1.
Helena, Montana
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Helena /ˈhɛlᵻnə/ is the capital city of the U. S. state of Montana and the county seat of Lewis and Clark County. It was founded as a camp during the Montana gold rush. Over $3.6 billion of gold was extracted in the city limits over a duration of two decades, making it one of the wealthiest cities in the United States by the nineteenth century. The concentration of wealth contributed to the prominent, elaborate Victorian architecture. The 2010 census put the population at 28,190 and the Lewis, Helena is the principal city of the Helena Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Lewis and Clark and Jefferson counties, its population is 77,414 according to the 2015 Census Estimate. The local daily newspaper is the Independent Record, professional sports teams include the Helena Brewers minor league baseball and Helena Bighorns Tier III Junior A hockey team. The city is served by Helena Regional Airport, the Helena area was long used by various indigenous peoples. Before the introduction of the horse some 300 years ago, and since, other peoples, including the Salish. Yet like the native peoples none of them stayed for long, gold strikes in Idaho Territory in the early 1860s attracted many migrants who initiated major gold rushes at Grasshopper Creek and Alder Gulch in 1862 and 1863 respectively. So many people came that the government created a new territory called Montana in May 1864. These miners prospected far and wide for new gold discoveries. The original camp was named Last Chance by the Four Georgians, by fall, the population had grown to over 200, and some thought the name Last Chance was too crass. On October 30,1864, a group of at least seven self-appointed men met to name the town, authorize the layout of the streets, the first suggestion was Tomah, a word the committee thought had connections to the local Indian people. Other nominations included Pumpkinville and Squashtown, other suggestions were to name the community after various Minnesota towns, such as Winona and Rochester, as a number of settlers had come from Minnesota. Finally, a Scotsman named John Summerville proposed Helena, which he pronounced /həˈliːnə/ hə-LEE-nə in honor of Helena Township, Scott County, Minnesota. This immediately caused an uproar from the former Confederates in the room, who insisted upon the pronunciation /ˈhɛlᵻnə/ HEL-i-nə, after Helena, Arkansas, a town on the Mississippi River. While the name Helena won, the pronunciation varied until approximately 1882 when the /ˈhɛlᵻnə/ HEL-i-nə pronunciation became dominant and has remained so to the present. Later tales of the naming of Helena claimed the name came variously from the island of St. Helena, the townsite was first surveyed in 1865 by Captain John Wood
2.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
3.
Bhutan
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Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked country in Asia and the smallest state located entirely within the Himalaya mountain range. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bordered by China in the north, Bhutan lacks a border with nearby Nepal due to the Indian state of Sikkim and with Bangladesh due to the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam. Bhutan is geopolitically in South Asia and is the second least populous nation after the Maldives. Thimphu is its capital and largest city, while Phuntsholing is its financial center, the independence of Bhutan has endured for centuries and the territory was never colonized in its history. Situated on the ancient Silk Road between Tibet, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, the Bhutanese state developed a national identity based on Buddhism. Headed by a leader known as the Zhabdrung Rinpoche, the territory was composed of many fiefdoms. Following a civil war in the 19th century, the House of Wangchuck reunited the country, Bhutan fostered a strategic partnership with India during the rise of Chinese communism and has a disputed border with the Peoples Republic of China. The King of Bhutan is known as the Dragon King, Bhutan is also notable for pioneering the concept of gross national happiness. The countrys landscape ranges from subtropical plains in the south to the sub-alpine Himalayan mountains in the north. The highest mountain in Bhutan is the Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. There is also diverse wildlife in Bhutan, in South Asia, Bhutan ranks first in economic freedom, ease of doing business and peace, second in per capita income and is the least corrupt country, as of 2016. However, Bhutan continues to be a least developed country, hydroelectricity accounts for the major share of its exports. The government is a parliamentary democracy, Bhutan maintains diplomatic relations with 52 countries and the European Union, but does not have formal ties with the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the United Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Royal Bhutan Army maintains extensive military relations with the Indian Armed Forces. The precise etymology of Bhutan is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym Bod used for Tibet. Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta end of Tibet, since the 17th century the official name of Bhutan has been Druk yul and Bhutan only appears in English-language official correspondence. Names similar to Bhutan — including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan, jean-Baptiste Taverniers 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan. However, in case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan
4.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
5.
Industrial district
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Industrial district concept was initially used by Alfred Marshall to describe some aspects of the industrial organisation of nations. Industrial district is a place where workers and firms, specialised in an industry and auxiliary industries, live. The term was used the first time by Alfred Marshall in The Principles of Economics, Marshall talks of a. thickly peopled industrial district. The term was used in political struggle. The term also appears in English literature, for instance, in a short story of 1920 by D. H. Lawrence, You Touched Me, - Matilda and Emmie were already old maids. In a thorough industrial district, it is not easy for the girls who have expectations above the common to find husbands, the ugly industrial town was full of men, young men who were ready to marry. But they were all colliers or pottery-hands, mere workmen, the strong specialisation of the workers and an appropriate support of public goods and institutions are supported by an Industrial Atmosphere related to a locally developing division of labour. Competences and knowledge are shared in informal way with processes of learning by doing and learning by using, within the study of economics, the term has evolved. Giacomo Becattini rediscovered the concept to describe the Italian industrial configuration of the middle of XX century, a growing literature with an accompanying cloud of definitions of what is meant as an industrial district characterised the international dabate, e. g. Cluster. Industrial districts in Italy have a coherent location and a narrow profile, e. g. Prato in woollen fabric. The success of SME-based Italian districts in the last century and the fortunes of the current ones led to investigate more thoroughly some related aspects. The general characteristics of the ID are consistent with gradual change supported by processes of innovation from below, however, the globalisation processes asked non-gradual changes to the historical IDs and technical and organisational difficulties could hit them. Company town Creative city Industrial park Mega-Site Mill town
6.
Single-family housing
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A single-family detached home, also called a single-detached dwelling, single-family residence or separate house is a free-standing residential building. It is defined in opposition to a residential dwelling. The definition of this type of house may vary between legal jurisdictions or statistical agencies and it does exclude, however, any short-term accommodation, large-scale rental accommodation, or condominia. Garages can also be found on most lots, houses with an attached front entry garage that is closer to the street than any other part of the house is often derisively called a snout house. It is important to note that In the United States, that the term Single Family Residence specifically refers to the not the occupants. Historically, Homeowners Associations have used the term to limit non-nuclear families, presently, these types of HOA policies are subject to Fair Housing Lawsuits, heavy penalties, and possibly personal liability for board members. Terms corresponding to single-family detached home in common use are single-family home, single-detached dwelling, detached house, in the United Kingdom, the term single-family home is almost unknown, except through Internet exposure to U. S. media. In pre-industrial societies most people live in multi-family dwelling for most of their lives and this type of arrangement also saves on the effort and materials used for construction and, in colder climates, heating. If people had to move to a new place or were wealthy enough, they could build or buy a home for their own family, of course and this has produced a cultural preference in settler societies for privacy and space. A countervailing trend has been industrialization and urbanization, which as seen more and more people around the world move into apartment blocks. Single-family homes are now common in rural and suburban and even urban areas across the New World and Europe. They are most common in low-density, high-income regions, for example, in Canada according to the 2006 Census 55. 3% of the population lived single-detached houses but this varied substantially by region. In the Ville of Montreal, Canadas second most populous municipality, only 7. 5% of the lived in a single-detached house, while in the city of Calgary. Note that this includes the city limits only, not the wider region. The term single-family detached describes how a house is built and who lives in it and it does not indicate size, shape, or location. Because they are not surrounded by buildings, the potential size of a single-family house is limited only by the budget of the builder. They can range from a country cottage or cabin or a small suburban prefabricated home to a large mansion. Sizes in real estate advertising are given in area, or by the number of bedrooms or bathrooms/toilets, the choice in materials used or the shape chosen will depend on what is common to the vernacular architecture of that region, or the lasted trends in professionally designed tract housing
7.
