux and Madeleine Dulac. He volunteered for service in September 1917, his record of military achievement in the First World War being crowned with his receipt of the Croix de Guerre. Returning to civilian life, he enrolled at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, in parallel, he began in 1929 a doctoral thesis which he would submit in 1935 on the subject of “The peseta and the Spanish economy”. War would again transform Lefaucheuxs life, called up in 1939, he was appointed Director for the Le Mans ammunition factory in January 1940. The trade union agreement stabilized industrial relations for 20 years, including the avoidance of strikes and lockouts, on Friday,11 February 1955, Lefaucheux was scheduled to give a presentation to Catholic students in Strasbourg. Despite inclement icy weather, Lefaucheux, an avid motorist, decided at the last minute to travel by car — placing his suitcase not in the trunk, but on the rear seat of his Renault Frégate. Approaching Saint-Dizier from the West, on the Route Nationale 4, he encountered a detour, the road surface was covered with black ice, the car spun, rolled over and landed on its side in a field. Though the Frégates passenger cell was largely intact, Lafaucheuxs unsecured suitcase on the seat had struck him in the neck. In his pocket, he carried a train ticket for the trip, see, The Renault Frégate in which Lefaucheux died. He was succeeded at Renault by the companys vice-president, Pierre Dreyfus, a monument in Lefaucheuxs memory was erected at the N4 near Saint-Dizier. The Renault Flins factory was renamed in his honor, as well as boulevards in Paris and he is buried at Saint-Quentin-des-Prés, in the Oise Department. Lefaucheux had been arrested by the Gestapo during World War II and was rescued by Marie-Hélène Postel-Vinay whom he subsequently married, Pierre Lefaucheux and Marie-Hélène Lefaucheux had no children, as she had suffered an accident in her youth that prevented her from having children. Together, Pierre and Marie-Hélène Lefaucheux became prominent members of the Resistance and she was one of the fifteen founding members of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women. Her role in the Liberation of France was paraphrased in the 1966 Film Is Paris Burning, Marie-Hélène Lefaucheux died in the 1964 New Orleans crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 304. Pierre Lefaucheux, compagnon de la Libération The entry incorporates text translated from the corresponding French Wikipedia entry as at 2008-10-24
27.
Door handle
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A door handle is an attached object or mechanism used to manually open or close a door. In the United States, a door handle generally refers to any fixed or lever-operated door latch device, the term door knob or doorknob tends to refer to round operating mechanisms. The traditional door knob has a bolt or spindle running through it that sits just above a cylinder, turning the knob pulls the cylinder in the direction of the turn. The end of the cylinder is the bolt, which protrudes into a space carved out of the door frame. A spring or similar mechanism causes the latch to return to its state whenever the knob is not being turned. Escutcheon plates are the covers, usually circular, through which keys pass to enter the lock body. If the door handles have a square or rectangular plate on which the handle is mounted this is called the backplate, the backplate can be plain, pierced for keyholes, or pierced and fitted with turn knobs and releases. The plate on the front edge of the lock where the latch bolt protrudes is called the faceplate, door handles can be and have been made out of a wide variety of materials. Just a few examples include brass, white porcelain, brown mineral, cut glass, wood, the most common and basic type of door handle is the Lever latch door handle on a backplate found in residential houses and commercial and public buildings. Doors fitted with this handle has a latch which is used to keep the door shut, the door handle features only a lever handle which operates this latch. When the handle is pushed down, the spindle rotates which “passes through the door and this type of door handle is normally found on doors leading into the living and dining rooms as they don’t require any type of locking. The lever latch handle is also easy to install and use and is available in a variety of styles and finishes, the Lever lock door handle on a backplate is another type of door handle which operates similarly to the lever latch door handle. This type of handle on a backplate consists of a lever and just below it and this allows a key to be inserted into the door to control a mortice sash lock. Just the like the lever latch, the door can be opened and shut by pushing the handle and this locking mechanism is why this type of door handle is used for front and back doors of residential housing. The Lever Bathroom is typically used on doors as they can be locked easily from the inside and in. Locking the door from the inside is accomplished by turning the snib while a coin or something similar is required to open the lock from the outside and this lock is fitted with a mortice sash with the attached to a 5mm spindle which passes through the door. The Lever Privacy is similar to the Lever Bathroom in that it is locked by turning a snib on the inside, unlike the Level Bathroom, there is no mortice sash, the locking is achieved by jamming the lever in a closed position. The distance from the edge of the door to the center of the handle is called the backset, the location of the door handle along the vertical axis on the door may vary between 34 to 48 inches
28.
