1.
Ticker symbol
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A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
2.
Tokyo Stock Exchange
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The Tokyo Stock Exchange, which is called Tōshō or TSE/TYO for short, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. It is the fourth largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization of its listed companies. It had 2,292 listed companies with a market capitalization of US$4.09 trillion as of April 2015. In July 2012 a planned merger with the Osaka Securities Exchange was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission, the resulting entity, the Japan Exchange Group, was launched on January 1,2013. The TSE is incorporated as a kabushiki gaisha with nine directors, four auditors and its headquarters are located at 2-1 Nihonbashi-Kabutochō, Chūō, Tokyo, or Kabuto-chō, which is the largest financial district in Japan. Its operating hours are from 8,00 to 11,30 a. m. from April 24,2006, the afternoon trading session started at its usual time of 12,30 p. m. Stocks listed on the TSE are separated into the First Section for large companies, the Second Section for mid-sized companies, as of October 31,2010, there are 1,675 First Section companies,437 Second Section companies and 182 Mothers companies. Ninety-four domestic and 10 foreign securities companies participate in TSE trading, see, Members of the Tokyo Stock Exchange Other TSE-related institutions include, The exchanges press club, called the Kabuto Club, which meets on the third floor of the TSE building. Most Kabuto Club members are affiliated with the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Kyodo News, Jiji Press, or business television broadcasters such as Bloomberg LP, the Kabuto Club is generally busiest during April and May, when public companies release their annual accounts. On 15 June 2007, the TSE paid $303 million to acquire a 4. 99% stake in Singapore Exchange Ltd. The Tokyo Stock Exchange was established on May 15,1878, as the Tokyo Kabushiki Torihikijo under the direction of then-Finance Minister Okuma Shigenobu, trading began on June 1,1878. In 1943, the exchange was combined with ten other stock exchanges in major Japanese cities to form a single Japanese Stock Exchange, the combined exchange was shut down and reorganized shortly after the bombing of Nagasaki. The Tokyo Stock Exchange reopened under its current Japanese name on May 16,1949, a new facility, called TSE Arrows, opened on May 9,2000. In 2010, the TSE launched its Arrowhead trading facility, in 2001, the TSE restructured itself as a stock company, before this time, it was structured as an incorporated association with its members as shareholders. The interruption in trading was the worst in the history of the exchange, trading was suspended for four-and-a-half hours. Mizuho failed to catch the error, the Tokyo Stock Exchange initially blocked attempts to cancel the order, on 11 December, the TSE acknowledged that its system was at fault in the Mizuho trade. On 21 December, Takuo Tsurushima, chief executive of the TSE, and two other senior executives resigned over the Mizuho affair. On January 17,2006, the Nikkei 225 fell 2. 8%, its fastest drop in nine months, the Tokyo Stock Exchange closed early on January 18 due to the trade volume threatening to exceed the exchanges computer systems capacity of 4.5 million trades per day
3.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
4.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
5.
Microcontroller
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A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern terminology, it is a system on a chip or SoC, a microcontroller contains one or more CPUs along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also included on chip. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete chips. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems, some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a signal processor, with higher clock speeds. The first microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel 8008, however, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances. One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS1000, which became available in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems and it combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way into one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intels President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the companys history, most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had an erasable EPROM program memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light, often used for prototyping. The PROM was of type of memory as the EPROM. The erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz windows, making them more expensive than the OTP versions. The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory, other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types. Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under 0.25 USD in quantity in 2009, nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around certain processors. In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance, in 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors
6.
Power MOSFET
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A power MOSFET is a specific type of metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor designed to handle significant power levels. Compared to the other power semiconductor devices, for example an insulated-gate bipolar transistor or a thyristor, its advantages are high switching speed. It shares with the IGBT an isolated gate that makes it easy to drive and they can be subject to low gain, sometimes to degree that the gate voltage needs to be higher than the voltage under control. The design of power MOSFETs was made possible by the evolution of CMOS technology, the power MOSFET shares its operating principle with its low-power counterpart, the lateral MOSFET. The power MOSFET is the most widely used low-voltage switch and it can be found in most power supplies, DC to DC converters, and low voltage motor controllers. Several structures had been explored at the beginning of the 1980s, however, most of them have been abandoned in favour of the Vertical Diffused MOS structure. The diffusion in VDMOS refers to the process, the P wells are obtained by a diffusion process. Power MOSFETs have a different structure from the lateral MOSFET, as with most power devices, their structure is vertical, in a planar structure, the current and breakdown voltage ratings are both functions of the channel dimensions, resulting in inefficient use of the silicon estate. With a vertical structure, the rating of the transistor is a function of the doping and thickness of the N epitaxial layer. This makes it possible for the transistor to sustain both high blocking voltage and high current within a piece of silicon. It is worth noting that power MOSFETs with lateral structure exist and they are mainly used in high-end audio amplifiers. Their advantage is a behaviour in the saturated region than the vertical MOSFETs. Vertical MOSFETs are designed for switching applications, so they are used in On or Off states. When the power MOSFET is in the on-state, it exhibits a resistive behaviour between the drain and source terminals and it can be seen in figure 2 that this resistance is the sum of many elementary contributions, RS is the source resistance. It represents all resistances between the terminal of the package to the channel of the MOSFET, resistance of the wire bonds, of the source metallisation. It is inversely proportional to the width, and for a given die size. As the role of this layer is to sustain the blocking voltage, a high voltage MOSFET requires a thick, low-doped layer, whereas a low-voltage transistor only requires a thin layer with a higher doping level. As a result, Rn is the factor responsible for the resistance of high-voltage MOSFETs
7.
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
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The IGBT is a semiconductor device with four alternating layers that are controlled by a metal-oxide-semiconductor gate structure without regenerative action. Since it is designed to turn on and off rapidly, amplifiers that use it often synthesize complex waveforms with pulse-width modulation, the first-generation IGBTs of the 1980s and early 1990s were prone to failure through effects such as latchup and secondary breakdown. The current third-generation IGBTs are even better, with speed rivaling MOSFETs and this mode of operation was first proposed by Yamagami in his Japanese patent S47-21739, which was filed in 1968. This mode of operation was first experimentally reported in the four layer device by B. W. Scharf. This mode of operation was also discovered in vertical device in 1979 by B. Plummer filed a patent application for IGBT mode of operation in the four layer device in 1978, USP No.4199774 was issued in 1980 and B1 Re33209 was reissued in 1995 for the IGBT mode operation in the four layer device. Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley invented a device for which they filed a patent application in 1980. This patent has been called the seminal patent of the insulated gate bipolar transistor, the patent claimed no thyristor action occurs under any device operating conditions. This substantially means that the device exhibits non-latch-up IGBT operation over the device operation range. This additional p+ region creates a connection of a PNP bipolar junction transistor with the surface n-channel MOSFET. Practical devices capable of operating over a current range were first reported by Baliga et al. in 1982. A similar paper was submitted by J. P. Russel et al. to IEEE Electron Device Letter in 1982. However, it was demonstrated by Baliga and also by A. M. Goodman et al. in 1983 that the speed could be adjusted over a broad range by using electron irradiation. This was followed by demonstration of operation of the device at elevated temperatures by Baliga in 1985, complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action and the resultant non-latch-up IGBT operation for the entire device operation range was achieved by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984. The non-latch-up design concept was filed for US patents, to test the lack of latch-up, the prototype 1200V IGBTs were directly connected without any loads across a 600V constant voltage source and were switched on for 25 microseconds. The entire 600V was dropped across the device and a short circuit current flowed. The devices successfully withstood this severe condition and this was the first demonstration of so-called short-circuit-withstanding-capability in IGBTs. Non-latch-up IGBT operation was ensured, for the first time, for the device operation range
8.
