1.
Cedar of Lebanon
–
Cedrus libani, commonly known as the Cedar of Lebanon is a species of cedar native to the mountains of the Eastern Mediterranean basin. It is a conifer that can reach 40 m in height. Cedrus libani is the emblem of Lebanon and is widely used as an ornamental tree in parks. Cedrus libani is a coniferous tree, it can reach 40 m in height with a massive monopodial columnar trunk up to 2.5 m in diameter. The trunks of old trees ordinarily fork into several large, erect branches, the rough and scaly bark is dark grey to blackish brown, it is run through by deep horizontal fissures that peel in small chips. The first-order branches are ascending in young trees, they grow to a size and take on a horizontal. Second-order branches are dense and grow in a horizontal plane, the crown is conical when young, becoming broadly tabular with age with fairly level branches, trees growing in dense forests maintain a more pyramidal shape. The shoots are dimorphic, with long and short shoots. New shoots are brown, older shoots turn grey, grooved. C. libani has slightly resinous ovoid vegetative buds measuring 2 to 3 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm wide enclosed by pale brown deciduous scales. Cedrus libani produces cones at around the age of 40, it flowers in autumn, the male cones appear in early September and the female ones in late September. Male cones occur at the ends of the shoots, they are solitary and erect approximately 4 to 5 cm long. The female seed cones also grow at the ends of short shoots. The young seed cones are resinous, sessile and pale green, the mature woody cones are 8 to 12 cm long and 3 to 6 cm wide, they are scaly, resinous, ovoid or barrel shaped and gray-brown in color. Mature cones open from top to bottom, they disintegrate and lose their seed scales releasing the seeds until only the cone rachis remains attached to the branches. The seed scales are thin, broad and coriaceous measuring 3.5 to 4 cm long and 3 to 3.5 cm wide. The seeds are ovoid,10 to 14 mm long and 4 to 6 mm wide, Cedrus libani grows rapidly until the age of 45 to 50 years, growth becomes extremely slow after the age of 70 years. Cedrus is the Latin name for true cedars, the specific epithet refers the Lebanon mountain range where the species was first described by French botanist Achille Richard, the tree is commonly known as the Lebanon cedar or Cedar of Lebanon
Cedar of Lebanon
–
Cedrus libani
Cedar of Lebanon
–
Lebanon cedar in the
Forest of the Cedars of God. Person shows scale.
Cedar of Lebanon
–
Cedrus libani foliage
Cedar of Lebanon
–
Cedar of Lebanon cone showing flecks of resin
2.
Mummification
–
Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 CE. Mummies of humans and other animals have found on every continent. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats, in addition to the well-known mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE. The oldest known naturally mummified corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old. These substances were defined as mummia, the OED defines a mummy as the body of a human being or animal embalmed as a preparation for burial, citing sources from 1615 CE onward. However, Chambers Cyclopædia and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows, also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow. Wasps of the genus Aleiodes are known as mummy wasps because they wrap their prey as mummies. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith, British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922, pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, more than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique, in more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally unwrap mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle. Mummies are typically divided into one of two categories, anthropogenic or spontaneous
Mummification
–
Howard Carter opens the innermost shrine of King Tutankhamen's tomb near Luxor, Egypt.
Mummification
–
Tori Randall prepares a 550-year-old Peruvian child mummy for a CT scan at Naval Medical Center San Diego.
Mummification
–
Mummy in the British Museum
Mummification
–
Painted mummy bandage
3.
Pharaoh
–
The word pharaoh ultimately derive from the Egyptian compound pr-ˤ3 great house, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr house and ˤ3 column, here meaning great or high. It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ˤ3 Courtier of the High House, with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the twelfth dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health, but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. During the reign of Thutmose III in the New Kingdom, after the rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. During the eighteenth dynasty the title pharaoh was employed as a designation of the ruler. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ˤ3 on its own was used as regularly as hm. f, the term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the pharaoh being attached to a rulers name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun and this new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-second dynasty kings. Shoshenq I was the successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives, by this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *par-ʕoʔ whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Φερων. In the Bible, the title also occurs as פרעה, from that, Septuagint φαραώ pharaō and then Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Quran likewise spells it فرعون firawn with n, interestingly, the Arabic combines the original pharyngeal ayin sound from Egyptian, along with the -n ending from Greek. English at first spelt it Pharao, but the King James Bible revived Pharaoh with h from the Hebrew, meanwhile in Egypt itself, *par-ʕoʔ evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ prro and then rro. Scepters and staves were a sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-scepter, the earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to pre-dynastic times. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to the late Naqada period, another scepter associated with the king is the was-scepter. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head, the earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the first dynasty
Pharaoh
–
Den
Pharaoh
–
Narmer Palette
Pharaoh
–
Nomen and prenomen of
Ramesses III
Pharaoh
–
Royal titulary
4.
Insect
–
Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea
Insect
Insect
–
Evolution has produced enormous variety in insects. Pictured are some of the possible shapes of
antennae.
Insect
–
The different forms of the male (top) and female (bottom)
tussock moth Orgyia recens is an example of
sexual dimorphism in insects.
5.
Materials science
–
The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various accidents and incidents. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point, phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering, modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the use of fire. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors. Before the 1960s, many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th, a material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft, Materials can generally be divided into two classes, crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics, New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials and biomaterials, etc. The basis of science involves studying the structure of materials. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and these characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science, Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material, structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below
Materials science
–
A
diamond cuboctahedron showing a number of
crystallographic planes, imaged with
scanning electron microscopy.
Materials science
–
A late
Bronze Age sword or dagger blade.
Materials science
–
Microstructure of pearlite.
Materials science
–
Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX 3.
6.
Polymer
–
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
Polymer
–
Appearance of real linear polymer chains as recorded using an
atomic force microscope on a surface, under liquid medium. Chain
contour length for this polymer is ~204 nm; thickness is ~0.4 nm.