Mid-size car
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A mid-size car is the North American/Australian standard for an automobile with a size equal to or greater than that of a compact. In Europe mid-sizers are referred to as D-segment or large family cars, the automobile that defined this size in the United States was the Rambler Six that was introduced in 1956, although it was called compact car at that time. The mid-size class then grew out of the compacts of the early-1960s, for example, the Ford Fairlane was referred to at its introduction in 1962 as a compact intermediate because it was barely bigger than its close relative, the Falcon. General Motors first entries in the class, such as the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and Buick Special were not mechanically related to the compact Chevrolet Corvair, at that time vehicle classes were defined more by their wheelbase than interior passenger space and cargo capacity. The class began to rapidly, and for the next ten years each expansion in size in the full-size field was followed by a proportionate growth in the mid-size models. By the mid-1960s, they were as big as the cars of the mid-1950s. By the mid-1970s, they were nearly as big as the cars of the mid-1960s. During the 1970s, the class was generally defined as vehicles with wheelbases between 112 inches and 118 inches. A turning point occurred in the late 1970s, when rising costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink. Automakers moved previously full-size nameplates to smaller platforms, new official size designations in the U. S. were introduced by the EPA, which defined market segments by passenger and cargo space. Formerly mid-sized cars that were built on the platform, like the AMC Matador sedan, had a combined passenger and cargo volume of 130 cubic feet. The situation was complicated when General Motors began to downsize its models about two years before everybody else, in 1978, the Chevrolet Malibu nameplate had been redesigned on a 108-inch wheelbase, while the Ford Granada moved to the 105-inch wheelbase of the Ford Fairmonts Fox platform in 1981. Both competed with the Chrysler standard and extended K-cars, often classified as compact, former mid-size platforms such as the Plymouth Satellite would be rebranded as full-size, rebodied, or dropped in the face of the downsized Chevrolet Caprice. Some were subsequently replaced by used to be large compacts. The Granada would be badged with the LTD moniker before being replaced by the class-defining Ford Taurus, similarly, import models such as the Honda Accord and Toyota Camry that had been classified by the EPA as compact in 1985 grew to the mid-size class by the 1990s. The Accord later grew even larger, its eighth North American sedan version was classified by the EPA as a full-size car, the current ninth generation North American sedan was slightly smaller than its immediate predecessor, putting it once again in the mid-size class. Mid-size vehicles today usually have wheelbases between 105 inches and 110 inches, another widely used definition is that of the EPA, which classifies cars between 110 cubic feet and 119 cubic feet of interior volume as mid-size. Mid-size cars are the most popular category of cars sold in the United States, in Japan, the term mid-size car probably does not have the intermediate sense that it does in other markets
29.
Fluid coupling
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This article is about hydrodynamic fluid couplings, for hydroviscous fluid couplings see Viscous coupling unit. A fluid coupling or hydraulic coupling is a device used to transmit rotating mechanical power. It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch and it also has widespread application in marine and industrial machine drives, where variable speed operation and controlled start-up without shock loading of the power transmission system is essential. The fluid coupling originates from the work of Dr. Hermann Föttinger and his patents from 1905 covered both fluid couplings and torque converters. During 1930 The Daimler Company of Coventry, England began to introduce a system using a fluid coupling and Wilson self-changing gearbox for buses. By 1933 the system was used in all new Daimler Lanchester and it was soon extended to Daimlers military vehicles. These couplings are described as constructed under Vulcan-Sinclair and Daimler patents, in 1939 General Motors Corporation introduced Hydramatic drive, the first fully automatic automotive transmission system installed in a mass-produced automobile. The Hydramatic employed a fluid coupling, the impellors motion imparts both outwards linear and rotational motion to the fluid. The hydraulic fluid is directed by the pump whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the output turbine, an important characteristic of a fluid coupling is its stall speed. The stall speed is defined as the highest speed at which the pump can turn when the turbine is locked. Under stall conditions all of the power would be dissipated in the fluid coupling as heat. A modification to the fluid coupling is the step-circuit coupling which was formerly manufactured as the STC coupling by the Fluidrive Engineering Company. The STC coupling contains a reservoir to which some, but not all and this reduces the drag on the input shaft, resulting in reduced fuel consumption when idling and a reduction in the vehicles tendency to creep. When the output shaft begins to rotate, the oil is out of the reservoir by centrifugal force. A fluid coupling cannot develop output torque when the input and output angular velocities are identical, hence a fluid coupling cannot achieve 100 percent power transmission efficiency. Due to slippage that will occur in any fluid coupling under load, some power will always be lost in fluid friction and turbulence, like other fluid dynamical devices, its efficiency tends to increase gradually with increasing scale, as measured by the Reynolds number. As a fluid coupling operates kinetically, low viscosity fluids are preferred, generally speaking, multi-grade motor oils or automatic transmission fluids are used. Increasing density of the fluid increases the amount of torque that can be transmitted at a given input speed, however, hydraulic fluids, much like other fluids, are subject to changes in viscosity with temperature change
30.