Diode
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In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one direction, it has low resistance to the current in one direction, and high resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate and a heated cathode, semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874, the first semiconductor diodes, called cats whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other such as selenium and germanium are sometimes used. The most common function of a diode is to allow a current to pass in one direction. Thus, the diode can be viewed as a version of a check valve. However, diodes can have complicated behavior than this simple on–off action. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction. The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature, a semiconductor diodes current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform different functions. Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave, Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as shot-noise generators. Thermionic diodes and solid state diodes were developed separately, at approximately the time, in the early 1900s. Until the 1950s vacuum tube diodes were used frequently in radios because the early point-contact type semiconductor diodes were less stable. In 1873, Frederick Guthrie discovered the principle of operation of thermionic diodes. Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing a piece of white-hot metal close to it. The same did not apply to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating that the current flow was possible in one direction. Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the principle on February 13,1880, at the time, Edison was investigating why the filaments of his carbon-filament light bulbs nearly always burned out at the positive-connected end
9.
Application-specific integrated circuit
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An application-specific integrated circuit /ˈeɪsɪk/, is an integrated circuit customized for a particular use, rather than intended for general-purpose use. For example, a designed to run in a digital voice recorder or a high-efficiency Bitcoin miner is an ASIC. Application-specific standard products are intermediate between ASICs and industry standard integrated circuits like the 7400 or the 4000 series, as feature sizes have shrunk and design tools improved over the years, the maximum complexity possible in an ASIC has grown from 5,000 gates to over 100 million. Modern ASICs often include entire microprocessors, memory blocks including ROM, RAM, EEPROM, flash memory, such an ASIC is often termed a SoC. Designers of digital ASICs often use a hardware description language, such as Verilog or VHDL, for smaller designs or lower production volumes, FPGAs may be more cost effective than an ASIC design even in production. The non-recurring engineering cost of an ASIC can run into the millions of dollars, the initial ASICs used gate array technology. An early successful commercial application was the gate array circuitry found in the 8-bit ZX81 and ZX Spectrum low-end personal computers and these were used by Sinclair Research essentially as a low-cost I/O solution aimed at handling the computers graphics. Customization occurred by varying the metal interconnect mask, Gate arrays had complexities of up to a few thousand gates. Later versions became more generalized, with different base dies customised by both metal and polysilicon layers, some base dies include RAM elements. In the mid-1980s, a designer would choose an ASIC manufacturer, most designers ended up using factory-specific tools to complete the implementation of their designs. A solution to problem, which also yielded a much higher density device, was the implementation of standard cells. Standard-cell design is the utilization of these blocks to achieve very high gate density. Standard-cell design fits between Gate Array and Full Custom design in terms of both its non-recurring engineering and recurring component cost, by the late 1990s, logic synthesis tools became available. Such tools could compile HDL descriptions into a gate-level netlist, the design team constructs a description of an ASIC to achieve these goals using an HDL. This process is analogous to writing a program in a high-level language. This is usually called the RTL design, suitability for purpose is verified by functional verification. This may include such techniques as logic simulation, formal verification, emulation, each technique has advantages and disadvantages, and often several methods are used. Logic synthesis transforms the RTL design into a collection of lower-level constructs called standard cells
10.
System on a chip
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A system on a chip or system on chip is an integrated circuit that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic systems. It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single substrate, SoCs are very common in the mobile computing market because of their low power-consumption. A typical application is in the area of embedded systems, the contrast with a microcontroller, SoC integrates microcontroller with advanced peripherals like graphics processing unit, Wi-Fi module, or coprocessor. As long as we remember that the SoC does not necessarily contain built-in memory, in general, we can distinguish three types of SoC. SoC built around a microcontroller, SoC built around a microprocessor, a separate category may be Programmable SoC, part of elements is not permanently defined and can be programmable in a manner analogous to the FPGA or CPLD. When it is not feasible to construct a SoC for a particular application, in large volumes, SoC is believed to be more cost-effective than SiP since it increases the yield of the fabrication and because its packaging is simpler. Another option, as seen for example in cell phones, is package on package stacking during board assembly. The SoC includes processors and numerous digital peripherals, and comes in a ball grid package with lower and upper connections. The lower balls connect to the board and various peripherals, with the balls in a ring holding the memory buses used to access NAND flash. Memory packages could come from multiple vendors, DMA controllers route data directly between external interfaces and memory, bypassing the processor core and thereby increasing the data throughput of the SoC. A SoC consists of both the hardware, described above, and the controlling the microcontroller, microprocessor or DSP cores, peripherals. The design flow for a SoC aims to develop hardware and software in parallel. Most SoCs are developed from pre-qualified hardware blocks for the elements described above. Of particular importance are the protocol stacks that drive industry-standard interfaces like USB, the hardware blocks are put together using CAD tools, the software modules are integrated using a software-development environment. Once the architecture of the SoC has been defined, any new elements are written in an abstract language termed RTL which defines the circuit behaviour. These elements are connected together in the same RTL language to create the full SoC design, chips are verified for logical correctness before being sent to foundry. This process is called functional verification and it accounts for a significant portion of the time, with the growing complexity of chips, hardware verification languages like SystemVerilog, SystemC, e, and OpenVera are being used. Bugs found in the stage are reported to the designer
11.
NEC
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NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational provider of information technology services and products, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. NEC provides IT and network solutions to enterprises, communications services providers and to government agencies. The company was known as the Nippon Electric Company, Limited and its NEC Semiconductors business unit was one of the worldwide top 20 semiconductor sales leaders before merging with Renesas Electronics. NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group, kunihiko Iwadare and Takeshiro Maeda established Nippon Electric Limited Partnership on August 31,1898 by using facilities that they had bought from Miyoshi Electrical Manufacturing Company. Iwadare acted as the partner, Maeda handled company sales. Western Electric, which had an interest in the Japanese phone market, was represented by Walter Tenney Carleton, Carleton was also responsible for the renovation of the Miyoshi facilities. It was agreed that the partnership would be reorganized as a company when treaty would allow it. On July 17,1899, the treaty between Japan and the United States went into effect. Nippon Electric Company, Limited was organized the day with Western Electric Company to become the first Japanese joint-venture with foreign capital. Ernest Clement and Carleton were named as directors, Maeda and Mototeru Fujii were assigned to be auditors. Iwadare, Maeda and Carleton handled the overall management, the company started with the production, sales and maintenance of telephones and switches. NEC modernized the facilities with the construction of the Mita Plant in 1901 at Mita Shikokumachi. It was completed in December 1902, the Japanese Ministry of Communications adopted a new technology in 1903, the common battery switchboard supplied by NEC. The common battery switchboards powered the subscriber phone, eliminating the need for a permanent magnet generator in each subscribers phone, the switchboards were initially imported, but were manufactured locally by 1909. NEC started exporting telephone sets to China in 1904, in 1905, Iwadare visited Western Electric in the U. S. to see their management and production control. On his return to Japan he discontinued the system of sub-contracting and replaced it with a new system where managers. Inefficiency was also removed from the production process, the company paid higher salaries with incentives for efficiency. New accounting and cost controls were put in place, and time clocks installed, between 1899 and 1907 the number of telephone subscribers in Japan rose from 35,000 to 95,000
12.
