1.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
2.
Hydrocarbon
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In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
3.
Dam
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A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity, a dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, the first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, so the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places from the Middle Dutch era such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the level, for Mesopotamias weather affected the Tigris. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan,100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman and this gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high and 1 m-wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC, the Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a dam for flood control. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 and is today as Berkat Qaroun. One of the wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most important around 750 BC and these extensive works were not actually finalized until 325 AD and allowed the irrigation of 25,000 acres. By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern-day India was built, the system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it. Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya and it is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC
4.
Lock (water navigation)
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A lock is a device used for raising and lowering boats, ships and other watercraft between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal waterways. Locks are used to make a more easily navigable, or to allow a canal to cross land that is not level. Later canals used more and larger locks to allow a direct route to be taken. Since 2016 the largest lock worldwide is the Kieldrecht Lock in the Port of Antwerp, a pound lock is a type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on canals and rivers. A pound lock has a chamber with gates at both ends that control the level of water in the pound, in contrast, an earlier design with a single gate was known as a flash lock. Pound locks were first used in medieval China during the Song Dynasty, having been pioneered by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue in 984. The gates were hanging gates, when they were closed the water accumulated like a tide until the level was reached. The water level could differ by 4 feet or 5 feet at each lock, in medieval Europe a sort of pound lock was built in 1373 at Vreeswijk, Netherlands. This pound lock serviced many ships at once in a large basin, yet the first true pound lock was built in 1396 at Damme near Bruges, Belgium. A famous civil engineer of pound locks in Europe was the Italian Bertola da Novate, who constructed 18 of them on the Naviglio di Bereguardo between the years 1452 and 1458. When a stretch of river is navigable, a lock is sometimes required to bypass an obstruction such as a rapid, dam. In large scale river navigation improvements, weirs and locks are used together, a river improved by these means is often called a Waterway or River Navigation. Sometimes a river is made entirely non-tidal by constructing a sea lock directly into the estuary, in more advanced river navigations, more locks are required. Where a longer cut bypasses a stretch of river, the upstream end of the cut will often be protected by a flood lock. The longer the cut, the greater the difference in level between start and end of the cut, so that a very long cut will need additional locks along its length. At this point, the cut is, in effect, a canal, Early completely artificial canals, across fairly flat countryside, would get round a small hill or depression by simply detouring around it. However, locks continued to be built to supplement these solutions, all pound locks have three elements, A watertight chamber connecting the upper and lower canals, and large enough to enclose one or more boats. The position of the chamber is fixed, but its level can vary
5.
Retaining wall
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Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to a slope that it would not naturally keep to. A retaining wall is a designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil. A basement wall is one kind of retaining wall. But the term refers to a cantilever retaining wall, which is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its top. These are cantilevered from a footing and rise above the grade on one side to retain a level grade on the opposite side. The walls must resist the pressures generated by loose soils or, in some cases. Every retaining wall supports a “wedge” of soil, the wedge is defined as the soil which extends beyond the failure plane of the soil type present at the wall site, and can be calculated once the soil friction angle is known. As the setback of the wall increases, the size of the wedge is reduced. This reduction lowers the pressure on the retaining wall, the most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to move downslope due to gravity. Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall, earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a system causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of uniform height. Unless the wall is designed to retain water, It is important to have proper drainage behind the wall in order to limit the pressure to the design value. Drainage materials will reduce or eliminate the pressure and improve the stability of the material behind the wall. Drystone retaining walls are normally self-draining.5 against lateral sliding and overturning, gravity walls depend on their mass to resist pressure from behind and may have a batter setback to improve stability by leaning back toward the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units. Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing, earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or stone. Cantilevered retaining walls are made from a stem of steel-reinforced
6.
Levee
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A levee, dike, dyke, embankment, floodbank or stopbank is an elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed fill or wall, which regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines, the word levee, from the French word levée, is used in American English. It originated in New Orleans a few years after the founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers. The name derives from the trait of the ridges being raised higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains. The modern word dike or dyke most likely derives from the Dutch word dijk, the 126 kilometres long Westfriese Omringdijk was completed by 1250, and was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus even mentions that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land, the word dijk originally indicated both the trench and the bank. It is closely related to the English verb to dig, in Anglo-Saxon, the word dic already existed and was pronounced as dick in northern England and as ditch in the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of the lie in digging a trench. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or the bank, thus Offas Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench though it once had raised banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary marker or small drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a dike as in Rippingale Running Dike. The Weir Dike is a dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen. In the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, a dyke may be a ditch or a narrow artificial channel off a river or broad for access or mooring, some longer dykes being named. In parts of Britain, particularly Scotland, a dyke may be a field wall, Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders. Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of empoldering, the latter can be a controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded by levees. Levees have also built as field boundaries and as military defences. More on this type of levee can be found in the article on dry-stone walls, Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions built hastily in a flood emergency. When such a bank is added on top of an existing levee it is known as a cradge
7.
Storage tank
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Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids, compressed gases or mediums used for the short- or long-term storage of heat or cold. The term can be used for reservoirs, and for manufactured containers, the usage of the word tank for reservoirs is uncommon in American English but is moderately common in British English. In other countries, the term tends to only to artificial containers. In the USA, storage tanks operate under no pressure, distinguishing them from pressure vessels, Storage tanks are often cylindrical in shape, perpendicular to the ground with flat bottoms, and a fixed flangible or floating roof. There are usually many environmental regulations applied to the design and operation of storage tanks, above ground storage tanks differ from underground storage tanks in the kinds of regulations that are applied. Reservoirs can be covered, in case they may be called covered or underground storage tanks or reservoirs. Covered water tanks are common in urban areas, Storage tanks are available in many shapes, vertical and horizontal cylindrical, open top and closed top, flat bottom, cone bottom, slope bottom and dish bottom. Most container tanks for handling liquids during transportation are designed to handle varying degrees of pressure, a large storage tank is sometimes mounted on a lorry or on an articulated lorry trailer, which is then called a tanker. In the U. S. air emissions, which correspond to losses for usable liquid commodities and/or salable products, are required to undergo air quality permitting under the Federal Clean Air Act. Since most liquids can spill, evaporate, or seep through even the smallest opening, special consideration must be made for their safe and this usually involves building a bunding, or containment dike, around the tank, so that any leakage may be safely contained. Some storage tanks need a floating roof in addition to or in lieu of the fixed roof and this floating roof rises and falls with the liquid level inside the tank, thereby decreasing the vapor space above the liquid level. Floating roofs are considered a safety requirement as well as a pollution prevention measure for many industries including petroleum refining, in the United States, metal tanks in contact with soil and containing petroleum products must be protected from corrosion to prevent escape of the product into the environment. The most effective and common corrosion control techniques for steel in contact with soil is cathodic protection, Tanks for a particular fluid are chosen according to the flash-point of that substance. Generally in refineries and especially for liquid fuels, there are fixed roof tanks, fixed roof tanks are meant for liquids with very high flash points, Cone roofs, dome roofs and umbrella roofs are usual. These are insulated to prevent the clogging of certain materials, wherein the heat is provided by steam coils within the tanks, dome roof tanks are meant for tanks having slightly higher storage pressure than that of atmosphere. Floating roof tanks are divided into external floating roof tanks. IFR tanks are used for liquids with low flash-points and these tanks are nothing but cone roof tanks with a floating roof inside which travels up and down along with the liquid level. This floating roof traps the vapor from low flash-point fuels, floating roofs are supported with legs or cables on which they rest
8.