Grille (car)
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In automotive engineering, a grille covers an opening in the body of a vehicle to allow air to enter. Most vehicles feature a grille at the front of the vehicle to protect the radiator, merriam-Webster describes grilles as a grating forming a barrier or screen, especially, an ornamental one at the front end of an automobile. Other common grille locations include below the front bumper, in front of the wheels, in the cowl for cabin ventilation, the front fascia of a motor vehicle has an important role in attracting buyers. The principal function of the grille is to admit cooling air to the cars radiator, however, the look of the vehicle matters a great deal more than whether the design features actually serve any function. As one of the visual components on the front of vehicles. Currently, big grilles are primarily cosmetic, the grille is often a distinctive styling element, and many marques use it as their primary brand identifier. For example, Jeep has trademarked its o seven-bar grille style, Rolls-Royce is known for arranging its grille bars by hand to ensure that they appear perfectly vertical. The unusual 1971 Plymouth Barracuda grille is known as a cheesegrater, fords three-bar grille, introduced on the 2006 Fusion, has become distinctive as well. Porsche, a manufacturer of air-cooled cars, continues to minimize the prominence of a grille on the marques modern water-cooled vehicles in keeping with that heritage. The contrary styling pattern also occurs, sometimes there is a sort of fashion trend in grille bars. For example, in the years after World War II. A billet grille is a part that is used to enhance the style or function of the original OEM grille. They are generally made from billet, solid bar stock aircraft-grade aluminum, customizers would alter the grille as a matter of course in personalizing their car, taking the grille bar from another make, for example. Even sheet metal with patterned holes for ventilation grating sold to homeowners for repair has been filling the grille opening of custom cars. Bolt over style In this installation method, the billet grille simply bolts over the existing OEM plastic grille and this method does not require drilling or cutting of the OEM grille shell. Hidden bolts, brackets and clamps are used for simple installation. The downside is it may not look as clean as the replacement style, bolt overs should take no more than 30 minutes to install. Replacement style The OEM grille must first be removed and then the replacement billet grille must be mounted in place of the OEM grille, drilling and sometimes cutting is required for this method
31.