Polymer
–
A polyethylene sample that has
necked under tension.
Polymer
–
A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight. Notice the discoloration, swelling, and
crazing of the material
Polymer
–
Chlorine attack of acetal resin plumbing joint
7.
Organic compound
–
An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—earth, water, air, vitalism taught that these organic compounds were fundamentally different from the inorganic compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulation. Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and it first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhlers 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate, urea had long been considered an organic compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhlers experiments were followed by others, in which increasingly complex organic substances were produced from inorganic ones without the involvement of any living organism. Even though vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, still, even the broadest definition requires excluding alloys that contain carbon, including steel. The C-H definition excludes compounds that are considered organic, neither urea nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid, other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid, which contains no C-H bonds, is considered an organic substance in Martian soil. The C-H bond-only rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, for example, CF4 would be considered by this rule to be inorganic, whereas CF3H would be organic. Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways, one major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers, natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially
Organic compound
–
Methane is one of the simplest organic compounds
8.
Terpenes
–
They often have a strong odor and may protect the plants that produce them by deterring herbivores and by attracting predators and parasites of herbivores. The difference between terpenes and terpenoids is that terpenes are hydrocarbons, whereas terpenoids contain additional functional groups and they are the major components of resin, and of turpentine produced from resin. The name terpene is derived from the word turpentine, in addition to their roles as end-products in many organisms, terpenes are major biosynthetic building blocks within nearly every living creature. Steroids, for example, are derivatives of the triterpene squalene, when terpenes are modified chemically, such as by oxidation or rearrangement of the carbon skeleton, the resulting compounds are generally referred to as terpenoids. Some authors will use the term terpene to include all terpenoids, terpenoids are also known as isoprenoids. Terpenes and terpenoids are the constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants. Essential oils are used widely as fragrances in perfumery, and in medicine, synthetic variations and derivatives of natural terpenes and terpenoids also greatly expand the variety of aromas used in perfumery and flavors used in food additives. Terpenes are released by trees more actively in warmer weather, acting as a form of cloud seeding. The clouds reflect sunlight, allowing the forest to regulate its temperature, the aroma and flavor of hops comes from the terpenes, alpha-humulene, beta-caryophyllene, and sesquiterpenes, which affect beer quality. Terpenes are also major constituents of Cannabis sativa plants, which contain at least 120 identified compounds, Terpenes are derived biosynthetically from units of isoprene, which has the molecular formula C5H8. The basic molecular formulae of terpenes are multiples of that, n n is the number of linked isoprene units. This is called the rule or the C5 rule. The isoprene units may be linked together head to tail to form chains or they may be arranged to form rings. One can consider the unit as one of natures common building blocks. Isoprene itself does not undergo the process, but rather activated forms, isopentenyl pyrophosphate. IPP is formed from acetyl-CoA via the intermediacy of mevalonic acid in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, an alternative, totally unrelated biosynthesis pathway of IPP is known in some bacterial groups and the plastids of plants, the so-called MEP-pathway, which is initiated from C5-sugars. In both pathways, IPP is isomerized to DMAPP by the enzyme isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase, essentially, they are all synthesised by terpene synthase. Terpenes may be classified by the number of units in the molecule
Terpenes
–
Many terpenes are derived commercially from conifer resins, such as those made by this
pine.
Terpenes
–
Second or third
instar caterpillars of
Papilio glaucus emit terpenes from their
osmeterium.
9.
Rosin
–
It is semi-transparent and varies in color from yellow to black. At room temperature rosin is brittle, but it melts at stove-top temperature and it chiefly consists of various resin acids, especially abietic acid. The term colophony comes from colophonia resina, Latin for resin from Colophon, Rosin is an ingredient in printing inks, photocopying and laser printing paper, varnishes, adhesives, soap, paper sizing, soda, soldering fluxes, and sealing wax. Rosin can be used as an agent in medicines and chewing gum. It is denoted by E number E915, a related glycerol ester can be used as an emulsifier in soft drinks. In pharmaceuticals, rosin forms an ingredient in several plasters and ointments, in industry, rosin is a flux used in soldering. It is frequently seen as the burnt or clear residue around new soldering, a mixture of pitch and rosin is used to make a surface against which glass is polished when making optical components such as lenses. Rosin is added in quantities to traditional linseed oil/sand gap fillers. When mixed with waxes and oils, rosin is the ingredient of mystic smoke, a gum which. Extra substances such as beeswax, gold, silver, tin, or meteoric iron are added to the rosin to modify its stiction/friction properties. Powdered rosin can be applied to new hair, for example with a pad or cloth. Rosin is often applied to the bow before playing the instrument, lighter rosin is generally preferred for violins and violas, and in high-humidity climates, while darker rosins are preferred for cellos, and for players in cool, dry areas. There are also specific, distinguishing types for basses—for more see Bow, violin rosin can be applied to the bridges in other musical instruments, such as the banjo and banjolele, in order to prevent the bridge from moving during vigorous playing. Ballet, flamenco, and Irish dancers are known to rub the tips and it was at one time used in the same way in fencing and is still used as such by boxers. Gymnasts and team handball players use it to improve grip, rock climbers have used it in some locations, but it fouls the rock, so usage is now highly discouraged. Olympic weightlifters rub the soles of their boots in rosin to improve traction on the platform. It is applied onto the line of drag racing courses used to improve traction. Bull riders rub rosin on their rope and glove for additional grip, baseball pitchers and ten-pin bowlers may use a small cloth bag of powdered rosin for better ball control
Rosin
–
A cake of rosin, made for use by violinists, used here for
soldering
Rosin
–
Various types of rosin for violins, violas and cellos
Rosin
–
A piece of rosin for violins, violas and cellos
Rosin
–
Pharmaceutical rosin
10.