Cistern
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A cistern is a waterproof receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater, cisterns are distinguished from wells by their waterproof linings. Modern cisterns range in capacity from a few litres to thousands of cubic metres, in the Middle Ages, cisterns were often constructed in hill castles in Europe, especially where wells could not be dug deeply enough. There were two types, the cistern and the filter cistern. Such a filter cistern was built at the Riegersburg in Austrian Styria, rain water passed through a sand filter and collected in the cistern. The filter cleaned the water and enriched it with minerals. Cisterns are commonly prevalent in areas where water is scarce, either because it is rare or has been depleted due to heavy use, early on, the water was used for many purposes including cooking, irrigation, and washing. Present day cisterns are often used only for irrigation due to concerns over water quality, cisterns today can also be outfitted with filters or other water purification methods when the water is intended for consumption. It is not uncommon for a cistern to be open in some manner in order to rain or to include more elaborate rainwater harvesting systems. It is important in cases to have a system that does not leave the water open to algae or to mosquitoes. Some cisterns sit on the top of houses or on the higher than the house. They are often supplied not by rainwater harvesting, but by wells with electric pumps, modern cisterns are manufactured of plastic. To keep a clean water supply, the cistern must be kept clean and it is important to inspect them regularly, keep them well enclosed, and to occasionally empty and clean them with a proper dilution of chlorine and to rinse them well. Well water must be inspected for contaminants coming from the ground source, city water has up to 1ppm chlorine added to the water to keep it clean, and in many areas can be ordered to be delivered directly to the cistern by truck. If there is any question about the supply at any point. Water of non-acceptable quality for the aforementioned uses may still be used for irrigation, if it is free of particulates but not low enough in bacteria, then boiling may also be an effective method to prepare the water for drinking. Many greenhouses rely on a cistern to help meet their water needs, other countries, such as Japan, Germany, and Spain, also offer financial incentives or tax credit for installing cisterns. Cisterns may also be used to water for firefighting in areas where there is an inadequate water supply
9.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
10.
Lake Vyrnwy
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Lake Vyrnwy is a reservoir in Powys, Wales. Its stone-built dam, built in the 1880s, was the first of its kind in the world and it was built for the purpose of supplying Liverpool and the districts later designated as Merseyside with fresh water. It flooded the head of the Vyrnwy valley and submerged the small village of Llanwddyn, the reserve is designated as a national nature reserve, a Site of Special Scientific Interest, a Special Protection Area, and a Special Area of Conservation. Dr George Deacon began the design of the Vyrnwy Dam in 1879 at the age of 36, in 1890, following Vyrnwy, he founded an engineering practice in London which subsequently became Sir Alexander Binnie Son & Deacon, then Mr Binnie and Partners. Its present-day successor is Black & Veatch, dr Deacon was instructed to prepare the parliamentary plans for the scheme in 1879. The dam construction started in 1881 and was completed in 1888 and it was the first large stone-built dam in the United Kingdom, and is built partly out of great blocks of Welsh slate. When built it cost £620,000, equivalent to £62,000,000 in 2015. The dam is 45 metres high from the bottom of the valley and it is decorated with over 25 arches and two small towers rising 4.3 metres above the road surface. Vyrnwy was the first dam to carry water over its crest instead of in a channel at the side, a power house located under the west tower contains an electrical generator driven by water leaving the reservoir. Before mains electricity arrived in the 1960s this was the only source of power. The west and east Towers release compensation water by huge valves and this water flows into for the River Vyrnwy, which would otherwise dry out unless in flood. Depending on the water levels downstream the reservoir can release anything from 25 to 45 megalitres of water per day. This flow is measured by the Environment Agency at a few hundred metres downstream. Earlier dams in Britain had been built using great earth embankments to hold back the water and this new type of stone dam would change the face of the Welsh landscape over the coming years. The next stone dams to be built in Wales on a bigger scale than Vyrnwy were those built in the Elan Valley. Approximately 1,200 metres from the dam is the reservoirs straining tower, standing only 30 metres from the shore, its purpose is to filter or strain out material in the water with a fine metal mesh, before the water flows along the aqueduct to Liverpool. Its architecture represents Gothic revival, built at the time as the dam. The tower as a whole is 47 metres tall,32 metres of which is above water, the water from Lake Vyrnwy is carried 109 kilometres to Liverpool in the Vyrnwy Large Diameter Trunk Main aqueduct
11.
River Vyrnwy
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The River Vyrnwy is a river which flows through northern Powys, Wales, and Shropshire, England. The names derives from Severn, the river that it is a tributary of, the river used to be sourced from the many rivers and streams running off the mountains surrounding the Vyrnwy valley. However, since the Lake Vyrnwy dam was built in the 1880s, the river runs for 39.7 miles, and the last 8 miles form part of the Welsh/English border between Powys and Shropshire. It eventually joins the River Severn near the village of Melverley, the other most prominent feature of the upper river is Dolanog Falls, a 20-foot-high man-made weir that requires a portage by both kayaks and canoes. Much of the river below Pontrobert is Grade I and a good touring river due to being relative placid when not in flood. Photos of the River Vyrnwy on geograph. org. uk
12.
East Branch Reservoir
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East Branch Reservoir, formed by impounding the eastern branch of the Croton River, is part of New York Citys water supply network. It is located in the Putnam County, New York, United States, town of Southeast and it was placed into service in 1891, and holds 5.2 billion US gallons at full capacity. It has an area of 525 acres and reaches a mean depth of 32 feet. It is one of two reservoirs in NYCs system, it is connected to the Bog Brook Reservoir via a 1. When the two were being built, the name was Double Reservoir I. The second double reservoir project would create the Croton Falls and Diverting reservoirs, the village of Southeast Center, named for the town of Southeast, was levelled and flooded to create the reservoir. Parts of the village remain, including Sodom Rd, at the foot of the Sodom Dam, construction of the reservoir also flooded part of the village of Milltown, in the northeastern corner of Southeast, near present-day Deforest Corners. Many of the original buildings were moved to higher ground, onto present-day Milltown Rd, one of Southeasts longest roads running from New Fairfield. The village of Milltowns 1-room schoolhouse still stands today as a private residence, foundations, rock walls and roadbeds for both villages can still be seen during droughts. List of reservoirs and dams in New York NYCDEP Water Supply Watersheds-Links to information on reservoirs by system U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, East Branch Reservoir
13.