Luxury vehicle
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Luxury vehicle is a marketing term for a vehicle that provides luxury — pleasant or desirable features beyond strict necessity — at increased expense. The term is also broad, highly variable and relative and it is a perceptual, conditional and subjective attribute that may be comprehended differently by different people, What is a luxury car to some. Therefore, automakers differentiate among their product lines in collusion with the car-buying public, while a high price is the most frequent factor, it is styling, engineering, and even public opinion which cars had the highest and lowest status associated with them. Every era in history has had a group of car marques and models that have been expensive to purchase, due to their alleged superiority of their design. Aimed at wealthy buyers, such automobiles might be generically termed luxury cars and this term is also used for unique vehicles produced during an era when luxury was individualistic consideration, and coachwork could be tailored to an owner like a bespoke suit. Although there is literature about specific marques, there is a lack of systematic. Luxury vehicle makers may either be stand-alone companies in their own right, such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz, badge engineering is often used for cost savings, for example, the Lincoln vehicles that are based on Ford platforms or Acura models derived from Honda. Though widely used, the term luxury is broad and highly variable and it is a perceptual, conditional and subjective attribute and may be understood differently by different people, What is a luxury car to some. According to the European Commission, the luxury segment is classified as F-segment. However, the boundaries between the segments are increasingly becoming blurred and diluted as features once exclusive to luxury vehicles become standard equipment on even small cars. ACRISS is a system used by many car rental companies in the US for classifying vehicles. The system includes Luxury and Premium categories, Australia, In Australia, for taxation purposes a luxury car is defined as a passenger car whose value exceeds a certain threshold. France, In France the term voiture de luxe is used, Germany, In Germany the term Upper class is used. Russia, Russian markets use the term representative class vehicle, the classification varies, for instance Consumer Guide Automotive in the U. S. The premium compact segment is targeted at a market of consumers who found the existing entry-level luxury offerings to be too expensive. By offering a smaller, lighter, more fuel-efficient, and less expensive vehicle, premium compacts introduces younger buyers to the luxury marque, in hopes of retaining the coveted customer loyalty. This includes the Acura CSX, Audi A3, Buick Verano, BMW2 Series, BMW i3, Cadillac ELR, Chrysler 200, Lexus CT, Mercedes-Benz CLA-Class, Mercedes-Benz B-Class, Saab 9-2X, and the Volvo V40. Premium compacts compete with well-equipped midsize cars, and with options they overlap much with compact executive cars, Premium compacts may share components with mass market cars from the marques parent company, and/or have less sophisticated platforms compared to upmarket vehicles in the lineup
32.
Simca Ariane
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The Simca Ariane was a large saloon car launched in April 1957 by the French automaker Simca. It was manufactured in the factory at Poissy until 1963. The plant at Poissy had been built by Ford France between 1937 and 1940, but after the war the economic direction of France was uncertain. Ford had equipped the plant to produce the V8 engined Ford Vedette, in addition, the Poissy plant experienced above average levels of industrial unrest. The Suez Crisis of October 1956 was a catalyst that undermined the position of the V8 Simcas, however, due to the fuel shortages, the new car was badged as the Simca Ariane and was soon available in several versions. Presented in April 1957, the Ariane filled the gap between Aronde and Vedette, in October of the same year, the Ariane 8 was presented - a version powered by the same Aquillon 2351 cc V-eight-cylinder unit that powered the Vedette. The Ariane 8 effectively replaced the former Simca Trianon, which was a bottom-of-the-range Vedette, the Ariane 8 would be discontinued along with the companys other V8 powered models in 1961, however. All the Arianes also received restyled tail light clusters at this point which resembled those used on the more flamboyantly styled. Further upgrades to the trim were implemented for 1961. There followed yet another new name, for the two years of its life the Ariane was branded as the Simca Miramas. The Ariane was manufactured until 1963, with 166,363 produced, towards the end, production slowed strikingly. 33,733 Arianes were produced in 1961, which slumped to just 14,284 during 1962, by this time attention at the companys Poissy plant had switched to the new Simca 1000. The most direct replacement for the Simca Ariane/Miramas would be the Simca 1300/1500, the Ariane Miramas, were made in Argentina by Metalmecánica. 507 units built until 1967 in two versions, Std and Lujo
33.