Natural phenol
–
In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C 6H 5OH, phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule. Synonyms are arenols or aryl alcohols, phenolic compounds are synthesized industrially, they also are produced by plants and microorganisms, with variation between and within species. Although similar to alcohols, phenols have unique properties and are not classified as alcohols and they have higher acidities due to the aromatic rings tight coupling with the oxygen and a relatively loose bond between the oxygen and hydrogen. The acidity of the group in phenols is commonly intermediate between that of aliphatic alcohols and carboxylic acids. Phenols can have two or more hydroxy groups bonded to the ring in the same molecule. The simplest examples are the three benzenediols, each having two groups on a benzene ring. Organisms that synthesize phenolic compounds do so in response to pressures such as pathogen and insect attack, UV radiation. As they are present in food consumed in human diets and in used in traditional medicine of several cultures, their role in human health. Some phenols are germicidal and are used in formulating disinfectants, others possess estrogenic or endocrine disrupting activity. They can also be classified on the basis of their number of phenol groups and they can therefore be called simple phenols or monophenols, with only one phenolic group, or di-, tri- and oligophenols, with two, three or several phenolic groups respectively. The phenolic unit can be found dimerized or further polymerized, creating a new class of polyphenol, two natural phenols from two different categories, for instance a flavonoid and a lignan, can combine to form a hybrid class like the flavonolignans. Nomenclature of polymers, Plants in the genus Humulus and Cannabis produce terpenophenolic metabolites, phenolic lipids are long aliphatic chains bonded to a phenolic moiety. The majority of compounds are solubles molecules but the smaller molecules can be volatiles. Many natural phenols present chirality within their molecule, an example of such molecules is catechin. Cavicularin is an unusual macrocycle because it was the first compound isolated from nature displaying optical activity due to the presence of planar chirality, natural phenols chemically interact with many other substances. Stacking, a property of molecules with aromaticity, is seen occurring between phenolic molecules. When studied in mass spectrometry, phenols easily form adduct ions with halogens and they can also interact with the food matrices or with different forms of silica
Natural phenol
–
Phenol - the simplest of the phenols.
11.
Parasitoids
–
A parasitoid is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life history attached to or within a single host organism in a relationship where the host is ultimately killed. Thus, parasitoidy is an evolutionary strategy to typical parasitism. There are parasitoids in a variety of taxa, including microbial diseases, plants, crustaceans, insects. Especially among the Hymenoptera, ichneumons and many wasps are highly specialised for a way of life. Some parasitoidal wasps are used in biological pest control, the term parasitoid was coined in 1913 by the Swedo-Finnish writer Odo Morannal Reuter, and adopted in English by his reviewer, William Morton Wheeler. Reuter used it to describe the strategy where the parasite develops in or on the body of a single host individual, eventually killing that host, since that time, the concept has been variously generalised and widely applied. These are adaptive peaks, with possible intermediate strategies. Parasitoids eventually kill their host, typically before it can produce offspring, a nonlethal parasitic organism, especially if it is a fungus, is sometimes termed a biotroph, while a parasitoidal fungus may be called a necrotroph. Idiobiont parasitoids prevent further development of the host after initially immobilizing it, koinobiont parasitoids allow the host to continue its development while feeding upon it, and may parasitise any host life stage. There is no separation between conventional parasitism and parasitoidy. For example, blood-sucking mites sometimes overwhelm nestlings of birds such as swallows to the point that the birds cannot fledge successfully. At the opposite extreme, parasitoidy grades into predation, differences between various hunting wasps provide convenient illustrations. Predatory social wasps hunt flies, caterpillars and the like, grab them, butcher them, carry them home and feed them to their young. Similarly, some solitary wasps such as beewolves, sting prey, sometimes fatally, before saving it, usually entire, in contrast, the best-known protelean solitary hunting wasps sting prey to paralyse it before storing it for the young in the nest. Other wasps paralyse prey in the plant or other environment in which it feeds, before laying eggs nearby, some insect parasitoids lay their eggs where the larvae must locate the prey for themselves when they hatch from the eggs. Examples include flies in the families Tachinidae and Bombyliidae, often with sophisticated physiological, in another strategy, some parasitoids influence the hosts behaviour in ways that favour the propagation of the parasitoid, often at the cost of the hosts life. Similarly, as strepsipteran parasitoids of ants mature, they cause the hosts to climb high on grass stalks, positions that are risky, but favour the emergence of the strepsipterans. Other species of endoparasitoids cause infected woodlice and land Amphipoda such as Talitroides to run about in the open by day, the rabies virus affects the hosts central nervous system, eventually killing it, but perhaps helping to disseminate the virus by modifying the hosts behaviour
Parasitoids
–
SEM image of endoparasitoid
ciliates of the genus
Collinia, which can cause mass mortality in affected
krill populations
Parasitoids
–
Braconidae wasp cocoons on
giant leopard larva
Parasitoids
–
Koinobiont parasitoid on moth larva
12.
Alpha-Pinene
–
α-Pinene is an organic compound of the terpene class, one of two isomers of pinene. It is an alkene and it contains a reactive four-membered ring and it is found in the oils of many species of many coniferous trees, notably the pine. The racemic mixture is present in some such as eucalyptus oil. The four-membered ring in α-pinene 1 makes it a reactive hydrocarbon, for example, attempts to perform hydration or hydrogen halide addition with the alkene functionality typically lead to rearranged products. With concentrated sulfuric acid and ethanol the major products are terpineol 2 and its ethyl ether 3, with dilute acids, terpin hydrate 5 becomes the major product. With one molar equivalent of anhydrous HCl, the simple addition product 6a can be formed at low temperature in the presence of ether, but it is very unstable. At normal temperatures, or if no ether is present, the product is bornyl chloride 6b. For many years 6b was referred to as pinene hydrochloride, until it was confirmed as identical with bornyl chloride made from camphene, if more HCl is used, achiral 7 is the major product along with some 6b. Nitrosyl chloride followed by base leads to the oxime 8 which can be reduced to pinylamine 9, both 8 and 9 are stable compounds containing an intact four-membered ring, and these compounds helped greatly in identifying this important component of the pinene skeleton. A variety of such as iodine or PCl3 cause aromatisation. Under aerobic oxidation conditions, the oxidation products are pinene oxide, verbenyl hydroperoxide, verbenol. Monoterpenes, of which α-pinene is one of the species, are emitted in substantial amounts by vegetation. This has been shown in laboratory experiments for the mono-. Products of α-pinene which have been identified explicitly are pinonaldehyde, norpinonaldehyde, pinic acid, pinonic acid, at low exposure levels, α-Pinene is a bronchodilator in humans, and is highly bioavailable with 60% human pulmonary uptake with rapid metabolism or redistribution. α-Pinene is an anti-inflammatory via PGE1, and seems to be a broad-spectrum antibiotic and it exhibits activity as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, aiding memory. Like borneol, verbenol and pinocarveol -α-pinene is a modulator of GABAA receptors. It acts at the binding site. α-Pinene forms the base for CB2 ligands, such as HU-308
Alpha-Pinene
–
α-Pinene
13.