Croton River
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The Croton River is a river in southern New York that begins where its eastern and western tributaries join downstream from the Croton Falls Reservoir. Excess water leaves the spillway at the New Croton Dam, and finally empties into the Hudson River at Croton-on-Hudson, New York at Croton Point, the river has a watershed area of 361 square miles. The Croton River was the source of New York Citys water supply from 1842 on. It was brought to the city through the Croton Aqueduct, which was called the Old Croton Aqueduct. Seeking to expand New York Citys water supply, engineers of the city Aqueduct Commission designed in 1884 a 275-to-300-foot-high masonry dam spanning the Croton River near its mouth, the resulting storage reservoir, impounding a 16-square-mile watershed, would hold 14.2 billion US gallons at full capacity. The Croton Falls Dam was placed into service in 1911, in the 1890s, rather than resorting to expensive filtration, New York City ordered the destruction or relocation of any village or hamlet threatening to pollute the Croton or its tributaries. In the late 1990s, New York City stopped using water from the Croton as it more and more unsuitable for drinking. In 2004, a project was started to rehabilitate the New Croton Aqueduct, list of rivers of New York Croton Gorge Park
14.
Haweswater Reservoir
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Haweswater is a reservoir in the English Lake District, built in the valley of Mardale in the county of Cumbria. The decision caused public outcry, since the farming villages of Measand and Mardale Green would be flooded, also, many desired to maintain the picturesque valley in its existing state. Originally, Haweswater was a lake about four kilometres long, nearly divided by a tongue of land at Measand. The building of the dam raised the level by 29 metres and created a reservoir six kilometres long. A parapet,1.4 metres wide, runs the length of the dam and from this, when the reservoir is full, it holds 84 billion litres of water. The reservoir is now owned by United Utilities PLC and it supplies about 25% of the North Wests water supply. Before the valley was flooded in 1935, all the farms and dwellings of the villages of Mardale Green and Measand were demolished, the village church was dismantled and the stone used in constructing the dam, all the bodies in the churchyard were exhumed and re-buried at Shap. Today, when the water in the reservoir is low, the remains of the village of Mardale Green can still be seen, including stone walls. The road continues to the end of Haweswater, to a car park. Mardale is still a noble valley, but man works with such clumsy hands. Gone for ever are the quiet wooded bays and shingly shores that nature had fashioned so sweetly in the Haweswater of old, there is a population of schelly fish in the lake, believed to have lived there since the last Ice Age. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds first became involved in Haweswater because of the presence of golden eagles, the organisation currently manages two farms in the area. Until 2015 Haweswater was the place in England where a golden eagle was resident. A pair of eagles first nested in the valley of Riggindale in 1969, the female bird disappeared in April 2004, leaving the male alone. There was an RSPB observation post in the valley for people wishing to see the eagle and it was reported that the 20-year old bird may have died of natural causes. In 2012 the RSPB leased two farms from the landowner United Utilities, the aim is to combine the improvement of wildlife habitats and water quality with running a viable sheep farm. Moorland and woodland habitats are being improved for birds as well as the small mountain ringlet butterfly. Measures include grip blocking, heather replanting, juniper woodland planting, possibly Hafrs lake, from a pers. n. such as ON Hafr or a postulated OE Hæfer, and water
15.
Lake District
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The Lake District, also known as the Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes, forests and mountains and its associations with the early 19th century writings of William Wordsworth and the other Lake Poets. It is located in the county of Cumbria, and all the land in England higher than 3,000 feet above sea level lies within the National Park, including Scafell Pike, the highest mountain in England. It also contains the deepest and longest bodies of water in England, respectively Wast Water, the Lake District National Park includes nearly all of the Lake District, though the town of Kendal and the Lakeland Peninsulas are currently outside the park boundary. Its aim is to protect the landscape by restricting unwelcome change by industry or commerce, Most of the land in the park is in private ownership, with about 55% registered as agricultural land. Landowners include, Individual farmers and other landowners, with more than half of the agricultural land farmed by the owners. The National Trust owns about a quarter of the total area, the Forestry Commission and other investors in forests and woodland. United Utilities owns 8% Lake District National Park Authority The National Park Authority is based at offices in Kendal and it runs a visitor centre on Windermere at a former country house called Brockhole, Coniston Boating Centre, and Information Centres. Much of the land has statutory open access rights, which cover around 50% of the park. The lakes and mountains combine to form impressive scenery, farmland and settlement have altered the natural scenery, and the ecology has been modified by human influence for millennia and includes important wildlife habitats. However, in 2016 the English Lake District bid for World Heritage Status was submitted to UNESCO in the category of cultural landscape, a decision is expected in 2017. In December 2009, Natural England proposed extending the National Park in the direction of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and this would include land of high landscape value in the Lune Valley. The proposal was opposed by Cumbria County Council who said it would lead to less democratic control, a public inquiry was held into the proposals, which required a decision by the Secretary of State. The decision to recommend approval was announced on October 23,2015, the precise extent of the Lake District was not defined traditionally, but is slightly larger than that of the National Park, the total area of which is about 912 square miles. The park extends just over 32 miles from east to west, the Lake District is one of the most highly populated national parks. There are, however, only a handful of settlements within this mountainous area, the towns of Keswick, Windermere, Ambleside. Villages such as Coniston, Threlkeld, Glenridding, Pooley Bridge, Broughton-in-Furness, Grasmere, Newby Bridge, Staveley, Lindale, Gosforth, the economies of almost all are intimately linked with tourism. Beyond these are a scattering of hamlets and many isolated farmsteads, some of which are tied to agriculture
16.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
17.
Topography
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Topography is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography of an area could refer to the shapes and features themselves. This field of geoscience and planetary science is concerned with detail in general, including not only relief but also natural and artificial features. This meaning is common in the United States, where topographic maps with elevation contours have made topography synonymous with relief. The older sense of topography as the study of place still has currency in Europe, topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms. This is also known as geomorphometry, in modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form. It is often considered to include the representation of the landform on a map by a variety of techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints. The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome, the word comes from the Greek τόπος and -γραφία. In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, in Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain were called Ordnance Surveys, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys, the earliest scientific surveys in France were called the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term topographic surveys appears to be American in origin, the earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the “Topographical Bureau of the Army, ” formed during the War of 1812, which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. In the 20th century, the term started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used. An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude, identifying features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. There are a variety of approaches to studying topography, which method to use depend on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, in areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program, the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be cleaned to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys involved not only recording of relief, remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features, certainly they have become more and more a part of geovisualization, whether maps or GIS systems
18.