Louis Renault (industrialist)
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Louis Renault was a French industrialist, one of the founders of Renault and a pioneer of the automobile industry. Renault built one of Frances largest automobile manufacturing concerns, which bears his name to this day, during World War I his factories contributed massively to the war effort notably so by the creation and manufacture of the first effective tank, the Renault FT tank. Accused of collaborating with the Germans during World War II, he died while awaiting trial in liberated France toward the end of 1944 under uncertain circumstances and his company was seized and nationalized by the provisional government of France although he died before he could be tried. His factories were the only ones permanently expropriated by the French government, the fourth of six children born into the bourgeois Parisian family of Alfred and Berthe Renault, Louis Renault attended Lycée Condorcet. Renault called his car the Voiturette, on 24 December 1898, he won a bet with his friends that his invention with an innovative crankshaft could beat a car with a bicycle-like chain drive up the slope of Rue Lepic in Montmartre. As well as winning the bet, Renault received 13 definite orders for the vehicle, seeing the commercial potential, he teamed up with his two older brothers, Marcel and Fernand, who had business experience from working in their fathers button and textiles firm. They formed the Renault Frères company on 25 February 1899, initially, business and administration was handled entirely by the elder brothers, with Louis dedicating himself to design and manufacturing. Marcel was killed in the 1903 Paris-Madrid motor race, and in 1908, on 26 September 1918 Renault, then aged 40, married the 21-year-old Christiane Boullaire, sister of French painter Jacques Boullaire. The Chateau fronted on more than 3 km of the Seine, at Renaults request and expense, the small town hall of Herqueville was moved. Renaults personnel entered the residence via an underground tunnel, locations of Chateau Herqueville, 49°14′31. 66″N 1°15′24. Identical methods were used by Andre Citroen in his own factory. Over 600 French 75mm guns were destroyed by explosions in 1915. Louis Renault was decorated with the Grand Cross of the Légion dhonneur after the war for the contribution of his factories to the war effort. During the interwar period his right-wing opinions became well known, leading to cases of labour unrest with proletarian avant-garde workers at the Boulogne Billancourt plant. He pleaded for a union between European nations. In 1938, Renault visited Adolf Hitler, and by 1939 he had become an important supplier for the French army, at the time Hitlers Wehrmacht invaded France in 1940, Louis Renault was in the U. S. sent by his government to ask for tanks. He returned to find the Franco-German armistice in place and he put his factories at the service of Vichy France, which meant that he was also assisting the Nazis. Over a period of four years, Renault manufactured 34,232 vehicles for the Germans, Renault argued that by continuing operations he had saved thousands of workers from being transported to Germany
34.
Peugeot 403
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The Peugeot 403 is a car produced by French automobile manufacturer Peugeot between May 1955 and October 1966. A total of 1,214,121 of all types, including models, were produced. The 403 made its debut in saloon body style on 20 April 1955 at the Trocadéro Palace in Paris. When it was first shown, and until after 1958, the edge of cars nose carried an angular. That was removed for 1959, due to safety concerns, subsequently the semaphore-style trafficators on the C-pillars were replaced with flashing indicators within the light cluster. The front lights were modified to conform to new standards and in 1957 parallel windscreen wipers were substituted for the original cross hands ones featured at launch, although the car was subject to various improvements during the production run, these were mostly very minor in nature. Styled by Pininfarina, the 403 featured ponton, three-box styling incorporating, except on the most basic models, unusual in Europe at the time, but appreciated by customers, was the way that the rear doors opened wide - to a full 90 degrees. The 403 came with a version of the Peugeot 203s 1290 cc petrol engine. An unusual feature at the time was the thermostatically controlled engine fan which cut out when the temperature fell to 75°C. Claimed advantages included an improvement in fuel consumption of between 5% and 10% according to speed and the avoidance, under many conditions, of fan noise. A diesel powered Peugeot 403 estate was introduced in the Autumn of 1958, car tax in France was based on engine size, and the smaller engined 403 fell within the 7CV taxation class rather than the 8CV of the bigger version. The 403 came with a manual 4-speed all-synchromesh transmission driving the rear wheels, the gear change lever stuck out from the right side of the steering column. For the Paris Motor Show in October 1957 the manufacture offered, at extra cost, the wheelbase was lengthened by 24 cm for the five door Peugeot 403 Familiale and Commerciale estate versions. The Familiale provided a third row of seats and was described as a 7/8 seater while the Commerciale offered a conventional seat configuration for an estate car. The lengthened 403 estate had a rear axle fitted to an aluminum differential case. It came with a column change gearbox and, in its Familiale guise. Sunroof and steel belted radial tires were standard, reliability was considered excellent for the time. A two-door cabriolet version of the car was offered, with a luxurious interior featuring high quality leather upholstery
35.
Charles de Gaulle
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Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
36.