Pinene
–
Pinene is a bicyclic monoterpene chemical compound. There are two isomers of pinene found in nature, α-pinene and β-pinene. Both isomers are used by insects in their chemical communication system. The two isomers of pinene constitute the major component of turpentine, α-Pinene and β-pinene are both produced from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclisation of linaloyl pyrophosphate followed by loss of a proton from the carbocation equivalent. Alpha-pinene is the most widely encountered terpenoid in nature and is highly repellant to insects, alpha-pinene appears in conifers and numerous other plants. Pinene is a component of the essential oils of Sideritis spp. Resin from Pistacia terebinthus is rich in pinene, pine nuts produced by pine trees contain pinene. Makrut lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil, in chemical industry, selective oxidation of pinene with some catalysts gives many compounds for perfumery, such as artificial odorants. An important oxidation product is verbenone, along with pinene oxide, verbenol, pinenes are the primary constituents of turpentine. Pinene has also used as anti-cancer agent in Traditional Chinese medicine, also for its anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, expectorant. Mann, J. Davidson, R. S. Hobbs, banthorpe, D. V. Harborne, J. B. Harlow, UK, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd. pp. 309–311
Pinene
–
Pinene
14.
Carene
–
Carene, or delta-3-carene, is a bicyclic monoterpene which occurs naturally as a constituent of turpentine, with a content as high as 42% depending on the source. Carene has a sweet and pungent odor and it is not soluble in water, but miscible with fats and oils. In higher concentrations, delta-3-carene can be a skin irritant or central nervous system depressant, aromas attributed to carene include sweet, pine, cedar, woodsy, and pungent. Natural sources of carene include turpentine, rosemary, and cedar
Carene
–
Carene
15.
Sabinene
–
Sabinene is a natural bicyclic monoterpene with the molecular formula C10H16. It is isolated from the oils of a variety of plants including holm oak. It has a ring system with a cyclopentane ring fused to a cyclopropane ring. Sabinene is one of the compounds that contributes to the spiciness of black pepper and is a major constituent of carrot seed oil. It also occurs in tea tree oil at a low concentration and it is also present in the essential oil obtained from nutmeg, Laurus nobilis and Clausena anisata. Thujene, a double bond isomer of sabinene
Sabinene
–
Sabinene
16.
Limonene
–
Limonene is a colorless liquid hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic terpene. The more common d-isomer possesses a strong smell of oranges and it is used in chemical synthesis as a precursor to carvone and as a renewables-based solvent in cleaning products. The less common l-isomer is found in mint oils and has a piney, limonene takes its name from the lemon, as the rind of the lemon, like other citrus fruits, contains considerable amounts of this compound, which contributes to their odor. Limonene is a molecule, and biological sources produce one enantiomer, the principal industrial source, citrus fruit, contains d-limonene. Racemic limonene is known as dipentene, d-Limonene is obtained commercially from citrus fruits through two primary methods, centrifugal separation or steam distillation. Limonene is a relatively stable terpene and can be distilled without decomposition and it oxidizes easily in moist air to produce carveol, carvone, and limonene oxide. With sulfur, it undergoes dehydrogenation to p-cymene, limonene occurs commonly as the d or -enantiomer, but racemizes to dipentene at 300 °C. When warmed with mineral acid, limonene isomerizes to the conjugated diene α-terpinene, evidence for this isomerization includes the formation of Diels-Alder adducts between α-terpinene adducts and maleic anhydride. It is possible to effect reaction at one of the double bonds selectively, anhydrous hydrogen chloride reacts preferentially at the disubstituted alkene, whereas epoxidation with mCPBA occurs at the trisubstituted alkene. In another synthetic method Markovnikov addition of trifluoroacetic acid followed by hydrolysis of the acetate gives terpineol, limonene is formed from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclization of a neryl carbocation or its equivalent as shown. The final step involves loss of a proton from the cation to form the alkene, the most widely practiced conversion of limonene is to carvone. The three step reaction begins with the addition of nitrosyl chloride across the trisubstituted double bond. This species is then converted to the oxime with base, d-Limonene applied to skin may cause irritation, but otherwise appears to be safe for human uses. Limonene is common in cosmetic products, as the main odor constituent of citrus, d-limonene is used in food manufacturing and some medicines, e. g. It is added to cleaning products such as hand cleansers to give a lemon-orange fragrance, in contrast, l-limonene has a piney, turpentine-like odor. In natural and alternative medicine, d-limonene is marketed to relieve gastroesophageal reflux disease, limonene is increasingly being used as a solvent for cleaning purposes, such as the removal of oil from machine parts, as it is produced from a renewable source. It is used as a paint stripper and is useful as a fragrant alternative to turpentine. Limonene is also used as a solvent in some model airplane glues, all-natural commercial air fresheners, with air propellants, containing limonene are used by philatelists to remove self-adhesive postage stamps from envelope paper
Limonene
–
Limonene
17.