Abu Simbel temples
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The Abu Simbel temples are two massive rock temples at Abu Simbel, a village in Nubia, southern Egypt, near the border with Sudan. They are situated on the bank of Lake Nasser, about 230 km southwest of Aswan. The complex is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Nubian Monuments and their huge external rock relief figures have become iconic. The complex was relocated in its entirety in 1968, on a hill made from a domed structure. Construction of the complex started in approximately 1264 BCE and lasted for about 20 years. Known as the Temple of Ramesses, beloved by Amun it was one of six rock temples erected in Nubia during the reign of Ramesses II. Their purpose was to impress Egypts southern neighbours, and also to reinforce the status of Egyptian religion in the region, with the passage of time, the temples fell into disuse and eventually became covered by sand. By the 6th century BC, the sand covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees. The temple was forgotten until 1813, when Swiss orientalist Jean-Louis Burckhardt found the top frieze of the main temple, Burckhardt talked about his discovery with Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni, who travelled to the site, but was unable to dig out an entry to the temple. Belzoni returned in 1817, this time succeeding in his attempt to enter the complex, a detailed early description of the temples, together with contemporaneous line drawings, can be found in Edward William Lanes Description of Egypt. Eventually, they named the complex after him, one scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear fresh water dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile. There were to be underwater viewing chambers, in 1962 the idea was made into a proposal by architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry and civil engineer Ove Arup. They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds, however the proposal, though acknowledged to be extremely elegant, was rejected. Some structures were saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser. Today, a few hundred tourists visit the temples daily, guarded convoys of buses and cars depart twice a day from Aswan, the nearest city. Many visitors also arrive by plane, at an airfield that was constructed for the temple complex. The complex consists of two temples, the larger one is dedicated to Ra-Harakhty, Ptah and Amun, Egypts three state deities of the time, and features four large statues of Ramesses II in the facade. The smaller temple is dedicated to the goddess Hathor, personified by Nefertari, the temple is now open to the public
19.
Aswan Dam
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The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1960s, the Aswan High Dam, is an embankment dam built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt between 1960 and 1970. Its significance largely eclipsed the previous Aswan Low Dam initially completed in 1902 downstream, like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt. Since this natural flooding varied however, high-water years could destroy the crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought. Both these events had continued to occur periodically, with the greatly increased reservoir storage provided by the High Aswan Dam, the floods could be controlled and the water could be stored for later release over multiple years. His field work convinced him of the impracticality of this scheme, the British began construction of the first dam across the Nile in 1898. Construction lasted until 1902, and the dam was opened on 10 December 1902, the project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co. was the main contractor. In 1912, the Greek-Egyptian engineer Adrian Daninos began to develop the plan of the new Aswan Dam, although the Low Dam was almost overtopped in 1946, the Egyptian government of King Farouk showed no interest in Daninoss plans. Instead the Nile Valley Plan by the British hydrologist Harold Edwin Hurst to store water in Sudan and Ethiopia, the Egyptian position changed completely with the overthrow of the monarchy, led by the Free Officers Movement including Gamal Abdel Nasser. The Free Officers were convinced that the Nile Waters had to be stored in Egypt for political reasons, and within two months, the plan of Daninos was accepted. Initially, both the U. S. A. and the USSR were interested in helping the development of the dam, but this movement happened in the midst of the Cold War, as well as of growing intra-Arab rivalries. At that time the U. S. feared that communism would spread to the Middle East, america and Britain offered to help finance construction of the High Dam, with a loan of $270 million, in return for Nassers leadership in resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict. While opposed both to communism, capitalism, and imperialism, Nasser presented himself as a tactical neutralist, in addition to his development plans, he looked to quickly modernize his military, and he turned first to the U. S. Nasser did not accept these conditions, but then he looked to the USSR for support, on 27 September 1955, Nasser announced an arms deal, with Czechoslovakia acting as a middleman for the Soviet support. Instead of attacking Nasser for turning to the Soviets, Dulles sought to improve relations with him and this explains the later offer of December 1955, in which the U. S. and Britain pledged $56 and $14 million respectively towards the construction of the dam. Though the Czech arms deal actually increased the American willingness to invest at Aswan, what angered Dulles much more was Nassers diplomatic recognition of China, which was in direct conflict with Dulless policy of containment. There are several reasons why the U. S. decided to withdraw its offer of funding. Dulles believed that the USSR would not fulfill its commitment to help the Egyptians and he was also irritated by Nassers neutrality and attempts to play both sides of the Cold War. At the time, other western allies in the Middle East, including Turkey and Iraq, were irritated and jealous that Egypt, in June 1956, the Soviets offered Nasser $1.12 billion at 2% interest for the construction of the dam
20.
Lake Nasser
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Lake Nasser is a vast reservoir in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. It is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, before construction, Sudan was against the building of Lake Nasser because it would encroach on land in the North, where the Nubian people lived. They would have to be resettled, in the end Sudans land near the area of Lake Nasser was mostly flooded by the lake. Strictly, Lake Nasser refers only to the larger portion of the lake that is in Egyptian territory. The lake is some 69 km long and 35 km across at its widest point and it covers a total surface area of 5,250 km2 and has a storage capacity of some 132 km3 of water. The lake was created as a result of the construction of the Aswan High Dam across the waters of the Nile between 1958 and 1970. The lake is named after Gamal Abdel Nasser, one of the leaders of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, and the second President of Egypt and it was President Anwar Sadat who inaugurated the lake and dam in 1970. Egypt lacks the water it needs for agriculture, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, currently being constructed in Ethiopia will most likely adversely affect Lake Nasser. While the Renaissance Dam will benefit Sudan and Ethiopia, it has caused tensions between Egypt and Sudan and Ethiopia, Egypt is worried that the new dam will stop the Nile River from adequately filling Lake Nasser. The water supply of Lake Nasser produces electricity and there is concern that water flowing into Lake Nasser will adversely affect Aswan Dams ability to generate electricity. There are pumping stations that control the water going into Lake Nasser, a fish enclosure was built in Lake Nasser. Fishing among tourists, especially for Nile perch, has become increasingly popular, the statue of Ramses II and others, at Abu Simbel Temple, look out over Lake Nasser and tourists can enjoy the view from their cruise ship. Washington, GPO for the Library of Congress,1990, Lake Nasser at Encyclopædia Britannica 360 panorama of the lake
21.
Nile
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The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It is generally regarded as the longest river in the world, in particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan. The Nile has two tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The White Nile is considered to be the headwaters and primary stream of the Nile itself, the Blue Nile, however, is the source of most of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa and it flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast, the two rivers meet just north of the Sudanese capital of Khartoum. The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Sudanese desert to Egypt, then ends in a large delta, Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, in the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥpī or Iteru, meaning river. In Coptic, the words piaro or phiaro meaning the river come from the ancient name. The English name Nile and the Arabic names en-Nîl and an-Nîl both derive from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος, beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed. One possible etymology derives it from a Semitic Nahal, meaning river, the standard English names White Nile and Blue Nile, to refer to the rivers source, derive from Arabic names formerly applied only to the Sudanese stretches which meet at Khartoum. Above Khartoum, the Nile is also known as the White Nile, at Khartoum the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia, both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift. The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometers, the source of the Nile is sometimes considered to be Lake Victoria, but the lake has feeder rivers of considerable size. It is either the Ruvyironza, which emerges in Bururi Province, Burundi, or the Nyabarongo, the two feeder rivers meet near Rusumo Falls on the Rwanda-Tanzania border. Gish Abay is reportedly the place where the water of the first drops of the Blue Nile develop. The Nile leaves Lake Nyanza at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda and it flows north for some 130 kilometers, to Lake Kyoga. For the remaining part it flows westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the very northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta
22.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
23.