Mobile home
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A mobile home is a prefabricated structure, built in a factory on a permanently attached chassis before being transported to site. Behind the cosmetic work fitted at installation to hide the base, there are strong trailer frames, axles, wheels, in the United States, this form of housing goes back to the early years of cars and motorized highway travel. It was derived from the trailer, a small unit with wheels attached permanently. The original rationale for this type of housing was its mobility, units were initially marketed primarily to people whose lifestyle required mobility. Previously, units had been eight feet or less in width, but in 1956, the homes were given a rectangular shape, made from pre-painted aluminum panels, rather than the streamlined shape of travel trailers, which were usually painted after assembly. All of this increase the difference between these homes and home/travel trailers. During the late 1960s and early 70s, the homes were even longer and wider. Nowadays, when a home is moved to a location, it is usually kept there permanently. In some states, mobile homes have been taxed as personal property if the wheels remain attached, removal of the tongue and axles may also be a requirement for real estate classification. Mobile homes permanently installed on owned land are rarely mortgageable, whereas FHA code manufactured homes are mortgageable through VA, FHA, the units were often marketed as an alternative to apartment rental. However, the tendency of the units of this era to depreciate rapidly in resale value made using them as collateral for loans much riskier than traditional home loans. Terms were usually limited to less than the thirty-year term typical of the general home-loan market, in this way, mobile home loans resembled motor vehicle loans more than traditional home mortgage loans. Mobile homes come in two sizes, single-wides and double-wides. Single-wides are 18 feet or less in width and 90 feet or less in length, double-wides are 20 feet or more wide and are 90 feet in length or less and are towed to their site in two separate units, which are then joined together. Triple-wides and even homes with four, five, or more units are also built, while site-built homes are rarely moved, single-wide owners often trade or sell their home to a dealer in the form of the reduction of the purchase of a new home. These used homes are either re-sold to new owners or to park owners who use them as rental units. Single-wides are more likely to be traded than double-wides because removing them from the site is easier, in fact, only about 5% of all double-wides will ever be moved. While an EF1 tornado might cause damage to a site-built home, it could do significant damage to a factory-built home
8.
Zoning
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Zoning describes the control by authority which designates legal areas in a municipality to permit and prohibit land uses. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land and it may also indicate the size and dimensions of land area as well as the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development, areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are permitted. Thus, zoning is a technique of land-use planning as a tool of urban planning used by governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of designating mapped zones which regulate the use, form, design, legally, a zoning plan is usually enacted as a by-law with the respective procedures. Canada or Germany, zoning plans must comply with upper-tier planning, similar urban planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities from ancient times. The primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible, in practice, zoning also is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community. However, it has not always been a method for achieving this goal. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth government is not subject to state planning controls, the United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes, in the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. In Germany, zoning includes an assessment with very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar, most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances, usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to antiquity, the ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land based on use. Outside the city walls were the functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, within the wall were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived. Beyond the simple distinction between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land type and use inside their walls. This was practiced in regions of the world – for example, in China during the Zhou Dynasty, in India during the Vedic Era. One legal form for enforcing this was the caste system and this meant that residential areas also functioned as places of labour, production and commerce
9.
Urban density
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Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of population density, Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and it is commonly asserted that higher density cities are more sustainable than low density cities. However, the link between urban density and aspects of sustainability remains an area of planning theory. Jan Gehl, prominent Urban Designer and expert on sustainable urbanism, argues that low-density, a minority, such as Randy OToole of the Libertarian Cato Institute, counter that raising densities results in more expensive real estate, greater road congestion and more localized air pollution. Others counter that traffic congestion is a result not of population density, Urban density is a very specific measurement of the population of an urbanized area, excluding non-urban land-uses. Non-urban uses include regional open space, agriculture and water-bodies, weighted density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average citizen lives. It is determined by calculating the density of each census tract, assigning each a weight equal to its share of the total population. Island Press ISBN 1-55963-660-2 Pont, Meta Y.19, nr,1, pg. 66-76 MIT Density Atlas Urban Density and Energy Consumption
10.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
11.
Land development
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In an economics context, land development is also sometimes advertised as land improvement or land amelioration. It refers to investments making land more usable by humans, for accounting purposes it refers to any variety of projects that increase the value of the property. Most are depreciable, but some improvements are not able to be depreciated because a useful life cannot be determined. Home building and containment are two of the most common and the oldest types of development and this profit enhancement means identifying and developing the best scheme for the local marketplace, whilst satisfying the local planning process. Development Analysis puts development prospects and the development process itself under the microscope, development analysis can add significantly to the value of land and development, and as such is a crucial tool for landowners and developers. It is a step in Kevin A. Lynchs 1960 book The Image of the City. The landowner can share in additional planning gain via an awareness of the development potential. This is done via a residual development appraisal or residual valuation, the residual appraisal calculates the sale value of the end product, and hypothetically deducts costs, including planning and construction costs, finance costs and developers profit. The residue, or leftover proportion, represents the land value, therefore, in maximising the GDV, land value is concurrently enhanced. Land value is highly sensitive to supply and demand, build costs, planning and affordable housing contributions, understanding the intricacies of the development system and the effect of value drivers can result in massive differences in the landowners sale value. Land improvement in the economic sense can often lead to degradation from the ecological perspective. Land development and the change in land value does not usually take into account changes in the ecology of the developed area, new creation of farmland will rely on the conversion and development of previous forests, savannas or grassland. Recreation of farmland from wasteland, deserts or previous impervious surfaces is considerably less frequent because of the degraded or missing fertile soil in the latter, starting from forests, land is made arable by assarting or slash-and-burn. Agricultural development furthermore includes, Hydrological measures Soil improvement, road construction Because the newly created farmland is more prone to erosion than soil stabilized by tree roots, such a conversion may mean irreversible crossing of an ecological threshold. The resulting deforestation is not easily compensated for by reforestation or afforestation. Examples of land restoration/land rehabilitation counted as land development in the strict sense are still rare, however, renaturation, reforestation, stream restoration may all contribute to a healthier environment and quality of life, especially in densely populated regions. The same is true for planned vegetation like parks and gardens, but restoration plays a particular role, because it reverses previous conversions to built and agricultural areas
12.
Transport
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Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
13.
