1.
Cedrus libani
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Cedrus libani, commonly known as the Cedar of Lebanon is a species of cedar native to the mountains of the Eastern Mediterranean basin. It is a conifer that can reach 40 m in height. Cedrus libani is the emblem of Lebanon and is widely used as an ornamental tree in parks. Cedrus libani is a coniferous tree, it can reach 40 m in height with a massive monopodial columnar trunk up to 2.5 m in diameter. The trunks of old trees ordinarily fork into several large, erect branches, the rough and scaly bark is dark grey to blackish brown, it is run through by deep horizontal fissures that peel in small chips. The first-order branches are ascending in young trees, they grow to a size and take on a horizontal. Second-order branches are dense and grow in a horizontal plane, the crown is conical when young, becoming broadly tabular with age with fairly level branches, trees growing in dense forests maintain a more pyramidal shape. The shoots are dimorphic, with long and short shoots. New shoots are brown, older shoots turn grey, grooved. C. libani has slightly resinous ovoid vegetative buds measuring 2 to 3 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm wide enclosed by pale brown deciduous scales. Cedrus libani produces cones at around the age of 40, it flowers in autumn, the male cones appear in early September and the female ones in late September. Male cones occur at the ends of the shoots, they are solitary and erect approximately 4 to 5 cm long. The female seed cones also grow at the ends of short shoots. The young seed cones are resinous, sessile and pale green, the mature woody cones are 8 to 12 cm long and 3 to 6 cm wide, they are scaly, resinous, ovoid or barrel shaped and gray-brown in color. Mature cones open from top to bottom, they disintegrate and lose their seed scales releasing the seeds until only the cone rachis remains attached to the branches. The seed scales are thin, broad and coriaceous measuring 3.5 to 4 cm long and 3 to 3.5 cm wide. The seeds are ovoid,10 to 14 mm long and 4 to 6 mm wide, Cedrus libani grows rapidly until the age of 45 to 50 years, growth becomes extremely slow after the age of 70 years. Cedrus is the Latin name for true cedars, the specific epithet refers the Lebanon mountain range where the species was first described by French botanist Achille Richard, the tree is commonly known as the Lebanon cedar or Cedar of Lebanon
2.
Mummy
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Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 CE. Mummies of humans and other animals have found on every continent. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats, in addition to the well-known mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE. The oldest known naturally mummified corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old. These substances were defined as mummia, the OED defines a mummy as the body of a human being or animal embalmed as a preparation for burial, citing sources from 1615 CE onward. However, Chambers Cyclopædia and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows, also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow. Wasps of the genus Aleiodes are known as mummy wasps because they wrap their prey as mummies. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith, British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922, pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, more than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique, in more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally unwrap mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle. Mummies are typically divided into one of two categories, anthropogenic or spontaneous
3.
Pharaoh
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The word pharaoh ultimately derive from the Egyptian compound pr-ˤ3 great house, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr house and ˤ3 column, here meaning great or high. It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ˤ3 Courtier of the High House, with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the twelfth dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health, but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. During the reign of Thutmose III in the New Kingdom, after the rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. During the eighteenth dynasty the title pharaoh was employed as a designation of the ruler. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ˤ3 on its own was used as regularly as hm. f, the term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the pharaoh being attached to a rulers name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun and this new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-second dynasty kings. Shoshenq I was the successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives, by this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *par-ʕoʔ whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Φερων. In the Bible, the title also occurs as פרעה, from that, Septuagint φαραώ pharaō and then Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Quran likewise spells it فرعون firawn with n, interestingly, the Arabic combines the original pharyngeal ayin sound from Egyptian, along with the -n ending from Greek. English at first spelt it Pharao, but the King James Bible revived Pharaoh with h from the Hebrew, meanwhile in Egypt itself, *par-ʕoʔ evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ prro and then rro. Scepters and staves were a sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-scepter, the earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to pre-dynastic times. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to the late Naqada period, another scepter associated with the king is the was-scepter. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head, the earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the first dynasty
4.
Insect
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Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea
5.