Capel Celyn
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Capel Celyn was a rural community to the north west of Bala in Gwynedd, north Wales, in the Afon Tryweryn valley. The village and other parts of the valley were flooded to create a reservoir, Llyn Celyn, in order to supply Liverpool, the village contained, among other things, a chapel, as the name of the community suggests, capel being Welsh for chapel. In 1956, a bill sponsored by Liverpool City Council was brought before Parliament to develop a water reservoir from the Tryweryn Valley. The development would include the flooding of Capel Celyn, by obtaining authority via an Act of Parliament, Liverpool City Council would not require planning consent from the relevant Welsh local authorities. This, together with the fact that the village was one of the last Welsh-only speaking communities, thirty-five out of thirty-six Welsh Members of Parliament opposed the bill, but in 1957 it was passed. The members of the community waged an eight-year effort, ultimately unsuccessful, when the valley was flooded in 1965, the village and its buildings, including the post office, the school, and a chapel with cemetery, were all lost. Twelve houses and farms were submerged, and 48 people of the 67 who lived in the valley lost their homes, in all some 800 acres of land were submerged. A new reservoir, Llyn Celyn, was formed, many of the stones from the original chapel were re-used in the construction of the new Memorial Chapel. The water in the reservoir is used to maintain the flow of the Afon Dyfrdwy so that water may be abstracted downstream, and additionally to improve the quality of white-water sports on Afon Tryweryn. A full list of the properties is as follows – Families who had relatives buried in the cemetery were given the option of moving them to another cemetery. Consequently, eight bodies were disinterred and the remainder left, all headstones were supposed to be removed, and the cemetery was to be covered in a layer of gravel, then concrete, but this was not done. When the reservoir dried due to a drought in the 1980s, the whole of the walled cemetery next to where the chapel stood was completely covered in concrete. There were no gravestones left standing, the removed headstones can be seen at the new chapel at the Bala end of the lake. One of the farmsteads covered was Hafod Fadog, a Quaker meeting place, on the hillside above the house was a space encircled by a low stone wall where larger meetings were held, and beyond the house was a small burial ground. From this valley came many of the early Quakers who emigrated to Pennsylvania, the building of the reservoir was instrumental in an increase in support for the Welsh nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, during the late 1950s. Almost unanimous Welsh political opposition had failed to approval of the scheme. At the subsequent General Election the partys support increased from 3. 1% to 5. 2%, of perhaps greater significance, however, was the impetus the episode gave to Welsh devolution. By 1964 the Wilson Government gave effect to these proposals, the flooding of Capel Celyn also sharpened debate within Plaid Cymru about the use of direct action
24.
Llyn Celyn
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Llyn Celyn is a large reservoir constructed between 1960 and 1965 in the valley of the River Tryweryn in Gwynedd, Wales. It measures roughly 2.5 miles long by 1 mile wide and it has the capacity to hold 71,200,000 cubic metres of water. It was originally to be named Llyn Tryweryn Mawr, but in September 1964 Liverpool Corporation agreed to the change following a letter by the Tryweryn Defence Committee. Construction of the reservoir involved flooding the village of Capel Celyn and adjacent farmland, the legislation enabling the development was ultimately passed despite the opposition of 35 out of 36 Welsh Members of Parliament, with the 36th abstaining. This led to an increase in support for the Welsh nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, in the late 1950s, although many doubted the need of having an official opening, this took place on 21 October 1965. Representatives came from Liverpool council, and invitations were sent to all those with links to the valley. In view of the anticipated protest, there was a police presence. The ceremony in fact lasted less than 3 minutes, for protesters had cut the wires. In October 2005, Liverpool City Council passed an apology for the incident. These abstractions include one at Huntington water treatment works Chester operated by United Utilities, the reservoir is contained behind a rock gravity dam and, at its upper end, it runs between Arenig Fawr and Arenig Fach, two of the mountains of south Snowdonia. Water is released from the reservoir into the River Tryweryn which flows into the River Dee, most of the water passes through a small hydro-electricity plant to supply green electricity to the National Grid. The released water first flows into a basin and then down the narrow. This section of the river provides facilities for international level white-water canoeing, some water in the reservoir is held in reserve to make special release down the river for specific white-water events. Usually the dam will release between 9 and 11 m³/s although releases as low as 2 m³/s and as high as 16 m³/s have been known, during wet weather the releases are usually throttled back to a minimal maintenance flow unless a planned release for recreational activities has been agreed. Its four turbines are owned and run by Dwr Cymru and generate 4. 38MW The building of the reservoir also contributed to the closure of the GWR branch line from Bala to Blaenau Ffestiniog. Passenger trains had ceased running in 1960, and the last freight train ran in 1961, the line was subsequently flooded by the lake, and the base of the dam also crosses it. Liverpool Council had in fact planned a diversion, but this was never built as the British Transport Commission had decided to close the line. As a result of this, Liverpool Council decided to contribute towards the cost of the new main road, Capel Celyn Tryweryn Bill Afon Tryweryn Canolfan Tryweryn Abandoned communities
25.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
26.
Clywedog Reservoir
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The Clywedog reservoir is a reservoir near Llanidloes, Wales. The reservoir was formed by damming the Afon Clywedog, a tributary of the River Severn and its concrete buttress dam is the tallest concrete dam in the UK, with a height of 72 metres and a length of 230 metres. When at capacity the reservoir contains approximately 50,000 megalitres of water, a second, much smaller embankment dam is located at Bwlch-y-gle to prevent overflow into the next valley. Local opposition was strong against the construction of the reservoir as it would result in the flooding of much of the Clywedog valley and the drowning of 615 acres of agricultural land. On top of several disruptions and protests, during construction in 1966 a bomb was detonated within the construction site, the political extremist group Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru was widely suspected of carrying out the bombing. The reservoir was opened in 1967 and till this day has been in usage, generally filling with water over the winter months. The reservoir is owned and operated by Severn Trent Water Limited with oversight. Clywedog Sailing Club operates on the lake, and Powys County Councils Staylittle Outdoor Centre delivers a range of education both on the water and in the surrounding area. The dam operating plant runs self-sufficiently from a 500 kW hydro-electric turbine, the area around Clywedog dam is now a popular leisure destination offering scenic walks and wildlife watching. In a TV ad for the Land Rover Defender, a Defender 90 is seen winching up the face of the dam under its own power, llyn Clywedog – Llanidloes web-site Welcome to Lyn Clywedog Reservoir – BirminghamUK archives
27.