Hitachi
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Hitachi, Ltd. is a Japanese multinational conglomerate company headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is the parent company of the Hitachi Group and forms part of the DKB Group of companies, Hitachi is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices. It is ranked 38th in the 2012 Fortune Global 500 and 129th in the 2012 Forbes Global 2000, Hitachi was founded in 1910 by electrical engineer Namihei Odaira in Ibaraki Prefecture. The companys first product was Japans first 5-horsepower induction motor, initially developed for use in copper mining, odairas company soon became the domestic leader in electric motors and electric power industry infrastructure. The company began as a venture of Fusanosuke Kuharas mining company in Hitachi. Odaira moved headquarters to Tokyo in 1918, long before that, he coined the company’s toponymic name by superimposing two kanji characters, hi meaning “sun” and tachi meaning “rise”. The young companys national aspirations were conveyed by its original brand mark, world War II and its aftermath devastated the company. Many of its factories were destroyed by Allied bombing raids, and after the war, founder Odaira was removed from the company. Nevertheless, as a result of three years of negotiations, Hitachi was permitted to all but 19 of its manufacturing plants. The cost of such a production shutdown, though, compounded by a labor strike in 1950. Only the Korean War saved the company from complete collapse, Hitachi and many other struggling Japanese industrial firms benefited from defense contracts offered by the American military. Meanwhile, Hitachi went public in 1949, Hitachi America, Ltd. was established in 1959. Hitachi Europe, Ltd. was established in 1982, in March 2011, Hitachi agreed to sell its hard disk drive subsidiary, HGST, to Western Digital for a combination of cash and shares worth US$4.3 billion. Due to concerns of a duopoly of WD and Seagate Technology by the EU Commission, the transaction was completed in March 2012. The talks subsequently broke down and were suspended, the joint venture began operations in February 2014. It is a high density information storage medium utilizing laser etched/readable Fused quartz, Hitachi is taking for 2016 an estimated ¥65 billion write-off in value of a SILEX technology laser uranium enrichment joint venture with General Electric. Hitachi Consulting is a management and technology consulting firm with headquarters in Dallas, Texas. Hitachi Data Systems is an owned subsidiary of Hitachi which provides hardware, software
13.
Mitsubishi
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The Mitsubishi Group is a group of autonomous Japanese multinational companies in a variety of industries. Its total revenue is about 1. 4% percent of Japans GDP and it is historically descended from the Mitsubishi zaibatsu, a unified company which existed from 1870 to 1947 and was disbanded during the occupation of Japan following World War II. The former constituents of the continue to share the Mitsubishi brand, trademark. The three main companies in the group are The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, Mitsubishi Corporation and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the Mitsubishi company was established as a shipping firm by Yatarō Iwasaki in 1870. In 1873, its name was changed to Mitsubishi Shokai, the name Mitsubishi consists of two parts, mitsu meaning three and hishi meaning water caltrop, and hence rhombus, which is reflected in the companys logo. It is also translated as three diamonds, Mitsubishi was established in 1870, two years after the Meiji Restoration, with shipping as its core business. Its diversification was mostly into related fields, the experience of overseas shipping led the firm to enter into a trading business. In 1881, the company bought into coal mining by acquiring the Takashima Mine, followed by Hashima Island in 1890 and they also diversified into shipbuilding, banking, insurance, warehousing, and trade. Later diversification carried the organization into such sectors as paper, steel, glass, electrical equipment, aircraft, oil, as Mitsubishi built a broadly based conglomerate, it played a central role in the modernization of Japanese industry. After moving to Japan, they designed the Mitsubishi 1MT, Mitsubishi B1M, Mitsubishi 1MF, the merchant fleet entered into a period of diversification that would eventually result in the creation of three entities, Mitsubishi Bank was founded in 1919. After its mergers with the Bank of Tokyo in 1996, and UFJ Holdings in 2004, Mitsubishi Atomic Industry, a nuclear power company. Mitsubishi Chemical, the largest Japan-based chemicals company Mitsubishi Power Systems, during the Second World War, Mitsubishi manufactured military aircraft under the direction of Dr. Jiro Horikoshi. The Mitsubishi A6M was a primary Japanese naval fighter in World War II and it was used by Imperial Japanese Navy pilots throughout the war, including in kamikaze attacks during the later stages. Allied pilots were astounded by its maneuverability, and it was successful in combat until the Allies devised tactics to utilize their advantage in armor. Mitsubishi made use of forced labor during this tenure, laborers included allied POWs, as well as Chinese citizens. In the post-war period, lawsuits and demands for compensations were presented against the Mitsubishi Corporation, on July 24,2015, the company agreed to formally apologize for this wartime labor, and compensated 3765 Chinese laborers who were conscripted to Mitsubishi Mining during the war. On July 19,2015, the company apologized for using American soldiers as slave laborers during World War II, Mitsubishi was involved in the opium trade in China during this period. Mitsubishi was among a number of major Japanese companies targeted for dissolution during the occupation of Japan and it was broken up into a large number of smaller enterprises whose stock was offered to the public
14.
IHS Markit
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IHS Markit Ltd. is a company based in London, United Kingdom. The previously announced deal to merge IHS and Markit closed on July 13,2016, in 1959, the Rogers Publishing Company, a publisher of technical news magazines, began indexing product catalogs on microfilm. Microfilming allowed catalogs to be updated without the expense of traditional publishing, in 1961, when Rogers was bought by Cahners Publishing, the catalogs division became Information Handling Services. IHS initially served the aerospace industry, early clients included Martin Marietta and Convair. The United States Army Missile Command contracted with IHS to develop a common parts file to be used by contractors designing new products, in the 1980s, with the advent of the personal computer, IHS added electronic databases and full text CD-ROMs to its delivery methods. In the 1990s, IHS embraced the Internet by distributing its products through online databases. IHS also expanded beyond the aerospace and defense industries to focus on the industry, while continuing to serve the automotive, construction. In 2005, IHS became a traded company and changed its name from Information Handling Services to IHS Inc. IHS is classified as belonging to the publications industry, since that time, IHS continues to grow both organically and through acquisitions adding additional products and services and expanding the list of industries it serves. Based on the prices of IHS and Markit common stock on March 18,2016. Upon completion of the merger, the company was renamed IHS Markit. However, certain key operations are based in Englewood, Colorado. Regulatory guideline information and documentation including Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive and Waste Electrical, IHS has embarked on an aggressive acquisition program in the last several years, acquiring the following companies, among others, CAPS electronics component database of PartMiner. 1996- Information Handling Service Purchases Petroconsultants S and this acquisition was the first of many acquisitions to provide IHS with the detailed Exploraiton and Production Databases. 1997- Information Handling Service purchases PI/Dwights and this purchase provided the full United States data coverage providing Well and Production Data. This formed a division called IHS Energy Group, 1998- Information Handling Service purchases MAI Consultants who provided QUE$TOR software and databases to provide detailed costs data for activity around the world. 1998- Information Handling Service purchased IEDS, a UK based company that had a detailed Far East database and their research and leadership were leveraged in the emerging Global integration of research by combined companies. 2001- Information Handling Service purchases Petroleum Data Services which provided detailed Log Services to the USA data compilation and this provided much more deep data within North America
15.