Deed
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For the British cargo ship, see SS Deed. For the reality series, see The Deed. A deed is any instrument in writing which passes, affirms or confirms an interest, right, or property and that is signed, attested, delivered. It is commonly associated with transferring title to property, the deed has a greater presumption of validity and is less rebuttable than an instrument signed by the party to the deed. A deed can be unilateral or bilateral, deeds include conveyances, commissions, licenses, patents, diplomas, and conditionally powers of attorney if executed as deeds. The deed is the descendant of the medieval charter. The traditional phrase signed, sealed and delivered refers to the practice of seals, however, agreements under seal are also called contracts by deed or specialty, in the United States, a specialty is enforceable without consideration. Specialties, as a form of contract, are bilateral and can therefore be distinguished from covenants, which, being also under seal, are unilateral promises. At common law, to be valid and enforceable, a deed must fulfill several requirements, It must state on its face that it is a deed and it must indicate that the instrument itself conveys some privilege or thing to someone. The grantor must have the ability to grant the thing or privilege. It must be executed by the grantor in presence of the number of witnesses. In some jurisdictions, a seal must be affixed to it, originally, affixing seals made persons parties to the deed and signatures optional, but seals are now outdated in most jurisdictions, so the signatures of the grantor and witnesses are primary. It must be delivered to and accepted by the grantee, conditions attached to the acceptance of a deed are known as covenants. A deed indented or indenture is one executed in two or more according to the number of parties, which were formerly separated by cutting in a curved or indented line known as the chirograph. A deed poll is one executed in one part, by one party, having the edge polled or cut even, in the transfer of real estate, a deed conveys ownership from the old owner to the new owner, and can include various warranties. The precise name and nature of these differ by jurisdiction. Often, however, the differences between them is the degree to which the grantor warrants the title. The grantor may give a general warranty of title against any claims, the latter type of deed is usually known as a special warranty deed
14.
Concentric zone model
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The concentric zone model, also known as the Burgess model or the CCD model, is one of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1925, based on human ecology theory done by Burgess and applied on Chicago, it was the first to give the explanation of distribution of social groups within urban areas. This concentric ring model depicts urban land usage in concentric rings, the Central Business District was in the middle of the model, and it is effectively an urban version of Von Thünens regional land use model developed a century earlier. It influenced the development of Homer Hoyts sector model and Harris. The model is more detailed than the traditional down-mid-uptown divide by which downtown is the CBD, uptown the affluent residential outer ring, burgesss work helped generate the bid rent curve. This theory states that the circles are based on the amount that people will pay for the land. This value is based on the profits that are obtainable from maintaining a business on that land, the center of the town will have the highest number of customers so it is profitable for retail activities. Manufacturing will pay less for the land as they are only interested in the accessibility for workers, goods in. Residential land use will take the surrounding land, the model has been challenged by many contemporary urban geographers. First, the model does not work well with cities outside the United States, even in the United States, because of changes such as advancement in transportation and information technology and transformation in global economy, cities are no longer organized with clear zones. It describes the peculiar American geography, where the city is poor while suburbs are wealthy. It assumes an isotropic plane – an even, unchanging landscape, physical features – land may restrict growth of certain sectors, hills and water features may make some locations unusually desirable for residential purposes. Commuter villages defy the theory, being a distant part of the commuter zone, decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and entertainment. Urban regeneration and gentrification – more expensive property can be found in formerly low class housing areas, many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain. It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization, the model does not fit polycentric cities, for example Stoke-on-Trent. Core frame model Multiple nuclei model Sector model Transect Urban structure Johann Heinrich von Thünen ring model Media related to Urban geography at Wikimedia Commons
15.
Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan
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Hells Kitchen, also known as Clinton, is a neighborhood on the West Side of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It is traditionally considered to be bordered by 34th Street to the south, 59th Street to the north, Eighth Avenue to the east, the area provides transport, medical, and warehouse infrastructure support to Midtowns business district. Once a bastion of poor and working class Irish Americans, Hells Kitchens location in Midtown has changed its personality since the 1970s, since the early 1990s, the area has been gentrifying, and rents have risen rapidly. Located close to both Broadway theaters and the Actors Studio training school, Hells Kitchen has long been a home to learning and practicing actors, the name Hells Kitchen generally refers to the area from 34th to 59th Streets. Starting west of Eighth Avenue and north of 43rd Street, city zoning regulations generally limit buildings to six stories, as a result, most of the buildings are older, and are often walk-up apartments. For the most part, the neighborhood encompasses the ZIP codes 10019 and 10036, the post office for 10019 is called Radio City Station, the original name for Rockefeller Center on Sixth Avenue. To the east, the neighborhood overlaps the Times Square Theater District to the east at Eighth Avenue, on its southeast border, it overlaps the Garment District also on Eighth Avenue. Here, two landmarks reside – the New Yorker Hotel and the dynamic Manhattan Center building, the northern edge of Hells Kitchen borders the southern edge of the Upper West Side. 57th Street is the boundary between the two neighborhoods. The southern boundary is at Chelsea, but the two overlap and are often lumped together as the West Side since they support the Midtown Manhattan business district. The traditional dividing line is 34th Street, the transition area just north of Madison Square Garden and Pennsylvania Station includes the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center. The western border of the neighborhood is the Hudson River at the Hudson River Park, several explanations exist for the original name. An early use of the phrase appears in a comment Davy Crockett made about another notorious Irish slum in Manhattan and he was referring to the Five Points. Another explanation points to a building at 39th as the true original. A gang and a local dive took the name as well, a similar slum also existed in London and was known as Hells Kitchen. He referred to a particularly infamous tenement at 39th Street and Tenth Avenue as Hells Kitchen, according to this version, 39th Street between 9th and 10th Avenues became known as Hells Kitchen and the name was later expanded to the surrounding streets. Another version ascribes the origins to a German restaurant in the area known as Heils Kitchen. But the most common version traces it to the story of Dutch Fred the Cop, a veteran policeman, the rookie is supposed to have said, This place is hell itself, to which Fred replied, Hells a mild climate
16.
Bay Ridge, Brooklyn
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Bay Ridge is a neighborhood in the southwest corner of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The first Dutch settlers began farming here in the 17th century, the latter began to develop in the 1830s as a resort destination to lodge visitors to the army base. The former began to develop after 1850, when a group of artists moved to the area and founded a colony called Ovington Village, before that, in the 1850s, Historic Marker name to avoid association with yellow fever. Bay Ridge was suggested by local horticulturist James Weir after the area’s most prominent geographic features, the natural beauty attracted the wealthy, who built country homes along Shore Road, overlooking the water. By World War II, almost all of large houses had been replaced with apartment buildings. Construction of the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, which connects Bay Ridge to Staten Island, was completed in 1964, though now an iconic structure, it was opposed by residents because it would require the demolition of many homes and businesses. Eight hundred buildings were destroyed, displacing 7,000 people, to room for the bridge. Also destroyed was Fort Lafayette, part of New York Citys defense system along with Fort Hamilton and Fort Wadsworth in Staten Island, the Senator Street Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. The Houses at 216-264 Ovington Ave. was listed in 2007, the 2007 Brooklyn tornado hit this area, specifically 68th Street and Bay Ridge Avenue between Third and Fourth Avenues. Eleven houses had to be vacated after they suffered significant damage, the 4th Avenue Presbyterian Church had its very large stained glass window blown out. As the tornado lifted, it peeled the roof of a nearby Nissan dealership, the tornado has been rated an EF-2 on the Enhanced Fujita scale, with winds between 111 and 135 MPH. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Bay Ridge was 79,371, covering an area of 1,571.96 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 50.5 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 66. 4% White,1. 8% African American,0. 1% Native American,13. 3% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 2. 1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15. 9% of the population, Bay Ridge is a largely middle-class neighborhood. With its strong presence, it is not uncommon to see third or fourth generation families living in the region. Until the early 1990s Bay Ridge was a primarily Irish, Italian and this area used to be highly Norwegian. Its Nordic heritage is still apparent in the neighborhood, for instance, there is an annual Norwegian Constitution Day Parade, also known as the Syttende Mai Parade, featuring hundreds of people in folk dress who parade down Third Avenue. It ends in Leif Ericson Park, named for the Viking explorer, the statue was donated by Crown Prince Olav, Prince of Norway, on behalf of the nation of Norway in 1939
17.