River Taff
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The River Taff is a river in Wales. It rises as two rivers in the Brecon Beacons — the Taf Fechan and the Taf Fawr — before joining to form the Taff north of Merthyr Tydfil, the river supports a number of migratory fish, including salmon, sea trout, and eel. From its confluence at Cefn-coed-y-cymmer, the river south, passing several towns. It picks up a few tributaries, such as the River Cynon, River Rhondda, Bargoed Taf and it flows through Pontypridd and through to Taffs Well, the site of Wales only thermal spring. In the early 1840s the South Wales Railway was trying to find a site for a railway station. It was Isambard Kingdom Brunels solution to divert the Taff to the west, the station was opened by the South Wales Railway in 1850. The Taf Fawr rises below Corn Du, south-west of Pen y Fan and flows south through Beacons Reservoir, Cantref Reservoir, to the south of Cefn-coed-y-cymmer, the Taf Fechan and Taf Fawr merge at the wooded confluence that gives Cefn-coed-y-cymmer its name. Environment Agency Wales estimated that the river would take six to twelve years to recover, the trout population had resumed breeding by 2009. The Taff continues south through the centre of Merthyr Tydfil, where it is joined by the Nant Morlais which emerges at Abermorlais from a culvert in the east bank, just south of Merthyr weir, the Nant Rhydycar joins. South of Merthyr, the Taff begins to meander its way between Pentrebach and Abercanaid and through Troed-y-rhiw, Merthyr Vale and Aberfan towards Quakers Yard. Here, the Taff Bargoed, Nant Mafon and then down into Abercynon in the Cynon Valley where the Afon Cynon merge with the Taff and, at Pontypridd it is joined by the Afon Rhondda. From Pontypridd, it runs south, through Taffs Well and Radyr. It then flows out into the Severn Estuary, the derogatory term Taffy for a Welsh person is sometimes erroneously stated to have originated with the river. This may have given rise to a usage of the term by Cardiff residents for people from the Taffs northern reaches. It is equivalent of other historic English pejoratives such as Paddy, the term is a common nickname within the British army, with individual Welsh troops, units and especially the Welsh Guards sometimes referred to as The Taffs. However, it has reported that the guardsmen themselves never use that term. Pont-y-Cafnau, worlds earliest surviving railway bridge Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust Merthyr Tydfil Features
28.
Llwyn-on Reservoir
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Llwyn-on Reservoir is the largest and southernmost of the three reservoirs in the Taff Fawr valley in South Wales. It is owned by Welsh Water and it is located in the Brecon Beacons National Park. The eastern half is in the Merthyr Tydfil unitary authority area, the reservoir is within the historic county boundaries of Breconshire. The dam is adjacent to Llwyn-On village, Nant Gwinau, Nant Car and Garwnant are the major streams that enter the reservoir. To the east of the reservoir is the 462m mountain of Garn Ddu, there are a variety of guided walks and waymarked paths. Environmental sculptures can be found on the Wern and Willow walks, the Taff Trail and the Navvies Line paths link Cefn Coed-y-Cymmer to Brecon
29.
Cantref Reservoir
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Cantref Reservoir is the middle of the three reservoirs in the Taff Fawr valley in Wales. It is owned by Welsh Water and it is located in the Brecon Beacons National Park, mostly in the Powys unitary authority area and within the historic county boundaries of Breconshire. Part of the south west corner is in the Rhondda Cynon Taff unitary authority area, a public footpath crosses the dam and links with the Taff Trail and the Navvies Line paths. Www. geograph. co. uk, photos of the Cantref reservoir and surrounding area
30.
Beacons Reservoir
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Beacons Reservoir is the northernmost of the three reservoirs in the Taff Fawr valley in South Wales. It is owned by Welsh Water, as its name suggests, it is located in the Brecon Beacons National Park in the Powys unitary authority area and within the historic county boundaries of Breconshire. There is access to the Taff Trail and the Navvies Line from the car park below the dam, during periods of low water, the remains of longhouses can be seen. One building overlooking the Taff Fawr has foundations of massive weathered slabs, www. geograph. co. uk, photos of the Beacons reservoir and surrounding area
31.
Siphon
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The word siphon \sy-fun\ is used to refer to a wide variety of devices that involve the flow of liquids through tubes. There are two leading theories about how siphons cause liquid to flow uphill, against gravity, without being pumped, the traditional theory for centuries was that gravity pulling the liquid down on the exit side of the siphon, resulted in reduced pressure at the top of the siphon. Then atmospheric pressure was able to push the liquid from the reservoir, up into the reduced pressure at the top of the siphon, like in a barometer or drinking straw. However, it has demonstrated that siphons can operate in a vacuum. Consequently, the cohesion tension theory of operation has been advocated. It need not be one theory or the other that is correct, the atmospheric pressure with gravity theory obviously cannot explain siphons in vacuum, where there is no significant atmospheric pressure. All known published theories in modern times recognize Bernoullis equation as a decent approximation to idealized, egyptian reliefs from 1500 BC depict siphons used to extract liquids from large storage jars. There is physical evidence for the use of siphons by Greek engineers in the 3rd century BC at Pergamon, hero of Alexandria wrote extensively about siphons in the treatise Pneumatica. In the 9th century, the Banu Musa brothers invented a double-concentric siphon, the edition edited by Hill includes an analysis of the double-concentric siphon. A practical siphon, operating at atmospheric pressures and tube heights. The chain model is a useful but not completely accurate model of a siphon. The chain model helps to understand how a siphon can cause liquid to flow uphill, a siphon can sometimes be thought of a little like a chain hanging over a pulley, with one end of the chain piled on a higher surface than the other. Since the length of chain on the side is lighter than the length of chain on the taller side. There are a number of problems with the model of a siphon. First, unlike in the model of the siphon, it is not actually the weight on the taller side compared to the shorter side. Rather it is the difference in height from the surfaces to the top of the siphon. An occasional misunderstanding of siphons is that they rely on the strength of the liquid to pull the liquid up. When the plug is removed and the liquid in the lower leg is allowed to fall
32.
Bank (geography)
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In geography, the word bank generally refers to the land alongside a body of water. Different structures are referred to as banks in different fields of geography, in limnology, a stream bank or river bank is the terrain alongside the bed of a river, creek, or stream. The bank consists of the sides of the channel, between which the flow is confined, stream banks are of particular interest in fluvial geography, which studies the processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. The shoreline of ponds, swamps, estuaries, reservoirs, or lakes are also of interest in limnology, the grade of all these banks or shorelines can vary from vertical to a shallow slope. In freshwater ecology, banks are of interest as the location of riparian habitats, riparian zones occur along upland and lowland river and stream beds. The ecology around and depending on a marsh, swamp, slough, or estuary, banks are also of interest in navigation, where the term can refer either to a barrier island or a submerged plateau, such as an ocean bank. A barrier island is a narrow island composed of sand. A submerged plateau is a flat topped elevation of the sea floor at shallow depth
33.