Nokia
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Nokia Corporation, stylised as NOKIA, is a Finnish multinational communications and information technology company, founded in 1865. Nokia is headquartered in Espoo, Uusimaa, in the greater Helsinki metropolitan area, in 2014, Nokia employed 61,656 people across 120 countries, did business in more than 150 countries and reported annual revenues of around €12.73 billion. Nokia is a limited company listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. It is the worlds 274th-largest company measured by 2013 revenues according to the Fortune Global 500 and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the company has had various industries in its 151-year history. It was founded as a mill, and now focuses on large-scale telecommunications infrastructures. Nokias dominance also extended into the industry through its Symbian platform. Nokia eventually entered into a pact with Microsoft in 2011 to exclusively use Microsofts Windows Phone platform on future smartphones and its mobile phone business was eventually bought by Microsoft in an overall deal totaling $7.17 billion. Stephen Elop, Nokias former CEO, and several other joined the new Microsoft Mobile subsidiary of Microsoft as part of the deal. Nokia has a history, dating back to 1865 when Fredrik Idestam. A second pulp mill was created in 1868 near the town of Nokia, in 1871, Idestam together with friend Leo Mechelin formed a shared company and called it Nokia, after the town of the second pulp mill. For the next 90 years, Nokia on its own would be a forest and power industry company, in 1922, Nokia was jointly-owned with a trio partnership with Finnish Cable Works and Finnish Rubber Works. Nokia Corporation now boasted many industries including rubber, forestry, cable, electricity, in the 1970s, the newly formed conglomerate started entering the networking and radio industry. Nokia also started making military equipment for Finlands defence forces, such as the Sanomalaite M/90 communicator in 1983, in 1979, Nokia went into a joint venture with television maker Salora, to create Mobira, which would lay out the foundation of Nokias future mobile phone division. In 1981, Mobira launched the Nordic Mobile Telephone service, the worlds first international cellular network, then in 1982, Mobira launched the Mobira Senator car phone, which can be considered as Nokias first mobile phone. At that time, though, Nokia had no interest at all in mobile phones and it is only due to the Salo, Finland-based Salora-Mobira that the idea was pushed through. In 1987, Finnish Cable Works discontinued production of cables at its Helsinki factory, nokian Tyres, a tyre producer that was originally formed as a division of Finnish Rubber Works in 1932, split away from Nokia Corporation in 1988. Two years later in 1990, Finnish Rubber Works followed suit and this allowed Nokia Corporation to solely focus on communications. Jorma Ollila became CEO in 1992, Nokias first fully portable mobile phone was the Mobira Cityman 900 in 1987
16.
Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
17.
INCJ
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The Innovation Network Corporation of Japan, headquartered in Tokyo, is a public-private partnership between the Japanese government and 19 major corporations. The business and investments of INCJ are supervised by the Ministry of Economy, Trade, the INCJ is headquartered at Tokyo and has a flat management structure centered around CEO and COO Its current CEO is Kimikazu Noumi and COO, Haruyasu Asakura. The INCJ is capitalized at 112 billion yen, the Japanese government also provides guarantees up to a total of 1,800 billion yen for INCJ investments. The breakup of investors and their investments made are the following, the government also provides guarantees up to a total of 1,800 billion yen for INCJ investments, giving it an investment capability of approximately 1,900 billion yen. The following 19 major Japanese companies have made an investment of 10 billion JPY. Each investor has contributed 500 million yen, with the exception of DBJ, asahi Kasei Corporation Osaka Gas Co. Ltd. Sharp Corporation The Shoko Chukin Bank, Ltd, Sumitomo Corporation Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd. Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited Tokyo Electric Power Company, Inc, toshiba Corporation JGC Corporation Development Bank of Japan Inc. Panasonic Corporation East Japan Railway Company Hitachi, Ltd, the Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, Ltd. General Electric Company, Japan JX Nippon Oil & Energy Corporation Enterprise Turnaround Initiative Corporation of Japan Official web site The Nature of Capitalism and Finance
18.
Broadcom
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Broadcom Corporation was an American fabless semiconductor company that made products for the wireless and broadband communication industry. It was acquired by Avago Technologies in 2016 and currently operates as an owned subsidiary of the merged entity called Broadcom Limited. The division is headquartered in Irvine, California, Broadcom Corporation was founded by professor-student pair Henry Samueli and Henry Nicholas from UCLA in 1991. In 1995 the company moved from its Westwood, Los Angeles office to Irvine, in 1998, Broadcom became a public company on the NASDAQ exchange and now employs approximately 11,750 people worldwide in more than 15 countries. Broadcom is among Gartners Top 10 Semiconductor Vendors by revenue, Broadcom first landed on the Fortune 500 in 2009. In 2012, Broadcoms total revenue was $8.01 billion, in 2013, Broadcom stood at No.327 on the Fortune 500, having climbed 17 places from its 2012 ranking of No.344. In May 28,2015 chip maker Avago Technologies Ltd. agreed to buy Broadcom Corp. for $37 billion in cash, at closing, which completed on February 1,2016, Broadcom shareholders will hold 32% of the new Singapore-based company to be called Broadcom Limited. Hock Tan, Avago President and CEO, will be the new CEO of the new combined company, Dr. Samueli will be Chief Technology Officer and member of the combined companys board. And Dr. Nicholas will serve in an advisory role within the new company. The new merged entity is named Broadcom Limited but inherits the ticker symbol AVGO, the BRCM ticker symbol was retired. In May 2016 Cypress Semiconductor announced that it will acquire Broadcom Corporations full portfolio of IoT products for $550 million, under the deal, Cypress acquires Broadcoms IoT products and intellectual property for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and ZigBee connectivity, as well as Broadcoms WICED platform and SDK for developers. Broadcoms product line spans computer and telecommunication networking, the company has products for enterprise/metropolitan high-speed networks, products include transceiver and processor ICs for Ethernet and wireless LANs, cable modems, digital subscriber line, servers, home networking devices and cellular phones. It is also known for a series of high-speed encryption co-processors, offloading this processor-intensive work to a dedicated chip and this has many practical benefits for e-commerce, and PGP or GPG secure communications. Major customers include Apple, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola, IBM, Dell, Asus, Lenovo, Linksys, Logitech, Nintendo, Nokia Siemens Networks, Nortel, TiVo, Tenda, in September 2011, Broadcom shut down its digital TV operations. Broadcom also shut down its Blu-ray chip business, the closure of these businesses began on September 19,2011. On June 2,2014, Broadcom announced intentions to exit the cellular baseband business, Vendors have included Broadcom NICs in their products. For example, the Dell blade-server M610 has two embedded Gigabit NetXtreme 5709 NICs, the latest member of the Trident family is the Trident II XGS which can support up to 32 x 40G ports or 104 x 10G ports on a single chip. Broadcom Crystal HD does video acceleration, more specifically, Broadcom would provide Bluetooth connectivity for Wiis controller
19.