American Motors
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American Motors Corporation was an American automobile company formed by the 1954 merger of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and Hudson Motor Car Company. At the time, it was the largest corporate merger in U. S. history, after periods of intermittent but unsustained success, Renault acquired a major interest in AMC in 1979 — and the company was ultimately acquired by Chrysler. At its 1987 demise, The New York Times said AMC was never a company with the power or the cost structure to compete confidently at home or abroad. Within a year, George W. Romney, future governor of Michigan, took over, reorganizing the company, by the end of 1957 the legacy Nash and Hudson brands were completely phased out. The company struggled at first, but Rambler sales took off, a Rambler won the 1959 Mobil Economy Run and by 1960, was the third most popular brand of automobile in the United States, behind Ford and Chevrolet. After two model years of only producing compact cars, AMC focused back to larger and more cars like the Ambassador line from the perceived negative of the Ramblers economy car image. While prices and costs were cut, new and more sporty automobiles were introduced, AMC purchased Kaisers Jeep utility vehicle operations in 1970 to complement its existing passenger car business. Beginning in the early 1970s, the company moved towards all-new compact car based on the Hornet, including the Hornet itself. Other new models in the 1970s included the Matador and Pacer, from 1980, AMC partnered with Frances Renault to help finance their manufacturing operations, obtain much-needed capital, and source subcompact vehicles. By 1983 Renault had a controlling interest in AMC, in the 1983 model year, the AMC brand focused entirely on AWD autos, the company stopped producing two wheel drive cars. AMC facilities were used to produce Renault Alliance and Encore compact and subcompact cars, in 1985 Chrysler entered an agreement with AMC to produce Dodge Diplomats and Plymouth Furys as well as Dodge Omnis and Plymouth Horizons in AMCs Kenosha, Wisconsin plant. At the time, AMC had excess manufacturing capacity, thus contract manufacturing for Chrysler made sense, Chrysler made a public offer to purchase all the remaining outstanding shares of AMC stock on the NYSE. Renault left the US market completely as a brand in 1987, the Renault Medallion was sold through the newly formed Jeep Eagle Division of Chrysler as an Eagle, not a Renault. AMCs badge would be used on the Eagle Sports Wagon through the 1988 model year, the Jeep/Eagle division of Chrysler Corporation was formed from the AMC Jeep Renault dealer network. The Jeep and Eagle vehicles were marketed primarily by former AMC dealers, ultimately, the Eagle Brand of car would be phased out like Chryslers DeSoto, Plymouth, and Imperial by 1998. In January 1954, Nash-Kelvinator Corporation began acquisition of the Hudson Motor Car Company, the new corporation would be called American Motors Corporation. The new company retained Hudson CEO A. E. Barit as a consultant, Nashs George W. Mason became President and CEO. The frantic 1953–54 Ford/GM price war had a impact on the remaining independent automakers
37.
Rambler Classic
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The Rambler Classic is an intermediate sized automobile that was built and sold by American Motors Corporation from the 1961 to 1966 model years. The Classic took the place of the Rambler Six and Rambler Rebel V-8 names, Motor Trend magazine selected AMCs Classic line as Car of the Year award for 1963. Throughout its life in the AMC model line-up, the Classic was the seller for the independent automaker. The Rambler was the focus of AMCs management strategy under the leadership of George W. Romney, American Motors designed and built some of the most fuel-efficient, best-styled and well-made cars of the 1950s and 1960s. Their compact cars helped AMC to achieve sales and corporate profit successes, in 1961, the Rambler marque ranked in third place among domestic automobile sales. Ramblers were available in two sizes and built on different automobile platforms, American Motors Edmund E. Anderson designed the new 108-inch wheelbase Ramblers that looked new and fresh, but were in fact inexpensive reskinned models. The 1961 Classic featured a new front end with a one-piece, rectangular grille, new fenders, hood, sculptured door panels. Models included the Deluxe, the Super, and the Custom, the suggested retail price for the basic Deluxe four-door sedan was US$2,098 and was only $339 more for a station wagon. In 1961, the Classic was available in either an I6 -195.6 cu in - or with a V8 -250 cu in - engine. A lighter by 80 pounds aluminum block version of the OHV I6 engine, sometimes referred to as the 196, was offered as an option on Deluxe and Super models. The die cast block features iron sleeves or cylinder liners with a cast iron cylinder head. For the 1962 model year, the Super models were dropped and replaced by a 400 model. Also for 1962, AMCs flagship Ambassador models were shortened to the same 108-inch wheelbase as the Classics at the time as the V8 engine was no longer available in the Classic models. This meant the Ambassador models were the models with V8s in the AMC lineup. The two-door sedan bodystyle Rambler Classic was a one year offering for 1962. The front grille was modified for 1962, but the free-standing Rambler lettering in the center remained. The revised rear end received new round tail lamps, while the tailfins were shaved off. Rambler was one of the last cars to incorporate the tail fin design and became one of the first to do away with them, the back door upper window points were also rounded off for 1962
38.