Puddling (civil engineering)
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The technique of puddling and its use was developed by early canal engineer James Brindley, it is considered his greatest contribution to engineering. This processed material was used extensively in UK canal construction in the period starting circa 1780, starting about 1840 puddle clay was used more widely as the water-retaining element within earthfill dams, particularly in the Pennines. Its usage in UK dams was superseded about 1960 by the use of rolled clay in the core, a considerable number of early notable dams were built in that era and they are now sometimes referred to as the Pennines embankment type. These dams are characterized by a vertical puddle clay core supported on both sides by earthfill shoulders of more heterogeneous material. To control under-seepage through the foundation below the dam, the Pennines embankments generally constructed a puddle clay-filled cutoff trench in rock directly below the central core. Later construction often used concrete to fill the cutoff trench, to make puddle, clay or heavy loam is chopped with a spade and mixed into a plastic state with water and sometimes coarse sand or grit to discourage excavation by moles or water voles. The puddle is laid about 10 inches thick at the sides and nearly 3 ft thick at the bottom of a canal, puddle has to be kept wet in order to remain waterproof so it is important for canals to be kept filled with water. The clay is laid down with a called a punner, or pun. Puddle clay or puddle adobe is often called cob, cob has added ingredients of a fibrous material to act as a mechanical binder
34.
Road roller
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A road roller is a compactor type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations. Similar rollers are used also at landfills or in agriculture, in some parts of the world, road rollers are still known colloquially as steam rollers, regardless of their method of propulsion. This typically only applies to the largest examples, the first road rollers were horse-drawn, and were probably just borrowed farm implements. Since the effectiveness of a roller depends to an extent on its weight. The first such vehicles were steam rollers, some road companies in the United States used steamrollers through the 1950s, and in the UK, some remained in commercial service until the early 1970s. As internal combustion engine technology improved during the 20th century, kerosene-, gasoline-, the first internal-combustion powered road rollers were very similar to the steam rollers they replaced. They used similar mechanisms to transmit power from the engine to the wheels, typically large, some users did not like them in their infancy, as the engines of the era were typically difficult to start, particularly the kerosene-powered ones. Virtually all road rollers in commercial use now use diesel power, road rollers use the weight of the vehicle to compress the surface being rolled or use mechanical advantage. Initial compaction of the substrate on a project is done using a padfoot drum roller. On regional roads a smaller single padfoot drum machine may be used, sometimes at this stage a pneumatic tyre roller would be used. Once the soil base is flat the pad drum compactor is no longer used on the road surface, once the road base is compacted, the smooth single drum compactor is no longer used on the road surface. The final wear course of concrete is laid using a paver and compacted using a tandem smooth drum roller. Rollers are also used in landfill compaction, such compactors typically have padfoot or sheeps-foot drums, and do not achieve a smooth surface. The pads aid in compression, due to the area contacting the ground. The roller can be a drum with a handle that is operated by one person. A landfill unit may weigh 59 short tons, rammer Walk-behind plate compactor/light Trench roller Walk-behind roller/light Walk-behind roller/heavy Tandem drum Tandem drum Single drum roller Pneumatic-tyred Roller, a. k. a. Tyre rollers are available in widths ranging up to 2.7 metres, with between 7 and 11 wheels,7 and 8 wheel types are used in Europe and Africa,9 and 11 in America. Very heavy tyre rollers are used to compact soil, on some machines, the drums may be filled with water on site to achieve the desired weight
35.
Turbidity
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Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality, fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid, Turbidity is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. In plastic production haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2. 5° from the light direction. Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton, human activities that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. Certain industries such as quarrying, mining and coal recovery can generate high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock particles. In drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may develop gastrointestinal diseases and this is especially problematic for immunocompromised people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. The suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the act as shields for the virus. Similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet sterilization of water, high turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. This phenomenon has been observed throughout the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United States. For many mangrove areas, high turbidity is needed to support certain species, for most mangroves along the eastern coast of Australia, in particular Moreton Bay, turbidity levels as high as 600 Nephelometric Turbidity Units are needed for proper ecosystem health. The most widely used measurement unit for turbidity is the Formazin Turbidity Unit, ISO refers to its units as FNU. ISO7027 provides the method in water quality for the determination of turbidity and it is used to determine the concentration of suspended particles in a sample of water by measuring the incident light scattered at right angles from the sample. The scattered light is captured by a photodiode, which produces a signal that is converted to a turbidity. Open source hardware has been developed following the ISO7027 method to measure turbidity reliably using an Arduino microcontroller, there are several practical ways of checking water quality, the most direct being some measure of attenuation of light as it passes through a sample column of water. The alternatively used Jackson Candle method is essentially the inverse measure of the length of a column of water needed to completely obscure a candle flame viewed through it, the more water needed, the clearer the water. Of course water alone produces some attenuation, and any substances dissolved in the water that produce color can attenuate some wavelengths, modern instruments do not use candles, but this approach of attenuation of a light beam through a column of water should be calibrated and reported in JTUs. The propensity of particles to scatter a light focused on them is now considered a more meaningful measure of turbidity in water
36.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
37.
River Lea
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It is one of the largest rivers in London and the easternmost major tributary of the Thames. Its valley creates a chain of marshy ground along its lower length, much of which has been used for gravel and mineral extraction, reservoirs. The river has been canalised to provide a route for boats into eastern Hertfordshire. While the lower Lea remains somewhat polluted, its stretch and tributaries. A diversion known as the New River, opened in 1613 and its origins in the Chilterns contribute to the extreme hardness of London tap water. The name of the River Lea was first recorded in the 9th century, spellings from the Anglo-Saxon period include Ligan in 880 and Lygan in 895, and in the early medieval period it is usually Luye or Leye. It seems to be derived from a Celtic root lug-meaning bright or light which is also the derivation of a name for a deity, a simpler derivation may well be the Brythonic word cognate with the modern Welsh Li pronounced Lea which means a flow or a current. The spelling Lea predominates west of Hertford, but both spellings are used from Hertford to the River Thames, the Lee Navigation was established by Acts of Parliament and only that spelling is used in this context. The Lee Valley Regional Park Authority also uses this spelling for leisure facilities, however, the spelling Lea is used for road names, locations and other infrastructure in the capital, such as Leamouth, Lea Bridge, the Lea Valley Walk and the Lea Valley Railway Lines. This spelling is used in geology, archaeology, etc. to refer to the Lea Valley. The divergent spellings of the river are also reflected in the place-names of Luton and Leyton, both mean farmstead on the River Lea. The source is said to be at Well Head inside Wauluds Bank at Leagrave, but there the River Lea is also fed by Houghton Brook. It forms the boundary between the counties of Middlesex and Essex, and was used for part of the Danelaw boundary. It also forms part of the boundary between Essex and Hertfordshire, for much of its distance the river runs within or as a boundary to the Lee Valley Park. Between Tottenham and Hackney the Lea feeds Tottenham Marshes, Walthamstow Marshes, in their early days, Tottenham Hotspur and Leyton Orient played their matches as football amateurs on the Marshes. South of Hackney Wick the rivers course is split, running almost completely in man made channels flowing through an area that was once an industrial zone. Inside Greater London below Enfield Lock the river forms the boundary with the former Royal Small Arms Factory, now known as Enfield Island Village, just downstream the river is joined by the River Lee Flood Relief Channel. At Tottenham Hale there is a set of reservoirs, Lockwood Reservoir, High Maynard Reservoir, Low Maynard Reservoir, Walthamstow Reservoirs, East Warwick Reservoir
38.