Intersil
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Intersil, a Renesas company is a subsidiary of Renesas. The original Intersil was formed in August 1999 through the acquisition of the business of Harris Corporation. The original Intersil, Inc. was founded in 1967 by Jean Hoerni to develop digital watch processors and they were originally funded by SSIH, a Swiss watch company. In 1988 Intersil was taken over by Harris Semiconductor, which had offered the IM6100 as second source, Harris combined these activities with the semiconductor divisions of Radiation Incorporated, General Electric and RCA they had taken over before. In 1999 Harris spun off its semiconductor division and Intersil Corporation was created with the largest IPO in American semiconductor industry history. The second Intersil Corporation is a different company from the original Intersil, next to digital circuits like microprocessors and memories like the 1k-bit CMOS RAM IM6508 and CMOS EPROMS IM6604/IM6654 Intersil designed famous analogue ICs like the ICM8038 waveform generator. A creation of Intersil is the PRISM line of Wi-Fi hardware, that group of products was sold to GlobespanVirata in 2003, Intersil is the manufacturer of the RCA1802 microprocessor, a CPU traditionally used in space applications. The company, under CEO Dave Bell, then began the expansion of a catalog analog business, the company also completed a series of acquisitions, two of which are still part of the portfolio, Zilker Labs digital power devices and Techwell automotive and security and surveillance products. In 2012, with revenue in decline, the board of directors removed Dave Bell. In March 2013, the board appointed Necip Sayiner, the architect of Silicon Labs turnaround, Sayiner concentrated the companys efforts on power management and select target markets. The company was able to return to profitability in 2013 and in early 2014 re-launched as a management company, with products to improve power efficiency, extend battery life. Renesas acquired Intersil on February 24th,2017, Intersil develops and markets power management and precision analog technology for applications in the industrial, infrastructure, mobile, automotive and aerospace markets. Analog Semiconductors Intersil 6100 RTX2010 Official website
20.
Microprocessor
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A microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the functions of a computers central processing unit on a single integrated circuit, or at most a few integrated circuits. Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic, Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system. The integration of a whole CPU onto a chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in numbers by highly automated processes resulting in a low per unit cost. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are many electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get better, the cost of manufacturing a chip generally stays the same, before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of circuit boards with many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few large-scale ICs, the internal arrangement of a microprocessor varies depending on the age of the design and the intended purposes of the microprocessor. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture, a minimal hypothetical microprocessor might only include an arithmetic logic unit and a control logic section. The ALU performs operations such as addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR, each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a status register, which indicate the results of the last operation. The control logic retrieves instruction codes from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction, a single operation code might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor. As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip, the size of data objects became larger, allowing more transistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8-bit words up to todays 64-bit words. Additional features were added to the architecture, more on-chip registers sped up programs. Floating-point arithmetic, for example, was not available on 8-bit microprocessors. Integration of the point unit first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip. Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a bit slice approach necessary, instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiple circuits in parallel processed subsets of each data word. With the ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip and this CPU cache has the advantage of faster access than off-chip memory, and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications. Processor clock frequency has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, except in the recent past, a microprocessor is a general purpose system. Several specialized processing devices have followed from the technology, A digital signal processor is specialized for signal processing, graphics processing units are processors designed primarily for realtime rendering of 3D images
21.
SuperH
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SuperH is a 32-bit reduced instruction set computing instruction set architecture developed by Hitachi and currently produced by Renesas. It is implemented by microcontrollers and microprocessors for embedded systems, as of 2015, many of the original patents for the SuperH architecture are expiring and the SH2 CPU has been reimplemented as open source hardware under the name J2. The SuperH processor core family was first developed by Hitachi in the early 1990s, Hitachi has developed a complete group of upward compatible instruction set CPU cores. The SH-1 and the SH-2 were used in the Sega Saturn and these cores have 16-bit instructions for better code density than 32-bit instructions, which was a great benefit at the time, due to the high cost of main memory. A few years later the SH-3 core was added to the SH CPU family, new features included another interrupt concept, a management unit. The SH-3 core also got a DSP extension, then called SH-3-DSP, with extended data paths for efficient DSP processing, special accumulators and a dedicated MAC-type DSP engine, this core was unifying the DSP and the RISC processor world. A derivative was also used with the original SH-2 core, between 1994 and 1996,35.1 million SuperH devices were shipped worldwide. For the Dreamcast, Hitachi developed the SH-4 architecture, superscalar instruction execution and a vector floating point unit were the highlights of this architecture. SH-4 based standard chips were introduced around 1998, the SH-3 and SH-4 architectures support both big-endian and little-endian byte ordering. Hitachi and STMicroelectronics started collaborating as early as 1997 on the design of the SH-4, in 2003, Hitachi and Mitsubishi Electric formed a joint-venture called Renesas Technology, with Hitachi controlling 55% of it. In 2004, Renesas Technology bought STMicroelectronicss share of ownership in the SuperH Inc. Renesas Technology later became Renesas Electronics, following their merger with NEC Electronics. The SH-5 design supported two modes of operation, sHcompact mode is equivalent to the user-mode instructions of the SH-4 instruction set. SHmedia mode is different, using 32-bit instructions with sixty-four 64-bit integer registers. In SHmedia mode the destination of a branch is loaded into a branch register separately from the branch instruction. This allows the processor to prefetch instructions for a branch without having to snoop the instruction stream, however, SH-5 differs because its backward compatibility mode is the 16-bit encoding rather than the 32-bit encoding. The evolution of the SuperH architecture still continues, the last of the SH-2 patents expired in 2014. At LinuxCon Japan 2015, j-core developers presented a cleanroom reimplemention of the SH-2 ISA with extensions, subsequently, a design walkthrough was presented at ELC2016. The open source BSD licensed VHDL code for the J2 core has been proven on Xilinx FPGAs and on ASICs manufactured on TSMCs 180 nm process, additional instructions are easy to add
22.
H8 Family
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The family of largely CISC machines is unrelated to the higher-performance SuperH family of 32-bit RISC-like microcontrollers. It is supported in the Linux kernel since version 4.2, built-in ROM and flash memory tends to range from 16 KB to 1024 KB, and RAM from 512 B to 512 KB. The basic architecture of the H8 is patterned after the DEC PDP-11, with eight 16-bit registers, several companies provide compilers for the H8 family, and there is a complete GCC port, including a simulator. There are also various hardware emulators available, the family is continued with the H8SX 32-bit controllers. H8S may be found in digital cameras, some ThinkPad notebooks, printer controllers, smart cards, chess computers, music synthesizers, the LEGO Mindstorms RCX, an advanced robot toy/educational tool, uses the H8/300. Namco employed an H8/3002 as a processor for various games it made in the late 1990s. H8 is referenced in the Muse song Space Dementia, Renesas Electronics Online training for Renesas products A community support forum
23.