Knock-down kit
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A knock-down kit is a kit containing the parts needed to assemble a product. The parts are manufactured in one country or region, then exported to another country or region for final assembly. Variant names include knockdown kit, knocked-down kit, or simply knockdown, a common form of knock-down is a complete knock-down, which is a complete kit needed to assemble a product. It is also a method of supplying parts to a market, particularly in shipping to foreign nations, CKD is a common practice in the automotive, bus, heavy truck and rail vehicle industries, as well as electronics, furniture and other products. An incompletely disassembled kit is known as SKD for semi-knocked-down, the degree of knock-down depends on the desires and technical abilities of the receiving organization, or on government import regulations. Developing nations may pursue trade and economic policies that call for import substitution or local content regulations, companies with CKD operations help the country substitute the finished products it imports with locally assembled substitutes. The plants may also be effective for low-volume production, the CKD concept allows firms in developing markets to gain expertise in a particular industry. At the same time, the CKD kit exporting company gains new markets that would otherwise be closed, in the automotive industry, the most basic form of a vehicle in KD kit lacks the wheels, internal combustion engine, transmission, and battery. They are either supplied as parts for assembly, or obtained from third parties, the term SKD for semi-knocked-down refers to a kit with a complete, welded car body, usually coated or already painted. At some point, the body could be pressed, welded, and painted locally. During World War II, a number of U. S. Due to male mobilization, sometimes a female workforce was employed, CKD military vehicles could be stored for shipment in one-vehicle-per-crate form, or as several vehicles divided in two or more crates. Vehicles shipped to certain countries could be lacking some items, such as cabs, beds or tires, Mahindra & Mahindra Limited in India began its business in 1947 with assembling CKD Jeeps. Mahindra expanded their operations to include manufacture of Jeep vehicles with a high level of local content under license from Kaiser Jeep Corporation. In the 1950s and 60s Lotus Cars sold its Lotus Seven car in CKD form to avoid the UK Purchase tax that applied to sales of fully assembled vehicles. By 1959, and with the introduction of the Mini, the products of BMC were still either imported or assembled from CKD kits in international markets. In 1961, Renault began negotiations for a first partnership agreement with AMC for assembly of Rambler automobiles in Europe, beginning in 1962, and continuing until 1967, AMC also sold CKD kits of its passenger cars to Renault. They were assembled in Renaults factory in Haren, Belgium and sold through its dealers in Algeria, Austria, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, the deal allowed AMC to sell its cars in new markets without having to make a major Foreign Direct Investment
39.
Vilvoorde Renault Factory
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It was the manufacturers first plant to be located outside France. Automobile production at Vilvoorde came to an end in 1997, with the loss of approximately 3,500 jobs. Production began in 1931, the plant’s first year of operation, the models in question were the manufacturers Monaquatre and Primaquatre. Production of the version of the Juvaquatre, badged as the Renault Dauphinoise. In the meantime a second model, the new rear engine Renault Dauphine was added to the lines. By 1960, Vilvoorde had become much more than an assembly operation, producing its own axle components, exhaust systems. At the start of the 1960s the old Dauphinoise was finally out of production. In 1962, Renault installed a third line which was used to assemble the Rambler-Renault Classic. This was one of several collaborations between Renault and American Motors during the 1960s and 1970s, in 1967, the Classic was replaced at the Vilvoorde plant with the Rambler-Renault Rebel. In volume terms, however, the Renault designed models outnumbered the Rambler designs, with production in the late 1960s. By that time, the Dauphine had been out of production. In the early 1970s, Vilvoorde ended production of Ramblers, their place in the factory being taken over by the Renault R12, the 1973 oil crisis triggered large fuel price rises which gave Renault, with a range of relatively small and economical cars, an enormous competitive advantage. The Renault 12 remained in production until 1976, to be replaced in the Belgian assembled range by the Renault 14, during the 1980s output was dominated by smaller models, including the Renault 5 Turbo. A mid-sized model returned to Vilvoorde in 1986 with the arrival of the Renault 21, other models produced at Renault’s Belgian plant in the 1990s included the small Clio and the compact Mégane models. The ending of auto-assembly at Vilvoorde in 1997 caused the loss of around 3,500 jobs, along with strikes, street protests, adverse publicity included a 1999 film by Jan Bucquoy entitled “Fermeture de lusine Renault à Vilvoorde”. In this fictional work Renault chairman Louis Schweitzer, who had taken a role in the plant closure, is kidnapped for purposes of blackmail. In real life Schweitzer remained unkidnapped and at the helm of Renault till 2005, the action led to a law being enacted in 1998 known as the loi Renault, dealing with necessary consultation procedures on mass redundancies. As a consequence, the term Procédure Renault is now in common usage by the Belgian media as a synonym for redundancy consultation or similar terms, following the high-profile end to auto-production, the plant was modernised and is again functioning, but only for the production of car-components
40.