Terpinolene
–
The terpinenes are a group of isomeric hydrocarbons that are classified as terpenes. They each have the molecular formula and carbon framework. α-Terpinene has been isolated from cardamom and marjoram oils, and from natural sources. β-Terpinene has no natural source, but has been prepared synthetically from sabinene. γ-Terpinene and δ-terpinene are natural and have been isolated from a variety of plant sources, α-Terpinene is a perfume and flavoring chemical used in the cosmetics and food industries. Its use in both the pharmaceutical and the electronics semi-conductor manufacturing industries has also proven to be valuable, the biosynthesis of α-terpinene and other terpenoids occurs via the mevalonate pathway because its starting reactant, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate, is derived from mevalonic acid. GPP then loses the pyrophosphate group to form the resonance-stable geranyl cation, the reintroduction of the pyrophosphate group to the cation produces GPP isomer, known as linalyl pyrophosphate. LPP then forms a resonance-stable cation by losing its pyrophosphate group, cyclization is then completed thanks to this more favorable stereochemistry of the LPP cation, now yielding a terpinyl cation. Finally, a 1, 2-hydride shift via a Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement produces the terpinen-4-yl cation and it is the loss of a hydrogen from this cation that generates α-terpinene. Cuminum cyminum Melaleuca alternifolia Cannabis sativa Origanum syriacum
Terpinolene
–
Biosynthesis of α-terpinene. "P" indicates a phosphate group, -PO 3 2−
18.
Sesquiterpene
–
Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and have the Molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be acyclic or contain rings, including many unique combinations, biochemical modifications such as oxidation or rearrangement produce the related sesquiterpenoids. Sesquiterpenes are found naturally in plants and insects, as semiochemicals, the reaction of geranyl pyrophosphate with isopentenyl pyrophosphate results in the 15-carbon farnesyl pyrophosphate which is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes such as farnesene. Oxidation of farnesene then provides sesquiterpenoids such as farnesol, there are more cyclic sesquiterpenes than cyclic monoterpenes because of the increased chain length and additional double bond. In addition to common six-membered ring systems such as is found in zingiberene, the cadinenes contain two fused six-membered rings. Caryophyllene, a component of essential oils such as clove oil. Vetivazulene and guaiazulene are aromatic bicyclic sesquiterpenoids, with the addition of a third ring, the possible structures become increasingly varied. Examples include longifolene, copaene and the alcohol patchoulol, two sesquiterpenes named dictyophorine A and B were identified from the fungus Phallus indusiatus. These compounds are based on the skeleton, and they are the first eudesmane derivatives isolated from fungi. The dictyophorines promote the synthesis of growth factor in astroglial cells. Sesquiterpenes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings
Sesquiterpene
–
Big Sagebrush (
Artemisia tridentata) contains
sesquiterpene lactones which are sesquiterpenoids (built from three
isoprene units) and contain a
lactone ring, hence the name. These compounds are found in many other plants and can cause
allergic reactions and
toxicity if overdosed, particularly in
grazing livestock.
Sesquiterpene
–
Phallus indusiatus, in
Cooktown, Queensland, Australia, which produces two novel sesquiterpenes
19.
Longifolene
–
Longifolene is the common chemical name of a naturally occurring, oily liquid hydrocarbon found primarily in the high-boiling fraction of certain pine resins. The name is derived from that of a species from which the compound was isolated, Pinus longifolia Chemically. This molecule is chiral, and the commonly found in pines. The other enantiomer is found in small amounts in certain fungi, Longifolene is used in organic synthesis for the preparation of dilongifolylborane, a chiral hydroborating agent. Longifolene is also one of two most abundant aroma constituents of lapsang souchong tea, because the tea is smoked over pine fires, due to the compact tricyclic structure and lack of functional groups, Longifolene is an attractive target for research groups highlighting new synthetic methodologies. Notable syntheses are by Corey, McMurray, Johnson, < Oppolzer, fallis has publised a stereoselective synthesis of -longifolene using an intramolecular Diels-Alder strategy. The Johnson biosynthesis has since been validated as feasible using modern quantum mechanical computational methods, the subsequent cationic cascade mechanism has been shown to go through a non-classical cation intermediate. The biosynthesis of longifolene begins with farnesyl diphosphate by means of a cationic polycyclization cascade, loss of the pyrophosphate group and cyclization by the distal alkene gives intermediate 3, which by means of a 1, 3-hydride shift gives intermediate 4. After two additional cyclizations, intermediate 6 produces longifolene by a 1, 2-alkyl migration, the borane derivative dilongifolylborane is used in organic synthesis as a chiral hydroborating agent
Longifolene
20.
Caryophyllene
–
It is usually found as a mixture with isocaryophyllene and α-humulene, a ring-opened isomer. Caryophyllene is notable for having a ring, as well as a trans-double bond in an 8-membered ring. The first total synthesis of caryophyllene in 1964 by E. J, corey was considered one of the classic demonstrations of the possibilities of synthetic organic chemistry at the time. Caryophyllene is one of the compounds that contributes to the spiciness of black pepper. 14-Hydroxycaryophyllene oxide was isolated from the urine of rabbits treated with -caryophyllene, the x-ray crystal structure of 14-hydroxycaryophyllene has been reported. The metabolism of caryophyllen progresses through -caryophyllene oxide since the compound also afforded 14-hydroxycaryophyllene as a metabolite. Caryophyllene → caryophyllene oxide → 14-hydroxycaryophyllene → 14-hydroxycaryophyllene oxide, caryophyllene oxide, in which the olefin of caryophyllene has become an epoxide, is the component responsible for cannabis identification by drug-sniffing dogs and is also an approved food flavoring. Antinociceptive, neuroprotective, anxiolytic and antidepressant and anti-alcoholism activity in in vitro studies, whether this compound is able to modulate inflammatory processes in humans via the endocannabinoid system is yet unknown. However, it is found to elicit significant neuroprotection by its anti-inflammatory, caryophyllene does not bind to the centrally expressed cannabinoid receptor type-1 and therefore does not exert psychoactive effects. Scientific evidence have been presented for non-cannabinoid plant components as putative antidotes to intoxicating effects of THC, that could increase its therapeutic index
Caryophyllene
–
Caryophyllene
21.