ARM architecture
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ARM, originally Acorn RISC Machine, later Advanced RISC Machine, is a family of reduced instruction set computing architectures for computer processors, configured for various environments. It also designs cores that implement this instruction set and licenses these designs to a number of companies that incorporate those core designs into their own products, a RISC-based computer design approach means processors require fewer transistors than typical complex instruction set computing x86 processors in most personal computers. This approach reduces costs, heat and power use and these characteristics are desirable for light, portable, battery-powered devices—including smartphones, laptops and tablet computers, and other embedded systems. For supercomputers, which large amounts of electricity, ARM could also be a power-efficient solution. ARM Holdings periodically releases updates to architectures and core designs, some older cores can also provide hardware execution of Java bytecodes. The ARMv8-A architecture, announced in October 2011, adds support for a 64-bit address space, with over 100 billion ARM processors produced as of 2017, ARM is the most widely used instruction set architecture in terms of quantity produced. Currently, the widely used Cortex cores, older classic cores, the British computer manufacturer Acorn Computers first developed the Acorn RISC Machine architecture in the 1980s to use in its personal computers. Its first ARM-based products were coprocessor modules for the BBC Micro series of computers, according to Sophie Wilson, all the tested processors at that time performed about the same, with about a 4 Mbit/second bandwidth. After testing all available processors and finding them lacking, Acorn decided it needed a new architecture, inspired by white papers on the Berkeley RISC project, Acorn considered designing its own processor. Wilson developed the set, writing a simulation of the processor in BBC BASIC that ran on a BBC Micro with a 6502 second processor. This convinced Acorn engineers they were on the right track, Wilson approached Acorns CEO, Hermann Hauser, and requested more resources. Hauser gave his approval and assembled a team to implement Wilsons model in hardware. The official Acorn RISC Machine project started in October 1983 and they chose VLSI Technology as the silicon partner, as they were a source of ROMs and custom chips for Acorn. Wilson and Furber led the design and they implemented it with a similar efficiency ethos as the 6502. A key design goal was achieving low-latency input/output handling like the 6502, the 6502s memory access architecture had let developers produce fast machines without costly direct memory access hardware. The first samples of ARM silicon worked properly when first received and tested on 26 April 1985, Wilson subsequently rewrote BBC BASIC in ARM assembly language. The in-depth knowledge gained from designing the instruction set enabled the code to be very dense, the original aim of a principally ARM-based computer was achieved in 1987 with the release of the Acorn Archimedes. In 1992, Acorn once more won the Queens Award for Technology for the ARM, the ARM2 featured a 32-bit data bus, 26-bit address space and 27 32-bit registers
24.
Thyristor
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A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-type materials. It acts exclusively as a switch, conducting when the gate receives a current trigger. A three-lead thyristor is designed to control the current of its two leads by combining that current with the smaller current of its other lead, known as its control lead. In contrast, a thyristor is designed to switch on if the potential difference between its leads is sufficiently large. Some sources define silicon-controlled rectifier and thyristor as synonymous, other sources define thyristors as a larger set of devices with at least four layers of alternating N and P-type material. The first thyristor devices were released commercially in 1956, the latter is known as a gate turn-off thyristor, or GTO thyristor. A thyristor is not a device like a transistor. In other words, a thyristor can only be fully on or off and this makes a thyristor unsuitable as an analog amplifier, but useful as a switch. The thyristor is a four-layered, three terminal device, with each layer consisting of alternately N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals, labelled anode and cathode, are all four layers. The control terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type material near the cathode. When the anode is at a positive potential VAK with respect to the cathode with no voltage applied at the gate, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, as J2 is reverse biased, no conduction takes place. Now if VAK is increased beyond the breakdown voltage VBO of the thyristor, avalanche breakdown of J2 takes place, if a positive potential VG is applied at the gate terminal with respect to the cathode, the breakdown of the junction J2 occurs at a lower value of VAK. By selecting a value of VG, the thyristor can be switched into the on state quickly. Hence VG can be a pulse, such as the voltage output from a UJT relaxation oscillator. The gate pulses are characterized in terms of gate trigger voltage, gate trigger current varies inversely with gate pulse width in such a way that it is evident that there is a minimum gate charge required to trigger the thyristor. In a conventional thyristor, once it has switched on by the gate terminal. As long as the anode remains positively biased, it cannot be switched off until the current falls below the holding current
25.
TRIAC
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TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a generic trademark for a three terminal electronic component that conducts current in either direction when triggered. Its formal name is bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor, a thyristor is analogous to a relay in that a small voltage and current can control a much larger voltage and current. The illustration on the shows the circuit symbol for a TRIAC where A1 is Anode 1, A2 is Anode 2. Anode 1 and Anode 2 are normally termed Main Terminal 1, TRIACs are a subset of thyristors and are related to silicon controlled rectifiers. TRIACs differ from SCRs in that allow current flow in both directions, whereas an SCR can only conduct current in a single direction. Most TRIACs can be triggered by applying either a positive or negative voltage to the gate, once triggered, SCRs and TRIACs continue to conduct, even if the gate current ceases, until the main current drops below a certain level called the holding current. Gate turn-off thyristors are similar to TRIACs but provide more control by turning off when the gate signal ceases, TRIACs bidirectionality makes them convenient switches for alternating-current. In addition, applying a trigger at a phase angle of the AC in the main circuit allows control of the average current flowing into a load. This is commonly used for controlling the speed of motors, dimming lamps. To understand how TRIACs work, consider the triggering in each of the four quadrants, the four quadrants are illustrated in Figure 1, and depend on the gate and MT2 voltages with respect to MT1. Main Terminal 1 and Main Terminal are also referred to as Anode 1, the relative sensitivity depends on the physical structure of a particular triac, but as a rule, quadrant I is the most sensitive, and quadrant 4 is the least sensitive. In quadrants 1 and 2, MT2 is positive, and current flows from MT2 to MT1 through P, N, P and N layers, the N region attached to MT2 does not participate significantly. In quadrants 3 and 4, MT2 is negative, and current flows from MT1 to MT2, the N region attached to MT2 is active, but the N region attached to MT1 only participates in the initial triggering, not the bulk current flow. In most applications, the gate current comes from MT2, so quadrants 1 and 3 are the only operating modes. Other applications with single polarity triggering from an IC or digital drive circuit operate in quadrants 2 and 3, than MT1 is usually connected to positive voltage and gate is pulled down to 0V. Quadrant 1 operation occurs when the gate and MT2 are positive with respect to MT1. Figure 1 The mechanism is illustrated in Figure 3. The gate current makes an equivalent NPN transistor switch on, which in turn draws current from the base of an equivalent PNP transistor, part of the gate current is lost through the ohmic path across the p-silicon, flowing directly into MT1 without passing through the NPN transistor base. In this case, the injection of holes in the p-silicon makes the stacked n, p and n layers beneath MT1 behave like a NPN transistor, which turns on due to the presence of a current in its base
26.