Materials science
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The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various accidents and incidents. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point, phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering, modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the use of fire. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors. Before the 1960s, many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th, a material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft, Materials can generally be divided into two classes, crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics, New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials and biomaterials, etc. The basis of science involves studying the structure of materials. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and these characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science, Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material, structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below
6.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
7.
Organic compound
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An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—earth, water, air, vitalism taught that these organic compounds were fundamentally different from the inorganic compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulation. Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and it first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhlers 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate, urea had long been considered an organic compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhlers experiments were followed by others, in which increasingly complex organic substances were produced from inorganic ones without the involvement of any living organism. Even though vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, still, even the broadest definition requires excluding alloys that contain carbon, including steel. The C-H definition excludes compounds that are considered organic, neither urea nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid, other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid, which contains no C-H bonds, is considered an organic substance in Martian soil. The C-H bond-only rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, for example, CF4 would be considered by this rule to be inorganic, whereas CF3H would be organic. Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways, one major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers, natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially
8.
Rosin
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It is semi-transparent and varies in color from yellow to black. At room temperature rosin is brittle, but it melts at stove-top temperature and it chiefly consists of various resin acids, especially abietic acid. The term colophony comes from colophonia resina, Latin for resin from Colophon, Rosin is an ingredient in printing inks, photocopying and laser printing paper, varnishes, adhesives, soap, paper sizing, soda, soldering fluxes, and sealing wax. Rosin can be used as an agent in medicines and chewing gum. It is denoted by E number E915, a related glycerol ester can be used as an emulsifier in soft drinks. In pharmaceuticals, rosin forms an ingredient in several plasters and ointments, in industry, rosin is a flux used in soldering. It is frequently seen as the burnt or clear residue around new soldering, a mixture of pitch and rosin is used to make a surface against which glass is polished when making optical components such as lenses. Rosin is added in quantities to traditional linseed oil/sand gap fillers. When mixed with waxes and oils, rosin is the ingredient of mystic smoke, a gum which. Extra substances such as beeswax, gold, silver, tin, or meteoric iron are added to the rosin to modify its stiction/friction properties. Powdered rosin can be applied to new hair, for example with a pad or cloth. Rosin is often applied to the bow before playing the instrument, lighter rosin is generally preferred for violins and violas, and in high-humidity climates, while darker rosins are preferred for cellos, and for players in cool, dry areas. There are also specific, distinguishing types for basses—for more see Bow, violin rosin can be applied to the bridges in other musical instruments, such as the banjo and banjolele, in order to prevent the bridge from moving during vigorous playing. Ballet, flamenco, and Irish dancers are known to rub the tips and it was at one time used in the same way in fencing and is still used as such by boxers. Gymnasts and team handball players use it to improve grip, rock climbers have used it in some locations, but it fouls the rock, so usage is now highly discouraged. Olympic weightlifters rub the soles of their boots in rosin to improve traction on the platform. It is applied onto the line of drag racing courses used to improve traction. Bull riders rub rosin on their rope and glove for additional grip, baseball pitchers and ten-pin bowlers may use a small cloth bag of powdered rosin for better ball control
9.
Phenols
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In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C 6H 5OH, phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule. Synonyms are arenols or aryl alcohols, phenolic compounds are synthesized industrially, they also are produced by plants and microorganisms, with variation between and within species. Although similar to alcohols, phenols have unique properties and are not classified as alcohols and they have higher acidities due to the aromatic rings tight coupling with the oxygen and a relatively loose bond between the oxygen and hydrogen. The acidity of the group in phenols is commonly intermediate between that of aliphatic alcohols and carboxylic acids. Phenols can have two or more hydroxy groups bonded to the ring in the same molecule. The simplest examples are the three benzenediols, each having two groups on a benzene ring. Organisms that synthesize phenolic compounds do so in response to pressures such as pathogen and insect attack, UV radiation. As they are present in food consumed in human diets and in used in traditional medicine of several cultures, their role in human health. Some phenols are germicidal and are used in formulating disinfectants, others possess estrogenic or endocrine disrupting activity. They can also be classified on the basis of their number of phenol groups and they can therefore be called simple phenols or monophenols, with only one phenolic group, or di-, tri- and oligophenols, with two, three or several phenolic groups respectively. The phenolic unit can be found dimerized or further polymerized, creating a new class of polyphenol, two natural phenols from two different categories, for instance a flavonoid and a lignan, can combine to form a hybrid class like the flavonolignans. Nomenclature of polymers, Plants in the genus Humulus and Cannabis produce terpenophenolic metabolites, phenolic lipids are long aliphatic chains bonded to a phenolic moiety. The majority of compounds are solubles molecules but the smaller molecules can be volatiles. Many natural phenols present chirality within their molecule, an example of such molecules is catechin. Cavicularin is an unusual macrocycle because it was the first compound isolated from nature displaying optical activity due to the presence of planar chirality, natural phenols chemically interact with many other substances. Stacking, a property of molecules with aromaticity, is seen occurring between phenolic molecules. When studied in mass spectrometry, phenols easily form adduct ions with halogens and they can also interact with the food matrices or with different forms of silica
10.