Cadinene
–
Cadinene is the trivial chemical name of a number of isomeric hydrocarbons that occur in a wide variety of essential oil-producing plants. The name is derived from that of the Cade juniper, the wood of which yields an oil from which cadinene isomers were first isolated, chemically, the cadinenes are bicyclic sesquiterpenes. The term “cadinene” has sometimes used in a broad sense to refer to any sesquiterpene with the so-called cadalane carbon skeleton. The name cadinene is now used only for the first subclass below. Only one enantiomer of each subclass is depicted, with the understanding that the other bears the same subclass name
Cadinene
22.
Resin acid
–
Resin acid refers to mixtures of several related carboxylic acids, primarily abietic acid, found in tree resins. Nearly all resin acids have the basic skeleton, three fused ring fused with the empirical formula C19H29COOH. Resin acids are tacky, yellowish gums that are water-insoluble and they are used to produce soaps for diverse applications, but their use is being displaced increasingly by synthetic acids such as 2-ethylhexanoic acid or petroleum-derived naphthenic acids. Resin acids are protectants and wood preservatives that are produced by epithelial cells that surround the resin ducts in trees from temperate coniferous forests. The resin acids are formed when two-carbon and three-carbon molecules couple with isoprene building units to form monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, pines contain numerous vertical and radial resin ducts scattered throughout the entire wood. The accumulation of resin in the heartwood and resin ducts causes a maximum concentration in the base of the older trees, resin in the sapwood, however, is less at the base of the tree and increases with height. These increased levels show that a tree uses the resins as a defense, resins are both toxic to the beetle and the fungus and also can entomb the beetle in diterpene remains from secretions. Increasing resin production has been proposed as a way to slow the spread of the beetle in the Red Zone or the urban interface. Kraft soap can be reneutralized with sulfuric acid to restore the acidic forms abietic acid, palmitic acid and this refined mixture is called tall oil. Other major components include fatty acids and unsaponifiable sterols, resin acids, because of the same protectant nature they provide in the trees where they originate, also impose toxic implications on the effluent treatment facilities in pulp manufacturing plants. Furthermore, any residual resin acids that pass the treatment facilities add toxicity to the stream discharged to the receiving waters, the chemical composition of tall oil varies with the species of trees used in pulping, and in turn with geographical location. For example, the areas of the southeastern United States have a high proportion of Slash Pine. Slash Pine generally contains a concentration of resin acids than Loblolly Pine. In general, the oil produced in coastal areas of the southeastern United States contains over 40% resin acids. The fatty acids fraction is usually lower than the resin acids, farther north in Virginia, where Pitch Pine and Shortleaf Pine are more dominant, the resin acid content decreases to as low as 30-35% with a corresponding increase in the fatty acids present. Similar variations may be found in parts of the United States. For example, in Finland, Sweden and Russia, resin acid values from Scots Pine may vary from 20 to 50%, fatty acids from 35 to 70%, and unsaponifiables from 6 to 30%
Resin acid
–
Abietic acid
23.
Fractional distillation
–
Generally the component parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, heat source, such as a hot plate with a bath, and ideally with a magnetic stirrer. g. As an example consider the distillation of a mixture of water, ethanol boils at 78.4 °C while water boils at 100 °C. So, by heating the mixture, the most volatile component will concentrate to a degree in the vapor leaving the liquid. Some mixtures form azeotropes, where the mixture boils at a lower temperature than either component, in this example, a mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water boils at 78.2 °C, the mixture is more volatile than pure ethanol. For this reason, ethanol cannot be purified by direct fractional distillation of ethanol-water mixtures. The apparatus is assembled as in the diagram, the mixture is put into the round bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules, and the fractionating column is fitted into the top. The fractional distillation column is set up with the source at the bottom on the still pot. As the distance from the stillpot increases, a gradient is formed in the column, it is coolest at the top. As the mixed vapor ascends the temperature gradient, some of the vapor condenses and revaporizes along the temperature gradient, each time the vapor condenses and vaporizes, the composition of the more volatile component in the vapor increases. This distills the vapor along the length of the column, the vapor condenses on the glass platforms, known as trays, inside the column, and runs back down into the liquid below, refluxing distillate. The hottest tray is at the bottom and the coolest is at the top, at steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray are at equilibrium. The most volatile component of the exits as a gas at the top of the column. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, the process continues until all the ethanol boils out of the mixture. This point can be recognized by the rise in temperature shown on the thermometer. The above explanation reflects the theoretical way fractionation works, normal laboratory fractionation columns will be simple glass tubes filled with a packing, often small glass helices of 4 to 7 mm diameter. Such a column can be calibrated by the distillation of a known mixture system to quantify the column in terms of number of theoretical trays, in laboratory distillation, several types of condensers are commonly found. The Liebig condenser is simply a tube within a water jacket
Fractional distillation
–
Typical industrial fractional distillation columns
Fractional distillation
–
Fractional distillation An
Erlenmeyer flask is used as a receiving flask. Here the distillation head and
fractionating column are combined in one piece.
24.