Transistor
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A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit, a voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistors terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled power can be higher than the controlling power, today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the building block of modern electronic devices. Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a field-effect transistor in 1926 but it was not possible to construct a working device at that time. The first practically implemented device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics, and Bardeen, Brattain, the thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony. The triode, however, was a device that consumed a substantial amount of power. Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a transistor in Canada in 1925. Lilienfeld also filed patents in the United States in 1926 and 1928. However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any examples of a working prototype. In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a device in Europe. Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the potential in this, the term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor, Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of interference in 1947, realizing that Bell Labs scientists had already invented the transistor before them, the company rushed to get its transistron into production for amplified use in Frances telephone network. The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell labs William Shockley, on April 12,1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell Labs had made this new sandwich transistor discovery announcement, in a release on July 4,1951. The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953 and these were made by etching depressions into an N-type germanium base from both sides with jets of Indium sulfate until it was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick
27.
Static random-access memory
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Static random-access memory is a type of semiconductor memory that uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. SRAM exhibits data remanence, but it is volatile in the conventional sense that data is eventually lost when the memory is not powered. The term static differentiates SRAM from DRAM which must be periodically refreshed, SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM, it is typically used for CPU cache while DRAM is used for a computers main memory. Several techniques have been proposed to power consumption of SRAM-based memory structures. Some amount is also embedded in all modern appliances, toys. Several megabytes may be used in products such as digital cameras, cell phones, synthesizers. SRAM in its form is sometimes used for realtime digital signal processing circuits. LCD screens and printers also normally employ static RAM to hold the image displayed, static RAM was used for the main memory of some early personal computers such as the ZX80, TRS-80 Model 100 and Commodore VIC-20. Hobbyists, specifically homebuilt processor enthusiasts, often prefer SRAM due to the ease of interfacing and it is much easier to work with than DRAM as there are no refresh cycles and the address and data buses are directly accessible rather than multiplexed. In addition to buses and power connections, SRAM usually requires only three controls, Chip Enable, Write Enable and Output Enable, in synchronous SRAM, Clock is also included. Non-volatile SRAMs, or nvSRAMs, have standard SRAM functionality, but they save the data when the supply is lost. NvSRAMs are used in a range of situations – networking, aerospace, and medical, among many others – where the preservation of data is critical. Address, data in and other signals are associated with the clock signals In 1990s. Nowadays, synchronous SRAM is rather employed similarly like Synchronous DRAM – DDR SDRAM memory is used than asynchronous DRAM. Synchronous memory interface is much faster as access time can be reduced by employing pipeline architecture. Furthermore, as DRAM is much cheaper than SRAM, SRAM is often replaced by DRAM, SRAM memory is however much faster for random access. Therefore, SRAM memory is used for CPU cache, small on-chip memory. Zero bus turnaround – the turnaround is the number of cycles it takes to change access to the SRAM from write to read
28.
Japan Trustee Services Bank
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Japan Trustee Services Bank, Ltd. or JTSB, is a trust bank in Japan. Its main competitors are The Master Trust Bank of Japan and Trust & Custody Services Bank, JTSB was established on June 20,2000 by Daiwa Bank and Sumitomo Trust & Banking Co. Ltd. and began operations on July 25,2000. Sumitomo Trust transferred part of its trust business and other assets to JTSB in October 2000, the Mitsui Trust Financial Group invested in JTSB in 2002 and transferred some of its trust operations to JTSB in 2003. Daiwa merged with Asahi Bank in 2003 to form Resona Bank, and Sumitomo Trust merged with Chuo Mitsui Trust Holdings in April 2011 to form Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Holdings
29.
Mitsubishi Electric
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Mitsubishi Electric Corporation is a Japanese multinational electronics and electrical equipment manufacturing company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. It is one of the companies of Mitsubishi. Mitsubishi Electric manufactures electric and architectural equipment, and is a worldwide producer of photovoltaic panels. The corporation was established on 15 January 1921, in the United States, products are manufactured and sold by Mitsubishi Electric United States headquartered in Cypress, California. Malaysia Singapore South Korea Thailand Mitsubishi Electric Saudi Ltd, televisions The companys most notable products in the United States come from the large-screen HDTV division. Competitors in this market are Sony, Pioneer, Panasonic, JVC, Samsung, Daewoo, LG, the company manufactured direct-view CRT televisions until 2001. The last notable size in this field was a 40 tube size, Mitsubishi manufactured LCD TVs until 2008. Mitsubishi manufactured DLP High Definition TVs until December,2012, the company is now focusing on professional and home theater DLP projection applications, and is no longer manufacturing televisions for the consumer market. Air conditioners EcoCute heat pump water heaters Dehumidifiers Uninterruptible Power Supply systems Mobile phones, Mitsubishi quit the mobile phone business in Apr 2008 after decrease in shipments. They estimated a loss of 17 billion Yen in income before income taxes. The Corporation claims to have achieved the worlds first transmission at 10 Gbit/s between relay equipment boards set at a distance of 500 mm apart, Mitsubishi also previously made Video Cassette Recorders known as the Mitsubishi Black Diamond VCR
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Toyota Motor Corporation
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Toyota Motor Corporation is a Japanese automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. In March 2014, the corporation consisted of 338,875 employees worldwide and. Toyota is as of 2016 the second largest automotive manufacturer behind German Volkswagen Group, Toyota was the worlds first automobile manufacturer to produce more than 10 million vehicles per year which it has done since 2012, when it also reported the production of its 200-millionth vehicle. As of July 2014, Toyota was the largest listed company in Japan by market capitalization, Toyota is the worlds market leader in sales of hybrid electric vehicles, and one of the largest companies to encourage the mass-market adoption of hybrid vehicles across the globe. Cumulative global sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models achieved the 10 million milestone in January 2017 and its Prius family is the worlds top selling hybrid nameplate with over 6 million units sold worldwide as of January 2017. The company was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937, as a spinoff from his fathers company Toyota Industries to create automobiles. Three years earlier, in 1934, while still a department of Toyota Industries, it created its first product, the Type A engine, and, in 1936, its first passenger car, the Toyota AA. Toyota Motor Corporation produces vehicles under five brands, including the Toyota brand, Hino, Lexus, Ranz, TMC is part of the Toyota Group, one of the largest conglomerates in the world. Toyota is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, the main headquarters of Toyota is located in a 4-story building in Toyota. As of 2006, the office has the Toyopet Toyota logo. Vinod Jacob from The Hindu described the headquarters building as modest. In 2013, company head Akio Toyoda reported that it had difficulties retaining foreign employees at the due to the lack of amenities in the city. Its Tokyo office is located in Bunkyo, Tokyo and its Nagoya office is located in Nakamura-ku, Nagoya. In addition to manufacturing automobiles, Toyota provides financial services through its Toyota Financial Services division, since 1950, the two entities had existed as separate companies as a prerequisite for reconstruction in postwar Japan. Shoichiro Toyoda presided over Toyota Motor Sales in preparation for the consummation of the merger occurred in 1982. Shoichiro then succeeded his uncle Eiji as the President of the organization that then became known as Toyota Motor Corporation. Announced the appointment of board members, this was a first for the corporation. Additionally, Vice Chairman Takeshi Uchiyamada replaced Fujio Cho as chairman, Toyota is publicly traded on the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Sapporo exchanges under company code TYO,7203