Real estate development
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Real estate developers are the people and companies who coordinate all of these activities, converting ideas from paper to real property. Real estate development is different from construction, although many developers also manage the construction process, developers buy land, finance real estate deals, build or have builders build projects, create, imagine, control and orchestrate the process of development from the beginning to end. Developers usually take the greatest risk in the creation or renovation of real estate—and receive the greatest rewards, sometimes property developers will only undertake part of the process. For example, some developers source a property and get the plans and permits approved before selling the property with the plans and permits to a builder at a premium price. Developers work with different counterparts along each step of this process, including architects, city planners, engineers, surveyors, inspectors, contractors, lawyers, leasing agents. In the Town and Country Planning context in the United Kingdom, development is defined in the Town, there is no specific credential required, nor license necessary, for a person or company to call himself a real estate developer. A real estate developer is not a designation, there are no schools or associations who recognize or protect the term as a trademark. Some real estate developers, often involved in marketing properties through traditional real estate channels. Licensed contractors who follow blueprints designed by licensed architects and licensed engineers and this definition is clarified by the remainder of s55 and the inclusion of the Generally Permitted Development Order 1995 and the Use Classes Order 1987. No single path leads automatically to success in real estate development, developers come from a variety of disciplines— construction, urban planning, lending, architecture, law and accounting, among others. Recent specialized programs that award a Master of Real Estate Development degree are also available, the graduate programs in real estate development are the most comprehensive education in the real estate industry. Other formal education includes a Master of Science in Real Estate, a development team can be put together in one of several ways. At one extreme, a company might include many services. At the other end of the spectrum, a development company might consist of one principal, assembling a team of professionals to address the environmental, economic, private, physical and political issues inherent in a complex development project is critical. A developers success depends on the ability to coordinate and lead the completion of a series of interrelated activities efficiently, the general contractor of the project hires subcontractors to put the architectural plans into action. Purchasing unused land for a development is sometimes called speculative development. Subdivision of land is the mechanism by which communities are developed. Technically, subdivision describes the legal and physical steps a developer must take to convert raw land into developed land, after subdivision is complete, the developer usually markets the land to a home builder or other end user, for such uses as a warehouse or shopping center
18.
Subdivision (land)
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Subdivision is the act of dividing land into pieces that are easier to sell or otherwise develop, usually via a plat. The former single piece as a whole is known in the United States as a subdivision. If it is used for housing it is known as a housing subdivision or housing development. Subdivisions may also be for the purpose of commercial or industrial development, in the United States, the creation of a subdivision was often the first step toward the creation of a new incorporated township or city. Contemporary notions of subdivisions rely on the Lot and Block survey system and this was followed by publication of the Standard City Planning Enabling Act in 1928. It includes resubdivision and, when appropriate to the context, relates to the process of subdividing or to the land or territory subdivided, the intention is to cover all subdivision of land where the immediate or ultimate purpose is that of selling the lots or building on them. A subdivision does not need to be sold, in whole or in part, a subdivision plat approved by a local planning commission, once recorded in a registry of deeds, is generally deemed to have created the parcels of land identified on the plat itself. The problem of division of property was identified by the SCPEA in the footnote to the definition of subdivision. In some jurisdictions, a division of property does not constitute a legal subdivision for purposes of separate conveyancing of the subdivided parcels. Interpretations of this vary among American jurisdictions, in the Philippines, subdivisions are areas of land that have been subdivided into individual residential plots. Whereas some subdivisions comprise exclusive gated communities, others are merely demarcations denoting a specific neighborhood, some subdivisions may conduct autonomous security, or provide basic services such as water and refuse management. Most subdivisions are governed by associations made up of members who are residents of the subdivision, in the Philippines, subdivisions are also known as villages. In Alberta, subdivision is the dividing of a parcel of land into two or more parcels, each to be given a separate title. Subdivision is also used for existing lot line adjustments, exceptions may occur with parcels of land that contain more than one quarter section, a river lot, a lake lot, or some settlement lots created prior to July 1,1950
19.
Real property
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The term is historic, arising from the now-discontinued form of action, which distinguished between real property disputes and personal property disputes. Personal property was, and continues to be, all property that is not real property, in countries with personal ownership of real property, civil law protects the status of real property in real-estate markets, where estate agents work in the market of buying and selling real estate. Scottish civil law calls real property heritable property, and in French-based law, the word real derives from Latin res, which was used in Middle English to mean relating to things, especially real property. In common law, real property was property that could be protected by some form of action, in contrast to personal property. As a result of this formalist approach, some things the common law deems to be land would not be classified as such by most modern legal systems, for example an advowson was real property. By contrast the rights of a leaseholder originate in personal actions, the law now broadly distinguishes between real property and personal property. The conceptual difference was between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, bethell contains much historical information on the historical evolution of real property and property rights. To be of any value a claim to any property must be accompanied by a verifiable, in many cases, a description refers to one or more lots on a plat, a map of property boundaries kept in public records. The law recognizes different sorts of interests, called estates, in real property, the type of estate is generally determined by the language of the deed, lease, bill of sale, will, land grant, etc. through which the estate was acquired. Estates are distinguished by the property rights that vest in each. A party enjoying an estate is called a tenant, some important types of estates in land include, Fee simple, An estate of indefinite duration, that can be freely transferred. The most common and perhaps most absolute type of estate, under which the tenant enjoys the greatest discretion over the disposal of the property, conditional Fee simple, An estate lasting forever as long as one or more conditions stipulated by the deeds grantor does not occur. If such a condition does occur, the property reverts to the grantor, or a remainder interest is passed on to a third party, Fee tail, An estate which, upon the death of the tenant, is transferred to his or her heirs. Life estate, An estate lasting for the life of the grantee. If a life estate can be sold, a sale does not change its duration, a life estate pur autre vie is held by one person for the natural life of another person. Such an estate may arise if the life tenant sells her life estate to another. For example, an apartment-dweller with a one-year lease has an estate in her apartment. Lessees typically agree to pay a rent to the lessor
20.