Amber
–
Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects and it has also been used as a healing agent in folk medicine. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents, because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as inclusions. Amber occurring in coal seams is also called resinite, and the term ambrite is applied to that found specifically within New Zealand coal seams, the English word amber derives from Arabic ʿanbar عنبر via Middle Latin ambar and Middle French ambre. The word was adopted in Middle English in the 14th century as referring to what is now known as ambergris, in the Romance languages, the sense of the word had come to be extended to Baltic amber from as early as the late 13th century. At first called white or yellow amber, this meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century, as the use of ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word. The two substances conceivably became associated or confused because they both were washed up on beaches. Ambergris is less dense water and floats, whereas amber is too dense to float. The classical names for amber, Latin electrum and Ancient Greek ἤλεκτρον, are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ meaning beaming Sun, according to myth, when Phaëton son of Helios was killed, his mourning sisters became poplar trees, and their tears became elektron, amber. Earlier Pliny says that an island of three days sail from the Scythian coast called Balcia by Xenophon of Lampsacus, author of a fanciful travel book in Greek, is called Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same as Abalus and it is assumed that there were well-established trade routes for amber connecting the Baltic with the Mediterranean. Pliny states explicitly that the Germans export amber to Pannonia, from where it was traded further abroad by the Veneti, the ancient Italic peoples of southern Italy were working amber, the most important examples are on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Siritide to Matera. Amber used in antiquity as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the Mediterranean comes from deposits of Sicily. Besides the fanciful explanations according to which amber is produced by the Sun, Pliny cites opinions that are aware of its origin in tree resin. Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the genus, like gum from the cherry. This is confirmed by the recorded Old High German glas and Old English glær for amber, in Middle Low German, amber was known as berne-, barn-, börnstēn. The Low German term became dominant also in High German by the 18th century, the Baltic Lithuanian term for amber is gintaras and Latvian dzintars. They, and the Slavic jantar or Hungarian gyanta, are thought to originate from Phoenician jainitar, Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury
Amber
–
Amber pendants made of modified amber. The oval
pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2 by 1.3 inches).
Amber
–
An ant inside Baltic amber
Amber
–
A
mosquito and a
fly in this Baltic amber necklace are between 40 and 60 million years old
25.
Balm of Gilead
–
Balm of Gilead was a rare perfume used medicinally, that was mentioned in the Bible, and named for the region of Gilead where it was produced. The expression stems from William Tyndales language in the King James Bible of 1611, the tree or shrub producing the balm is commonly identified as Commiphora gileadensis. Some botanical scholars have concluded that the source was a Terebinth tree in the genus Pistacia. In the Bible, balsam is designated by names, בֹּשֶׂם, בֶּשֶׂם, צֳרִי, נׇטׇף, and, in rabbinic literature, קׇטׇף, בַּלְסׇם, אַפּוֹבַּלְסַמוֹן. After having cast Joseph into a pit, his brothers noticed a caravan on its way from Gilead to Egypt, with their camels bearing spicery, and balm, when Jacob dispatched his embassy into Egypt, his present to the unknown ruler included a little balm. During the final years of the Kingdom of Judah, Jeremiah asks Is there no balm in Gilead, still later, from an expression in Ezekiel 27,17, we find that balm was one of the commodities which Hebrew merchants carried to the market of Tyre. 10,10, balsam was among the precious gifts of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon. According to Josephus, the Queen of Sheba brought the root of the balsam as a present to King Solomon. In describing Palestine, Tacitus says that in all its productions it equals Italy, besides possessing the palm and the balsam, and the far-famed tree excited the cupidity of successive invaders. By Pompey it was exhibited in the streets of Rome as one of the spoils of the conquered province,65 B. C. E. During the invasion of Titus, two battles took place at the balsam groves of Jericho, the last being to prevent the Jews in their frenzy from destroying the trees. Then they became public property, and were placed under the protection of an imperial guard, according to Pliny, the balsam-tree was indigenous only to Judea, but known to Diodorus Siculus as a product of Arabia also. He tells us that, in general, the plant, a shrub, has the nearest resemblance to the grapevine. The leaves, however, more closely resemble those of the rue, and its height does not exceed two cubits. From slight incisions made very cautiously into the rind the balsam trickles in thin drops, which are collected with wool into a horn, at first it is whitish and pellucid, but afterwards it becomes harder and reddish. That is considered to be the best quality which trickles before the appearance of the fruit, much inferior to this is the resin pressed from the seeds, the rind, and even from the stems. This description, which is not sufficiently characteristic of the plant itself, the plant, however, is not indigenous to Egypt, but the layers are brought there from Arabia Felix, Prosperus Alpinus has published a plate of it. In the Talmud, balsam appears as an ointment which was a highly praised product of the Jericho plain, however, its main use was medicinal rather than cosmetic
Balm of Gilead
–
Balm of Gilead, "Jerusalem: A Medical Diagnosis Exhibition"
26.
Canada balsam
–
Canada balsam, also called Canada turpentine or balsam of fir, is a turpentine made from the resin of the balsam fir tree of boreal North America. The resin, dissolved in essential oils, is a viscous, sticky, Canada balsam is amorphous when dried. Since it does not crystallize with age, its properties do not deteriorate. However, it has poor thermal and solvent resistance, lenses glued with Canada balsam are called cemented lenses. Also, other elements can be cemented with Canada balsam. Balsam was phased out as an optical adhesive during World War II, in favour of polyester, epoxy, in modern optical manufacturing, UV-cured epoxies are often used to bond lens elements. Canada balsam was also used for making permanent microscope slides. Xylene balsam, Canada balsam dissolved in xylene, is used for preparing slide mounts. Some workers prefer terpene resin for slide mounts, as it is less acidic and cheaper than balsam. Synthetic resins have largely replaced organic balsams for such applications, another important application of Canada balsam is in the construction of the Nicol prism. A Nicol prism consists of a crystal cut into two halves. Canada balsam is placed between the two layers, calcite is an anisotropic crystal and has different refractive indices for rays polarized along directions parallel and perpendicular to its optic axis. These rays with differing refractive indices are known as the ordinary and extraordinary rays, the refractive index for Canada balsam is in between the refractive index for the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Hence the ordinary ray will be totally internally reflected, the emergent ray will be linearly polarized, and traditionally this has been one of the popular ways of producing polarized light. Balm of Gilead, a compound made from the resinous gum of Commiphora gileadensis
Canada balsam
–
Slide of 60-year-old
holotype specimen of a flatworm (
Lethacotyle fijiensis) permanently mounted in Canada balsam
27.