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Nissan
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Nissan Motor Company Ltd, usually shortened to Nissan, is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Nishi-ku, Yokohama. The company sells its cars under the Nissan, Infiniti, since 1999, Nissan has been part of the Renault–Nissan Alliance, a partnership between Nissan and French automaker Renault. As of 2013, Renault holds a 43. 4% voting stake in Nissan, Carlos Ghosn serves as CEO of both companies. Taken together, the Renault–Nissan Alliance would be the fourth largest automaker, however Nissan is the leading Japanese brand in China, Russia. Nissan is the worlds largest electric vehicle manufacturer, with sales of more than 275,000 all-electric vehicles as of mid-December 2016. Masujiro Hashimoto founded the Kaishinsha Motor Car Works 1 July 1911, in 1914, the company produced its first car, called DAT. DAT Motors built trucks in addition to the DAT and Datsun passenger cars, beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were produced for the military market. At the same time, Jitsuyo Jidosha Co. Ltd. produced small trucks using parts, Commercial operations were placed on hold during Japans participation in World War I, and the company contributed to the war effort. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based Jitsuyo Jidosha Co. Ltd. a. k. a, Jitsuyo Jidosha Seizo to become DAT Jidosha Seizo Co. Ltd Automobile Manufacturing Co. Ltd. in Osaka until 1932, from 1923 to 1925, the company produced light cars and trucks under the name of Lila. In 1931, DAT came out with a new car, called the Datsun Type 11. Later in 1933 after Nissan Group zaibatsu took control of DAT Motors, in 1933, the company name was Nipponized to Jidosha-Seizo Co. Ltd. and was moved to Yokohama. In 1928, Yoshisuke Aikawa founded the holding company Nihon Sangyo, the name Nissan originated during the 1930s as an abbreviation used on the Tokyo Stock Exchange for Nihon Sangyo. This company was the famous Nissan Zaibatsu which included Tobata Casting, at this time Nissan controlled foundries and auto parts businesses, but Aikawa did not enter automobile manufacturing until 1933. The zaibatsu eventually grew to include 74 firms, and became the fourth-largest in Japan during World War II, in 1931, DAT Jidosha Seizo became affiliated with Tobata Casting, and was merged into Tobata Casting in 1933. As Tobata Casting was a Nissan company, this was the beginning of Nissans automobile manufacturing, in 1934, Aikawa separated the expanded automobile parts division of Tobata Casting and incorporated it as a new subsidiary, which he named Nissan Motor Co. Ltd. The shareholders of the new company however were not enthusiastic about the prospects of the automobile in Japan, at this time, Nissan Motor effectively became owned by Nihon Sangyo and Hitachi. In 1935, construction of its Yokohama plant was completed,44 Datsuns were shipped to Asia, Central and South America
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IEBus
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IEBus is a two-wire vehicle bus used in the automotive industry as a communications bus between various devices by using half-duplex asynchronous communication with CSMA/CD for access control. It allows for up to fifty units on the bus over a length of 50 meters. Two differential lines are used, Data+ / Data-, often labeled as Bus Bus, IEBus and Inter Equipment Bus are NEC Electronics Corporation trademarks. A master talks to a slave, each unit has a master and a slave address register. Only one device can talk on the bus at any given time, there is a pecking order for the types of communications which will take precedence over another. Each communication from master to slave must be replied to by the slave going back to the master with an ACK bit, if the master does not receive the ACK within a predetermined time allowance it drops the communication and returns to its standby mode. Mode 0 Uses 16 bytes/frame and runs at 3.9 kbit/s or 4.1 kbit/s, as for automotive LAN, the V850ES/Sx3 family is equipped with IEBus and CAN Area Network. More details can be found here The µPD6708GT processes the protocol of the IEBus, because it is provided with a transmit/receive buffer, the microcontroller can concentrate on the application processing of the IEBus. Because the µPD6708 also contains an IEBus driver/receiver, it can be connected to the bus. Link Sightings PIE TOY-AUX Auxiliary Input Converter The µPD72042BGT performs all the processing required for layers 1 and 2 of the IEBus, the device incorporate large transmission and reception buffers, allowing the microcomputer to perform IEBus operations without interruption. They also contain an IEBus driver and receiver, allowing them to directly connected to the bus directly, for communications these chip have optional clock synchronous/asynchronous shared, IEBus, I2C bus, CAN2. 0B. The only group in this family which does not have the IEBus functionality available is, supports all modes in which transfer speeds differ, from Mode 0 to Mode 2. Using data transmission by DTC, CPU load is reduced sharply, using abundant error status flags to realize appropriate error processing. The parts listed below include an IEBus interface, part numbers V850ES/SJ3-H V850ES/SK3-H V850E2/SG4-H V850E2/SJ4-H V850E2/SK4-H NEC IEBus Protocol IC - This thing is hard to find for hobbyists. Renesas V850 family Basic Info - The first result for an IEBus search on google. com, acuraZine. com Forums - Some results in recording data from the IEBus in an Acura TSX. Fujitsu MB90580 - The MB90580/85 series has peripheral resources of an IEBus controller, marcins Site - This site is great for learning more about the IEBus. He has really done a job researching this protocol as well as developing one of the first boards that can talk on the bus using an ATMEGA8. Louis Frigon - A great write-up with schematics and source code that interfaces with the IEBus to trick the head unit into enabling aux input as it would for a CD changer
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Single-board microcontroller
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A single-board microcontroller is a microcontroller built onto a single printed circuit board. This board provides all of the necessary for a useful control task, a microprocessor, I/O circuits. The intention is that the board is immediately useful to a developer, without requiring them to spend time. As they are usually low-cost, and have a low capital cost for development. They are also a means for developers to gain hands-on experience with a new processor family. The board also offered expansion through a bus connector, but could be used without a card cage when applications did not require additional hardware. Software development for this system was hosted on Intels Intellec MDS microcomputer development system, this provided assembler and PL/M support, processors of this era required a number of support chips to be included outside of the processor. RAM and EPROM were separate, often requiring memory management or refresh circuitry for dynamic memory, I/O processing might have been carried out by a single chip such as the 8255, but frequently required several more chips. A single-board microcontroller differs from a computer in that it lacks the general-purpose user interface. The development board exists to showcase or train on some particular processor family and, therefore, the bus of the early single-board devices, such as the Z80 and 6502, was universally a Von Neumann architecture. Program and data memory were accessed via the shared bus, even though they were stored in fundamentally different types of memory, ROM for programs. This bus architecture was needed to economise the number of pins needed from the limited 40 available for the processors ubiquitous dual-in-line IC package. It was common to access to the internal bus through an expansion connector, or at least provide space for a connector to be soldered on. This was a low-cost option and offered the potential for expansion, typical expansions would be I/O devices or additional memory. This generation of used a Harvard architecture with separate program and data buses. Many of these used a modified Harvard architecture, where some write access was possible to the program data space. None of these processors required, or supported, a Harvard bus across a single-board microcontroller, when they supported a bus for expansion of peripherals, a dedicated I/O bus, such as I2C, One-wire or various serial buses, was used. This provides resources not already present on the board system