Streetcar suburb
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A streetcar suburb is a residential community whose growth and development was strongly shaped by the use of streetcar lines as a primary means of transportation. Streetcar suburbs, usually called additions or extensions at the time, were the forerunner of todays suburbs in the United States, western Addition in San Francisco is one of the best example of streetcar suburbs before westward and southward expansion occurred. As such, the term is general and one development called a streetcar suburb may vary greatly from others, however, some concepts are generally present in streetcar suburbs, such as straight street plans and relatively narrow lots. By 1830, many New York City area commuters were going to work in Manhattan from what is now the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, in 1852, architect Alexander Jackson Davis designed Llewellyn Park in New Jersey, a planned suburb served by both ferry and steam railroad. In the 1840s and 1850s, new railroad lines fostered the development of such New York City suburbs as Yonkers, White Plains, and New Rochelle. The steam locomotive in the mid 19th century provided the wealthy with the means to live in bucolic surroundings, to socialize in country clubs and these suburbs were what historian Kenneth T. Jackson called the railroad suburbs and historian Robert Fishman called a bourgeois utopia. Outside of Philadelphia, suburbs like Radnor, Swarthmore, and Villanova developed along the Pennsylvania Main Line, as early as 1850,83 commuter stations had been built within a 15-mile radius of Boston. Chicago saw huge developments, with 11 separate lines serving over 100 communities by 1873, a famous community served was Riverside, Illinois, arguably one of the first planned communities in the United States, designed in 1869 by Frederick Law Olmsted. However, the suburbs closest to the city were based on horsecars, later more efficient horse-drawn streetcars allowed cities to expand to areas even more distant. By 1860, they operated in most major American and Canadian cities, including New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cincinnati, Saint Louis, Montreal, horsecar suburbs emanated from the city center towards the more distant railroad suburbs. There were 5,783 miles of track serving American cities in 1890. By 1890, electric lines were replacing horse-drawn ones in cities of all sizes, allowing the lines to be extended. Because streetcar operators offered low fares and free transfers, commuting was finally affordable to nearly everyone, the houses in a streetcar suburb were generally narrow in width compared to later homes, and Arts and Crafts movement styles like the California Bungalow and American Foursquare were most popular. These houses were purchased by catalog and many of the materials arrived by railcar. The earliest streetcar suburbs sometimes had more ornate styles, including late Victorian, setbacks between houses were not nearly as small as in older neighborhoods, but houses were still typically built on lots no wider than 30 to 40 feet. Shops such as groceries, bakeries and drug stores were built near the intersection of streetcar lines or directly along more heavily traveled routes. These shops would sometimes be multi-story buildings, with apartments on the upper floors and these provided convenient shopping for household supplies for the surrounding neighborhoods, that could potentially be visited on ones way to or from work. Unlike railroad suburbs, which tended to form in pockets around stations along the interurban line, along the lines, developers built rectangular additions with homes, usually on small lots, within a five- to ten-minute walk of the streetcar
21.
Mansion
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A mansion is a large dwelling house. The word itself derives through Old French from the Latin word mansio dwelling, the English word manse originally defined a property large enough for the parish priest to maintain himself, but a mansion is no longer self-sustaining in this way. Manor comes from the same root—territorial holdings granted to a lord who would remain there—hence it is easy to see how the word Mansion came to have its meaning, within an ancient Roman city, patrician dwellings might be very extensive, and luxurious. Such mansions on one hill in Rome became so extensive that the term palatial was actually derived from the name Palatine hill and is the origin of palace. Following the fall of Rome the practice of building unfortified villas ceased, today, the oldest inhabited mansions around the world usually began their existence as fortified castles in the middle ages. As social conditions slowly changed and stabilised fortifications were able to be reduced and it became fashionable and possible for homes to be beautiful rather than grim and forbidding allowing for the development of the modern mansion. In British English a mansion block refers to a block of flats or apartments designed for the appearance of grandeur, in many parts of Asia, including Hong Kong and Japan, the word mansion also refers to a block of apartments. In Europe, from the 15th century onwards, a combination of politics, as a result, many were transformed into mansions without defences or demolished and rebuilt in a more modern, undefended style. Due to intermarriage and primogeniture inheritance amongst the aristocracy, it common for one noble to often own several country houses. These would be visited throughout the year as their owner pursued the social. Many owners of a house would also own a town mansion in their countrys capital city. These town mansions were referred to as houses in London, hotels in Paris and it might be noted that sometimes the house of a clergyman was called a mansion house. This was a period of social change, as the educated prided themselves on enlightenment. The uses of these edifices paralleled that of the Roman villas and it was vital for powerful people and families to keep in social contact with each other as they were the primary moulders of society. The rounds of visits and entertainments were a part of the societal process. State business was discussed and determined in informal settings. Times of revolution reversed this value, in the great houses of Italy, the number of retainers was often even greater than in England, whole families plus extended relations would often inhabit warrens of rooms in basements and attics. It is doubtful that a 19th-century Marchesa would even know the number of individuals who served her
22.
Shantytown
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A shanty town or squatter area is a settlement of improvised housing, called shanties or shacks, made of plywood, corrugated metal, sheets of plastic, and cardboard boxes. Such settlements are found on the periphery of cities, in public parks, or near railroad tracks, rivers. Shanty towns are found in developing nations, but also in some parts of developed nations. Shanty is probably from Canadian French chantier, a station established for the organization of lumberjacks. Another possible derivation is from the Irish language sean tí meaning old house, hutment means an encampment of huts. When the term is used by the military, it means temporary living quarters specially built by the army for soldiers, the term is also a synonym for shanty town, particularly in developing countries. Since construction is informal and unguided by urban planning, there is no formal street grid, house numbers. Even if these resources are present, they are likely to be disorganized, unreliable, shanty towns also tend to lack basic services present in more formally organized settlements, including policing, mail delivery, medical services, and fire fighting. A sweeping fire on the hills of Shek Kip Mei, Hong Kong, in late 1953 left 53,000 dwellers homeless, shanty towns have high rates of crime, suicide, drug use, and disease. Stewart Brand has also written, more recently, that cities are Green. They have maximum density—a million people per mile in Mumbai—and minimum energy. People get around by foot, bicycle, rickshaw, or the shared taxi. Not everything is efficient in the slums, though, in the Brazilian favelas where electricity is stolen and therefore free, Jan Chipchase from Nokia found that people leave their lights on all day. In most slums recycling is literally a way of life, shanty towns are present in a number of countries. The largest shanty town in Asia is Orangi in Karachi, Pakistan, in francophone countries, shanty towns are referred to as bidonvilles, such countries include Tunisia and Haiti. Other countries with shanty towns include South Africa or imijondolo, Kenya, the Philippines, Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, West Indies such as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and Peru. In Russia, shanty towns - called truščóba - are present in cities as well in Chelobityevo outside Moscow. There is also a major shanty town population in such as Bangladesh
23.
Tenement
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The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a multiple-occupancy building, late 19th-century social reformers in the U. S. were hostile to both tenements and apartment houses. The adapted buildings were known as rookeries, and were a particular concern as they were prone to collapse. Mulberry Bend and Five Points were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear, in both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal water taps and water closets were squeezed into what open space there was between buildings. In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had courtyards, generally occupied by shops, stables. Prior to the 1867 law, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, yards were a few feet wide and filled with privies where they had not been entirely eliminated. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859 the number of people living in cellars began to decline. This was amended by the Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. ”The New York City Board of Health, empowered to enforce the regulations, declined to do so. As a compromise, the Old Law tenement became the standard, this had a shape, with air and light shafts on either side in the center. Public concern about New York tenements was stirred by the publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis How the Other Half Lives and it used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs. Together with the publication in 1895 by the U. S and these rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and made single-lot development uneconomical. The Lower East Side Tenement Museum, a brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site, is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side. Tenements make up a percentage of the housing stock of Edinburgh. Edinburghs tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time. Glasgow tenements were built no taller than the width of the street on which they were located, therefore. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, a large number of the tenements in Edinburgh and Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. The Gorbals is a small area and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. However, the many remaining tenements in areas of both cities have experienced a resurgence in popularity due to their large rooms, high ceilings
24.