Boswellia
–
Boswellia is a genus of trees in the order Sapindales, known for their fragrant resin which has many pharmacological uses, particularly as anti-inflammatories. The Biblical incense frankincense was an extract from the resin of the tree Boswellia sacra, there are four main species of Boswellia which produce true frankincense. B. sacra, B. frereana, B. papyrifera, and B. serrata, the grades depend on the time of harvesting, and the resin is hand sorted for quality. Boswellia are moderate-sized flowering plants, including trees and shrubs, and are native to tropical regions of Africa and Asia. The distributions of the species are associated with the tropics. The greatest diversity of species presently is in Africa and India, the flowers may have 4-5 faintly connate but imbricate sepals with an equal number of distinct, imbricate petals. The gynoecium contains 3-5 connate carpels, one style, and one stigma that is head-like to lobed, each locule of the superior ovary has 2 ovules with axile placentation that are anatropous to campylotropous. The 1-5 pitted fruit is a drupe that opens at maturity, the endosperm is usually lacking in the embryo. Boswellia has long used in Ayurvedic medicine. Recently, the acids that are a component of the resin it produces have shown some promise as a treatment for asthma. In West Africa, the bark of Boswellia dalzielii is used to treat fever, rheumatism, Boswellia incense may even relieve depression
Boswellia
–
Boswellia
Boswellia
–
Boswellia dalzielii bark
28.
Copal
–
More generally, the term copal describes resinous substances in an intermediate stage of polymerization and hardening between gummier resins and amber. The word copal is derived from the Nahuatl language word copalli, copal is still used by a number of indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America as an incense, during sweat lodge ceremonies and Sacred Mushroom ceremonies. It is available in different forms, the hard, amber-like yellow copal is a less expensive version. The white copal, a hard, milky, sticky substance, is an expensive version of the same resin. Copal resin from Hymenaea verrucosa is found in East Africa and is used in incense. By the 18th century, Europeans found it to be an ingredient in making a good wood varnish. It became widely used in the manufacture of furniture and carriages and it was also sometimes used as a picture varnish. By the late 19th and early 20th century varnish manufacturers in England and America were using it on train carriages, in 1859 Americans consumed 68 percent of the East African trade, which was controlled through the Sultan of Zanzibar, with Germany receiving 24 percent. The American Civil War and the creation of the Suez Canal led to Germany, India, East Africa apparently had a higher amount of subfossil copal, which is found one or two meters below living copal trees from roots of trees that may have lived thousands of years earlier. This subfossil copal produces a harder varnish, subfossil copal is also well-known from New Zealand, Japan, the Dominican Republic, Colombia and Madagascar. It often has inclusions and is sold as young amber. Copal can be distinguished from genuine amber by its lighter citrine colour
Copal
–
Copal from
Madagascar with
spiders,
termites,
ants,
elateridae,
hymenoptera,
cockroach and a
flower
Copal
–
A sample of copal containing a few
termites
29.
Protium (plant)
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Protium is a genus of more than 140 species of flowering plants in the family Burseraceae. It is native to the Neotropics, Madagascar, New Guinea, the genus was for some time included in Bursera, but is distinct, being most closely related to Crepidospermum and Tetragastris. The species are small or medium-sized trees, but some can be large. In their native range, some species are grown for timber, used as firewood, as plants, for their fruit. Protium icicariba Protium inconforme Protium panamense Protium pittieri Protium serratum Protium widgrenii Engl, germplasm Resources Information Network, Protium Flora of Pakistan
Protium (plant)
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Protium
30.
Hymenaea courbaril
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Hymenaea courbaril is a tree common in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. It is a hardwood that is used for furniture, flooring and its hard fruit pods have edible dry pulp surrounding the seeds. Its sap, denominated animé, is used for incense, perfume, Hymenaea courbaril is commonly known as the courbaril, West Indian locust, Brazilian copal, and amami-gum. Although it is sometimes denominated Brazilian cherry and South American cherry, it is not a cherry tree and it is also known as stinking toe, old mans toe, and stinktoe because of the unpleasant odor of the edible pulp of its seed pods. Its fruit also known as locust was a food for indigenous peoples. Those who eat it do not consider the odor unpleasant, the pulp inside the hard shells appears like miniature soluble fibers that dissolve easily in water or milk, which it thickens. Some add sugar to it for more sweetness, if consumed raw it tends to stick inside the mouth like dry dust. It is one of the richest vegetable foods known because of its high concentrations of starches and it is further an excellent concentrated feed for animals. The tree produces an orange, soft, sticky resin or gum, the resin has a specific gravity varying from 1.054 to 1.057. It melts readily over fire, and softens even with the heat of the mouth and it diffuses white fumes and a very pleasant odor. Insects are generally entrapped in it in large numbers and it is insoluble in water, and nearly so in cold alcohol. It is similar to copal in its nature and appearance, the production of animé may be encouraged by wounding the bark. The resin collects between the principal roots and it can be obtained from other species of Hymenaea growing in tropical South America. Brazilians use it internally to treat diseases of the lungs and it was formerly an ingredient of ointments and plasters, but at present its only use is for incense and varnish. The wood is hard, measuring 5.6 on the Brinell scale and 2,350 lbf on the Janka scale. For comparison, Douglas fir measures 660 lbf, white oak 1,360 lbf and it features a tan to salmon color with black accent stripes that over time turn to a deep and vibrant red. Animé, Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. Vol. II, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1878, animé, Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. Vol. II, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1911, pp. 52–53. Media related to Hymenaea courbaril at Wikimedia Commons
Hymenaea courbaril
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Hymenaea courbaril
Hymenaea courbaril
Hymenaea courbaril
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200-year-old tree in
Mococa, Brazil. [
citation needed]
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