Queen Mary Reservoir
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The Queen Mary Reservoir is one of the largest of Londons reservoirs supplying fresh water to London and parts of surrounding counties and is in the borough of Spelthorne in Surrey. The reservoir covers 707 acres and lies 45 ft above the surrounding area and it lies south of the A308 and at its closest point 0.25 miles northwest of the M3 motorway. Designed by John Watson Gibson for the Metropolitan Water Board and opened in 1925 and it was named after the Queen Consort of the time, Mary of Teck, and a plaque commemorates the event. The county of the reservoir, as with Spelthorne and Potters Bar, was from Anglo Saxon England until 1965, in 1943, during world war II, the reservoir was used for testing submersibles. The submersible was nicknamed Sleeping Beauty, in 2010 Prince Philip visited the reservoir to unveil a modern replica of the submersibles tested here. The model is on display at the Eden Camp museum near Malton in North Yorkshire,200,000,000 imp gal of water are pumped into the reservoir each day from an inlet on the River Thames at Laleham between Chertsey Lock and Penton Hook Lock. The Queen Mary Sailing Club is a sailing club on the reservoir. It owns a subsidiary company Queen Mary Sailsports, bringing all training operations in house, London water supply infrastructure Queen Mary sailing club
39.
Heathrow Airport
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Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
40.
Water tower
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In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower, especially one with tall and narrow proportions. Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, other types of water towers may only store raw water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply. A water tower serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak hours of the day. This process also keeps the water freezing in cold weather. Standpipes also provided a convenient fixed location to measure flow rates, designers typically enclosed the riser pipes in decorative masonry or wooden structures. By the late 19th-Century, standpipes grew to include storage tanks to meet the demands of growing cities. Many early water towers are now considered significant and have been included in various heritage listings around the world. Some are converted to apartments or exclusive penthouses, in certain areas, such as New York City in the United States, smaller water towers are constructed for individual buildings. In California and some states, domestic water towers enclosed by siding were once built to supply individual homes. The reservoir in the tower may be spherical, cylindrical, or an ellipsoid, with a height of approximately 6 metres. A standard water tower typically has a height of approximately 40 m, pressurization occurs through the hydrostatic pressure of the elevation of water, for every 10.20 centimetres of elevation, it produces 1 kilopascal of pressure. 30 m of elevation produces roughly 300 kPa, which is enough pressure to operate and provide for most domestic water pressure, the height of the tower provides the pressure for the water supply system, and it may be supplemented with a pump. The volume of the reservoir and diameter of the piping provide, however, relying on a pump to provide pressure is expensive, to keep up with varying demand, the pump would have to be sized to meet peak demands. During periods of low demand, jockey pumps are used to meet these lower water flow requirements, very high volumes and flow rates are needed when fighting fires. Using wireless sensor networks to monitor water levels inside the tower allows municipalities to automatically monitor, Water towers can be surrounded by ornate coverings including fancy brickwork, a large ivy-covered trellis or they can be simply painted. Some city water towers have the name of the city painted in large letters on the roof, as an aid to aviators. Sometimes the decoration can be humorous, an example of this are water towers built side by side, labeled HOT and COLD
41.
Thames Water
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Thames Water is the UKs largest water and wastewater services company, and supplies 2.6 billion litres of drinking water per day, and treats 4.4 billion litres of wastewater per day. Thames Waters 15 million customers comprise 27% of the UK population, other large shareholders in recent years include, BT Pension Scheme, the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority and the China Investment Corporation. The name of the company reflects its role providing water to the basin of the River Thames and not the source of its water. In March 2017 a judge imposed a fine of £20. 3m on Thames Water after large leaks of untreated sewage, totalling 1. 4bn litres. Thames Water can trace its history back to earlier companies. During the 1850s, Dr John Snow and William Farrs identification of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak provided a stimulus to the treatment of sewage. The Thames Conservancy was established in 1857 with unified control over supply, drainage. The Great Stink occurred in 1858, and focussed government and public opinion on cleaning up the Thames, joseph Bazalgettes remediation of The Great Stink provided the company with much of Londons present Victorian sewerage infrastructure and several listed buildings within its portfolio of sites. The remainder of Thames Water Authority was privatised as Thames Water Utilities Limited, the company became listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. Following international expansion, Thames Water became the third largest water company in 1995. Thames Water plc was acquired by the German utility company RWE in 2001, as well as its British operations, it continued as an international water treatment consultancy and acquired further overseas operations. In December 2006, the sale of Thames Waters British operation went ahead, under the new ownership, the company re-focused its efforts on improving its operational performance and in 2007 announced the largest-ever capital investment programme of any UK water company. On 14 March 2017, Macquarie Group sold its stake in Thames Waters holding company to OMERS. As of 2014, Thames Water provides the second cheapest residential water and sewerage charges of all the combined Water, since 2007, it has made capital investments at least £1 billion a year in its infrastructure – the largest such annual investment within the UK water industry. In 2015–2016, this figure was £1.2 billion and this level of investment has allowed the company to defer, but not avoid, substantial portions of its corporation tax liability in line with UK tax law. Every day, Thames Water abstracts / extracts, treats and supplies 2 and it maintains 30 raw water reservoirs and 235 underground service reservoirs. As well as customers, Thames Water supplies bulk clean water to some inset companies. Other inset companies maintain their own independent means of supply, likewise, it daily removes, treats and disposes 4
42.
Water supply
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Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. However, about 14% did not have access to a water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals. A clean water supply - in particular water that is not polluted with fecal matter from lack of sanitation - is the single most important determinant of public health. Destruction of water supply and/or sanitation infrastructure after major catastrophes poses the threat of severe epidemics of waterborne diseases. Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater, surface water, the water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs. In the U. S, the single family home uses about 69.3 gallons of water per day. This includes toilet use, washing machine use, showers, baths, tap use, many of the 3.5 billion people having access to piped water receive a poor or very poor quality of service, especially in developing countries where about 80% of the world population lives. Water supply service quality has many dimensions, continuity, water quality, pressure, and it is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis. Drinking water quality has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension, there are thousands of parameters of water quality. For more details, please see the entries on water quality, water treatment. Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system, Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures. Typical UK pressures are 4–5 bar for an urban supply, however, some people can get over eight bars or below one bar. A single iron main pipe may cross a valley, it will have the same nominal pressure. So people at the bottom of a 100-foot hill will get about 3 bars more than those at the top, the effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of 15 mm pipe running from the main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and limed 22 mm iron pipe, for this reason, the UK domestic water system has traditionally employed a cistern feed system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the attic
Ghana
Canada
Russia
Zimbabwe, 
Zambia
Kazakhstan
Egypt, 
Sudan
Venezuela