Single-family detached home
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A single-family detached home, also called a single-detached dwelling, single-family residence or separate house is a free-standing residential building. It is defined in opposition to a residential dwelling. The definition of this type of house may vary between legal jurisdictions or statistical agencies and it does exclude, however, any short-term accommodation, large-scale rental accommodation, or condominia. Garages can also be found on most lots, houses with an attached front entry garage that is closer to the street than any other part of the house is often derisively called a snout house. It is important to note that In the United States, that the term Single Family Residence specifically refers to the not the occupants. Historically, Homeowners Associations have used the term to limit non-nuclear families, presently, these types of HOA policies are subject to Fair Housing Lawsuits, heavy penalties, and possibly personal liability for board members. Terms corresponding to single-family detached home in common use are single-family home, single-detached dwelling, detached house, in the United Kingdom, the term single-family home is almost unknown, except through Internet exposure to U. S. media. In pre-industrial societies most people live in multi-family dwelling for most of their lives and this type of arrangement also saves on the effort and materials used for construction and, in colder climates, heating. If people had to move to a new place or were wealthy enough, they could build or buy a home for their own family, of course and this has produced a cultural preference in settler societies for privacy and space. A countervailing trend has been industrialization and urbanization, which as seen more and more people around the world move into apartment blocks. Single-family homes are now common in rural and suburban and even urban areas across the New World and Europe. They are most common in low-density, high-income regions, for example, in Canada according to the 2006 Census 55. 3% of the population lived single-detached houses but this varied substantially by region. In the Ville of Montreal, Canadas second most populous municipality, only 7. 5% of the lived in a single-detached house, while in the city of Calgary. Note that this includes the city limits only, not the wider region. The term single-family detached describes how a house is built and who lives in it and it does not indicate size, shape, or location. Because they are not surrounded by buildings, the potential size of a single-family house is limited only by the budget of the builder. They can range from a country cottage or cabin or a small suburban prefabricated home to a large mansion. Sizes in real estate advertising are given in area, or by the number of bedrooms or bathrooms/toilets, the choice in materials used or the shape chosen will depend on what is common to the vernacular architecture of that region, or the lasted trends in professionally designed tract housing
25.
Speculation
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Speculation is the purchase of an asset with the hope that it will become more valuable at a future date. Many speculators pay little attention to the value of a security. Speculation can in principle involve any tradable good or financial instrument, Speculators are particularly common in the markets for stocks, bonds, commodity futures, currencies, fine art, collectibles, real estate, and derivatives. The number of shareholders increased, perhaps, from 4.4 million in 1900 to 26 million in 1932, the view of what distinguishes investment from speculation and speculation from excessive speculation varies widely among pundits, legislators and academics. Some sources note that speculation is simply a higher form of investment. Others define speculation more narrowly as positions not characterized as hedging, the agency emphasizes that speculators serve important market functions, but defines excessive speculation as harmful to the proper functioning of futures markets. According to Ben Graham in The Intelligent Investor, the prototypical defensive investor is. one interested chiefly in safety plus freedom from bother, Speculation is condemned on ethical-moral grounds as creating money from money and thereby promoting the vices of avarice and gambling. When a harvest is too small to satisfy consumption at its rate, speculators come in. Their purchases raise the price, thereby checking consumption so that the supply will last longer. Producers encouraged by the price further lessen the shortage by growing or importing to reduce the shortage. On the other side, when the price is higher than the speculators think the facts warrant and this reduces prices, encouraging consumption and exports and helping to reduce the surplus. If any market, such as pork bellies, had no speculators, with fewer players in the market, there would be a larger spread between the current bid and ask price of pork bellies. By contrast, a commodity speculator may profit the difference in the spread and, in competition with other speculators, some schools of thought argue that speculators increase the liquidity in a market, and therefore promote an efficient market. This efficiency is difficult to achieve without speculators, a very beneficial by-product of speculation for the economy is price discovery. On the other hand, as more speculators participate in a market, underlying real demand and supply can diminish compared to trading volume, Speculators also perform a very important risk bearing role that is beneficial to society. For example, a farmer might be considering planting corn on some unused farmland, however, he might not want to do so because he is concerned that the price might fall too far by harvest time. By selling his crop in advance at a price to a speculator, he is now able to hedge the price risk. Thus, speculators can actually increase production through their willingness to take on risk, hence, they make the prices better reflect the true quality of operation of the firms
26.
Mortgage loan
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The loan is secured on the borrowers property. Mortgage can also be described as a borrower giving consideration in the form of a collateral for a benefit, Mortgage borrowers can be individuals mortgaging their home or they can be businesses mortgaging commercial property. Features of mortgage loans such as the size of the loan, maturity of the loan, interest rate, method of paying off the loan, in many jurisdictions, it is normal for home purchases to be funded by a mortgage loan. Few individuals have enough savings or liquid funds to them to purchase property outright. In countries where the demand for ownership is highest, strong domestic markets for mortgages have developed. According to Anglo-American property law, a mortgage occurs when an owner pledges his or her interest as security or collateral for a loan. As with other types of loans, mortgages have an interest rate and are scheduled to amortize over a set period of time, typically 30 years. All types of property can be, and usually are, secured with a mortgage. Mortgage lending is the mechanism used in many countries to finance private ownership of residential and commercial property. Although the terminology and precise forms will differ from country to country, the components tend to be similar, Property. The exact form of ownership will vary from country to country, Mortgage, the security interest of the lender in the property, which may entail restrictions on the use or disposal of the property. Restrictions may include requirements to purchase insurance and mortgage insurance. Borrower, the person borrowing who either has or is creating an ownership interest in the property, lender, any lender, but usually a bank or other financial institution. Principal, the size of the loan, which may or may not include certain other costs, as any principal is repaid. Interest, a charge for use of the lenders money. Completion, legal completion of the deed, and hence the start of the mortgage. A closed mortgage account is said to be redeemed, many other specific characteristics are common to many markets, but the above are the essential features. Governments usually regulate many aspects of mortgage lending, either directly or indirectly, other aspects that define a specific mortgage market may be regional, historical, or driven by specific characteristics of the legal or financial system
27.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
28.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
29.
Levittown, New York
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Levittown, formerly Island Trees, is a hamlet and census-designated place in the Town of Hempstead in Long Island, in Nassau County, New York. Levittown is halfway between the villages of Hempstead and Farmingdale, as of the 2010 census, the CDP had a total population of 51,881, making it the most populated CDP in Nassau County and the second most populated CDP on Long Island, behind only Brentwood. Levittown gets its name from its builder, the firm of Levitt & Sons, Inc. founded by Abraham Levitt on August 2,1929, Sons William and Alfred served as the companys president and chief architect and planner, respectively. Levittown was the first truly mass-produced suburb and is regarded as the archetype for postwar suburbs throughout the country. William Levitt, who assumed control of Levitt & Sons in 1954, is considered the father of modern suburbia in the United States. As Seaman established his farm, Cherrywood, two years later near Salk Middle School and MacArthur High School, he is the first European to live in whats now Levittown and this is the start of the use of the word Jerusalem to describe the aforementioned areas. Land deed between the Seaman and Weeks families first to mention the Island of Trees endowing the general area of northern Levittown with the name Island Trees, rail service arrives at Hicksville under the supervision of Valentine Hicks. The ensuing influx of German immigrant farmers and artisans opens the future Levittown area up to potato farming, William Levitt born to Abraham Levitt and Pauline Biederman Levitt in Brooklyn. Levittowns official beginning as an entity with the first three hundred families - beginning with the Bladykas family- moving into their brand-new Levitt & Sons homes. The Jerusalem/Island Trees area officially named Levittown, the Levitt firm began before World War II, as a builder of custom homes in upper middle-class communities on Long Island. During the war, however, the building industry languished under a general embargo on private use of scarce raw materials. Returning to the firm after wars end, Bill Levitt persuaded his father and brother to embrace the utilitarian system of construction he had learned in the Navy. Levitt & Sons built the community with an eye towards speed, efficiency, and cost-effective construction, these methods led to a production rate of 30 houses a day by July 1948. They used pre-cut lumber and nails shipped from their own factories in Blue Lake, California and this necessitated negotiating a change in the building code, which prior to the building of this community, did not permit concrete slabs. Given the urgent need for housing in the region, the town agreed, Levitt & Sons also controversially utilized non-union contractors in the project, a move which provoked picket lines. On the other hand, they paid their workers well and offered all kinds of incentives that allowed them to earn extra money. The company also cut out middlemen and purchased many items, including lumber and televisions, the building of every house was reduced to 26 steps, with sub-contractors responsible for each step. I. Bill and Federal housing subsidies, reduced the up-front cost of a house to many buyers to around $400, as demand continued, exceeding availability, the Levitts expanded their project with 4,000 more homes, as well as community services, including schools and postal delivery
30.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
31.