Haren, Belgium
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Haren is an old municipality of Brussels in Belgium, that was merged into the municipality of the City of Brussels in 1921. It is an part of the municipality of the city and is situated at the north-eastern edge of the Brussels Capital Region. Dutch, French Haren has three stations, Buda on line 25 between Brussels and Antwerp, Haren on line 26 between Halle and Vilvoorde, and Haren Sud/Zuid on the line 36 Brussels–Leuven. The marshalling yard of the National Railway Company of Belgium, sometimes referred to as Schaarbeek Vorming, is located on the territory of Haren municipality. Haren is host to the headquarters of NATO, EUROCONTROL, as well as those of large international companies. The first Brussels airport was located in Haren, between 1914 and the early 1950s. The site, which was used by the Belgian Air Force, is being cleared for the construction of the new NATO HQ. The current Brussels Airport site is located several kilometres to the east, between 1932 and 1997 Haren was the location of a Renault automobile factory, which in 1969, for the first time, produced more than 100,000 cars in a single year. At that time it was concentrating on the assembly of Renault 4 and Renault 6 models, mostly for sale in Benelux, Germany, Renault also assembled AMCs Rambler automobiles there for sale in European markets
41.
Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
42.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
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Benelux
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The Benelux Union is a politico-economic union of three neighbouring states in western Europe, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. It is now used generally to refer to the geographic, economic. In 1951, these countries joined West Germany, France, and Italy to form the European Coal and Steel Community, the Benelux General Secretariat is located in Brussels. It is the central pillar of the Benelux Union. It handles the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the Council of Economic Union, a Benelux Parliament was created in 1955. This parliamentary assembly is composed of 21 members of the Dutch parliament,21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, in 1944, exiled representatives of the three countries signed the London Customs Convention, the treaty that established the Benelux Customs Union. Ratified in 1947, the treaty was in force from 1948 until it was superseded by the Benelux Economic Union, under the Treaty the Union implies the co-operation of economic, financial and social policies. The Benelux Union involves an intergovernmental co-operation and they only become legally valid after having been incorporated into national law, with the exception of Belgium. The Belgian court of cassation decided in 1971 that any self-executing treaties have priority over laws by the Belgian parliament, the Treaty establishing the Benelux Union has provided the Committee of Ministers with the following legal instruments, decisions, conventions, recommendations and directives. The Committee of Ministers can promulgate decisions in the fields for which it has competence - those fields are set down in the Union Treaty or the additional conventions. When the Committee of Ministers adopts a decision, it immediately becomes binding on the three governments, for a decision to be also applicable to the citizen, it must be transposed into national law. The Union Treaty is not exhaustive, for this reason, Article 19 of the Treaty provides that the Committee of Ministers may conclude additional conventions. These therefore constitute extensions of the Union Treaty and they are submitted to the national parliaments for approval in keeping with the ratification procedure applied in each of the Member States. Thus there are a number of Benelux conventions in a wide range of subject matters. In 1965, the treaty establishing a Benelux Court of Justice was signed and it entered into force in 1974. The Court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three States, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of legal rules. This international judicial institution is located in Brussels, the Benelux is particularly active in the field of intellectual property. The three countries established a Benelux Trademarks Office and a Benelux Designs Office, both situated in The Hague, in 2005, they concluded a treaty establishing a Benelux Organization for Intellectual Property which replaced both offices upon its entry into force on 1 September 2006
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Convertible
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
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