Kaizen
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Kaizen, is Japanese word for continuous improvement. In business, kaizen refers to activities that continuously improve all functions and it also applies to processes, such as purchasing and logistics, that cross organizational boundaries into the supply chain. It has been applied in healthcare, psychotherapy, life-coaching, government, banking, by improving standardized programmes and processes, kaizen aims to eliminate waste. Kaizen was first practiced in Japanese businesses after the Second World War, influenced in part by American business and quality-management teachers and it has since spread throughout the world and has been applied to environments outside of business and productivity. The Japanese word kaizen simply means change for better, with no inherent meaning of continuous or philosophy in Japanese dictionaries or in everyday use. The word refers to any improvement, one-time or continuous, large or small, the discussion below focuses on such interpretations of the word, as frequently used in the context of modern management discussions. Two kaizen approaches have been distinguished, flow kaizen, process kaizen, the former is oriented towards the flow of materials and information, and is often identified with the reorganization of an entire production area, even a company. The latter means the improvement of individual workstands, therefore, improving the way production workers do their job is a part of a process kaizen. In this model, operators mostly look for ideas which, if possible. This is in contrast to models of work improvement, which generally have a long lag between concept development and project implementation. In the traditional model, the time between concept development and project implementation is very long, in the kaizen model, workers mostly look for small ideas and improvements which can be implemented on the same day. Kaizen is a process, the purpose of which goes beyond simple productivity improvement. Successful implementation requires the participation of workers in the improvement, people at all levels of an organization participate in kaizen, from the CEO down to janitorial staff, as well as external stakeholders when applicable. Kaizen is most commonly associated with manufacturing operations, as at Toyota, the format for kaizen can be individual, suggestion system, small group, or large group. At Toyota, it is usually a local improvement within a workstation or local area and involves a group in improving their own work environment. This group is guided through the kaizen process by a line supervisor. Kaizen on a broad, cross-departmental scale in companies, generates total quality management, while kaizen usually delivers small improvements, the culture of continual aligned small improvements and standardization yields large results in terms of overall improvement in productivity. This philosophy differs from the command and control improvement programs of the mid-twentieth century, Kaizen methodology includes making changes and monitoring results, then adjusting
32.
Floor plan
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Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths. Floor plans may also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, floor plans may include notes for construction to specify finishes, construction methods, or symbols for electrical items. Similar to a map the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a conventional map, objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown cut in plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as an orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane. The term may be used in general to any drawing showing the physical layout of objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the objects at an exhibition. Drawings are now reproduced using plotters and large format xerographic copiers and this convention maintains the same orientation of the floor and ceilings plans - looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, a floor plan is not a top view or birds eye view. It is a drawing to scale of the layout of a floor in a building. A top view or birds eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical 4 foot height above the floor level, a floor plan could show, Interior walls and hallways Restrooms Windows and doors Appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, water heater etc. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top, in such views, the portion of the object above the plane is omitted to reveal what lies beyond. In the case of a plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be omitted. Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their plane is outside of the object. A plan is a method of depicting the internal arrangement of a 3-dimensional object in two dimensions. It is often used in drawing and is traditionally crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes through, a 3D floor plan can be defined as a virtual model of a building floor plan. Its often used to better convey architectural plans to individuals not familiar with floor plans, despite the purpose of floor plans originally being to depict 3D layouts in a 2D manner, technological expansion has made rendering 3D models much more cost effective. 3D plans show a depth of image and are often complimented by 3D furniture in the room
33.
Multiview projection
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Along the y-axis, The top and bottom views, which are known as plans. Along the z-axis, The front and back views, which are known as elevations. Orthographic projections show the views of an object, each viewed in a direction parallel to one of the main coordinate axes. These primary views are called plans and elevations, sometimes they are shown as if the object has been cut across or sectioned to expose the interior, these views are called sections. Auxiliary views are taken from an angle that is not one of the primary views. A plan is a view of a 3-dimensional object seen from vertically above and it may be drawn in the position of a horizontal plane passing through, above, or below the object. The outline of a shape in this view is called its planform. The plan view from above a building is called its roof plan, a section seen in a horizontal plane through the walls and showing the floor beneath is called a floor plan. An elevation is a view of a 3-dimensional object from the position of a vertical plane beside an object, in other words, an elevation is a side-view as viewed from the front, back, left or right. An elevation is a method of depicting the external configuration. Building façades are shown as elevations in architectural drawings and technical drawings, elevations are the most common orthographic projection for conveying the appearance of a building from the exterior. Perspectives are also used for this purpose. A building elevation is typically labeled in relation to the direction it faces. E. g. the North Elevation of a building is the side that most closely faces true north on the compass, interior elevations are used to show detailing such as millwork and trim configurations. In the building elevations are a non-perspective view of the structure. These are drawn to scale so that measurements can be taken for any aspect necessary, Drawing sets include front, rear and both side elevations. A developed elevation is a variant of a regular elevation view in several adjacent non-parallel sides may be shown together. For example, the north and west views may be shown side-by-side, sharing an edge, a section, or cross-section, is a view of a 3-dimensional object from the position of a plane through the object
34.
Traffic calming
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Traffic calming uses physical design and other measures to improve safety for motorists, pedestrians and cyclists. It aims to encourage safer, more driving and potentially reduce traffic flow. Urban planners and traffic engineers have many strategies for calming, including narrowed roads. Such measures are common in Australia and Europe, but less so in North America, Traffic calming is a calque of the German word Verkehrsberuhigung – the terms first published use in English was in 1985 by Carmen Hass-Klau. In its early development in the UK in the 1930s, traffic calming was based on the idea that residential areas should be protected from through-traffic, subsequently, it became valued for its ability to improve pedestrian safety and reduce noise and air pollution from traffic. For much of the century, streets were designed by engineers who were charged only with ensuring smooth motor vehicular traffic flow. Traffic calming initiatives have grown to other design functions as well. For example, it has shown that car traffic severely impairs the social and recreational functions of public streets. Traffic engineers refer to three Es when discussing traffic calming, engineering, education, and enforcement, engineering measures involve physically altering the road layout or appearance to actively or passively retard traffic by increasing the cognitive load of driving. Measures include speed humps, chicanes, curb extensions, and living street, the town of Hilden in Germany has achieved a rate of 24% of trips being on two wheels, mainly via traffic calming and the use of 30 km/h or 20 mph zones. In 1999, the Netherlands had over 6000 woonerven where cyclists and pedestrians have priority over cars. A number of changes to roads are being made to encourage more attentive driving, reduced speed, reduced crashes. Visual traffic calming includes lane narrowings, road diets, use of next to streets, on-street parking. Physical devices include speed humps, speed cushions, and speed tables, such measures normally slow cars to between 10 and 25 miles per hour. Most devices are made of asphalt or concrete but rubber traffic calming products are emerging as an alternative with several advantages. Narrowing measures include, Lane narrowings can be created by extending sidewalks, adding bollards or planters, curb extensions narrow the width of the roadway at pedestrian crossings Chokers are curb extensions that narrow roadways to a single lane at certain points Road diets remove a lane from the street. For example, allowing parking on one or both sides of a street to reduce the number of driving lanes, pedestrian refuges or small islands in the middle of the street can help reduce lane widths. Converting one-way streets into two-way streets forces opposing traffic into close proximity, using polymer cement overlay applies a brick texture and appearance to asphalt surfaces to indicate a high traffic crosswalk
35.
Street
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A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact. A street can be as simple as a patch of dirt. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, originally the word street simply meant a paved road. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass, conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets. The word street has its origins in the Latin strata, it is related to stratum. Ancient Greek stratos means army, Greeks originally built roads to move their armies, old English applied the word to Roman roads in Britain such as Ermine Street, Watling Street, etc. Later it acquired a meaning of straggling village, which were often laid out on the verges of Roman roads. In the Middle Ages, a road was a way people travelled, the street is a public easement, one of the few shared between all sorts of people. As a component of the environment as ancient as human habitation. Its roles are as numerous and diverse as its ever-changing cast of characters, streets can be loosely categorized as main streets and side streets. Main streets are usually broad with a high level of activity. Commerce and public interaction are more visible on main streets, side streets are quieter, often residential in use and character, and may be used for vehicular parking. Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a streets most visible use, the unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity. In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to different types of traffic. Le Corbusier, for one, perceived an ever-stricter segregation of traffic as an affirmation of social order—a desirable. To this end, proposals were advanced to build vertical streets where vehicles, pedestrians. Such an arrangement, it was said, would allow for denser development in the future
36.
Dead end (street)
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A dead end, also known as a cul-de-sac, is a street with only one inlet/outlet. While historically built for reasons, one of its modern uses is to calm vehicle traffic. The term dead end is understood in all varieties of English, some of these are used only regionally. In the United States and other countries, cul-de-sac is often not a synonym for dead end and refers to dead ends with a circular end. See below for regionally used terms, Dead ends existed in towns and cities long before the automotive 20th century, particularly in Arab and Moorish towns. The earliest example was unearthed in the El-Lahun workers village in Egypt, the village is laid out with straight streets that intersect at right angles, akin to a grid, but irregular. Dead-end streets appeared also during the period of Athens and Rome. The 15th century architect and planner Leon Battista Alberti implies in his writings that dead-end streets may have been used intentionally in antiquity for defense purposes, the same opinion is expressed by an earlier thinker, Aristotle, when he criticized the Hippodamian grid. But for security in war the opposite, as it used to be in ancient times, for that is difficult for foreign troops to enter and find their way about when attacking. In the UK, their existence is implied by an 1875 law which banned their use in new developments. In the earlier periods, traffic was excluded from residential streets simply by gates or by employing the cul-de-sac and it was in the UK that the cul-de-sac street type was first legislated into use, with The Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906. Unwins applications of the cul-de-sac and the related crescent always included pedestrian paths independent of the road network, the 1906 Act defined the nature of the cul-de-sac as a non-through road and restricted its length to 500 feet. Garden cities in the UK that followed Hampstead, such as Welwyn Garden City all included culs-de-sac, the US Federal Housing Authority recommended and promoted their use through their 1936 guidelines and the power of lending development funds. In Canada, a variation of Stein’s Radburn 1929 plan that used crescents instead of culs-de-sac was built in 1947 in Manitoba, Wildwood Park, Winnipeg, the Varsity Village and Braeside, subdivisions in Calgary, Alberta also used the Radburn model in the late 1960s. Although dead end streets, i. e. Doxiadis has additionally argued their important role in separating man from machine, originally unplanned dead ends have been created in the centers of cities that are laid on a grid by blocking through traffic. A recent variation of limiting traffic is the closure by using retractable bollards which are activated by designated card holders only. However, not only do they stop cars, they also stop ambulances and other emergency vehicles, Dead ends are created in urban planning to limit through-traffic in residential areas. This design improvement, which selectively excludes one mode of transport while permitting others and its application retains the dead ends primary function as a non-through road, but establishes complete pedestrian and bicycle network connectivity
37.
Special route
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In road transportation in the United States, a special route is a prefixed and/or suffixed numbered road that forms a loop or spur of a more dominant route of the same route number and system. The dominant route is referred to as the parent or mainline. Special routes are included in many systems in the United States, most are found in the Interstate Highway System, U. S. highway system. There are numerous types of routes, each possessing generally defined characteristics. A common roadfan synonym for special route is bannered highway or bannered route, the term is not all-encompassing however, as not all special routes have these banners. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials sets the precedent for special routes. As of 2009, the organization only advocates four types of special routes, business, bypass, alternate. AASHTO suggests that transportation authorities of the United States remove other types of special routes and/or replace such obsolete designations with another type of route, Some old alignments of routes may also be informally known as special routes. These older alignments may be given names like Old U. S. Highway 52, or in some rare cases. A few highways have two special route designations. S, Route 202 Alternate Truck in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania There is also an example of a route with three special route designations. U. S. Route 30 Business Alternate Truck provides a truck bypass of U. S. Route 30 Business in Downingtown. Routes with special designations in the U. S. have typical behavior that distinguishes them from other routes, There are, however, many exceptions to the common behavior, depending on the situation. Business routes can be loops or spurs and generally traverse through or near population centers and they are usually signed with business or bus auxiliaries or a B suffix). Most business routes are the former alignments of their parent, bypass routes typically go around population centers and are newer and faster than their mainline and/or business route counterparts. In some cases, due to urban sprawl over time, land around bypasses can become developed, expanding the center outward. Approaching a population center, it is common for the parent route to split between a route and a bypass route and rejoin to form the parent on the other side. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials defines a route for U. S. highways as. This Business Route connects with the numbered route at the opposite side of the city limits
38.
Suburb
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A suburb is a residential area or a mixed use area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city. In some areas, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and a few U. S. states, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities. In others, such as Arabia, Canada, France, and much of the United States, Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land, the English word is derived from the Old French subburbe, which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub and urbs. The first recorded usage of the term in English, was made by John Wycliffe in 1380, in Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalised as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs in proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term middle suburbs is also used, Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages that have been gradually absorbed during a growth and expansion. In the United States and Canada, suburb can refer either to an residential area of a city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements, large walled towns tended to be the focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town. The word suburbani was first used by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas, as populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, urban towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside. In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the city expanded. The peripheral areas on the outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest, by the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in suburban growth came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s, the line joined the capitals financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, in 1912, it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near the railway. However, World War I delayed these plans and it was only in 1919, with expectation of a housing boom. The term Metro-land was coined by the Mets marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide and this promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter
39.
Stereotype
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In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
40.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
The dictionary definition of residential at Wiktionary