Parasitoid
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A parasitoid is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life history attached to or within a single host organism in a relationship where the host is ultimately killed. Thus, parasitoidy is an evolutionary strategy to typical parasitism. There are parasitoids in a variety of taxa, including microbial diseases, plants, crustaceans, insects. Especially among the Hymenoptera, ichneumons and many wasps are highly specialised for a way of life. Some parasitoidal wasps are used in biological pest control, the term parasitoid was coined in 1913 by the Swedo-Finnish writer Odo Morannal Reuter, and adopted in English by his reviewer, William Morton Wheeler. Reuter used it to describe the strategy where the parasite develops in or on the body of a single host individual, eventually killing that host, since that time, the concept has been variously generalised and widely applied. These are adaptive peaks, with possible intermediate strategies. Parasitoids eventually kill their host, typically before it can produce offspring, a nonlethal parasitic organism, especially if it is a fungus, is sometimes termed a biotroph, while a parasitoidal fungus may be called a necrotroph. Idiobiont parasitoids prevent further development of the host after initially immobilizing it, koinobiont parasitoids allow the host to continue its development while feeding upon it, and may parasitise any host life stage. There is no separation between conventional parasitism and parasitoidy. For example, blood-sucking mites sometimes overwhelm nestlings of birds such as swallows to the point that the birds cannot fledge successfully. At the opposite extreme, parasitoidy grades into predation, differences between various hunting wasps provide convenient illustrations. Predatory social wasps hunt flies, caterpillars and the like, grab them, butcher them, carry them home and feed them to their young. Similarly, some solitary wasps such as beewolves, sting prey, sometimes fatally, before saving it, usually entire, in contrast, the best-known protelean solitary hunting wasps sting prey to paralyse it before storing it for the young in the nest. Other wasps paralyse prey in the plant or other environment in which it feeds, before laying eggs nearby, some insect parasitoids lay their eggs where the larvae must locate the prey for themselves when they hatch from the eggs. Examples include flies in the families Tachinidae and Bombyliidae, often with sophisticated physiological, in another strategy, some parasitoids influence the hosts behaviour in ways that favour the propagation of the parasitoid, often at the cost of the hosts life. Similarly, as strepsipteran parasitoids of ants mature, they cause the hosts to climb high on grass stalks, positions that are risky, but favour the emergence of the strepsipterans. Other species of endoparasitoids cause infected woodlice and land Amphipoda such as Talitroides to run about in the open by day, the rabies virus affects the hosts central nervous system, eventually killing it, but perhaps helping to disseminate the virus by modifying the hosts behaviour
11.
Alpha-Pinene
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α-Pinene is an organic compound of the terpene class, one of two isomers of pinene. It is an alkene and it contains a reactive four-membered ring and it is found in the oils of many species of many coniferous trees, notably the pine. The racemic mixture is present in some such as eucalyptus oil. The four-membered ring in α-pinene 1 makes it a reactive hydrocarbon, for example, attempts to perform hydration or hydrogen halide addition with the alkene functionality typically lead to rearranged products. With concentrated sulfuric acid and ethanol the major products are terpineol 2 and its ethyl ether 3, with dilute acids, terpin hydrate 5 becomes the major product. With one molar equivalent of anhydrous HCl, the simple addition product 6a can be formed at low temperature in the presence of ether, but it is very unstable. At normal temperatures, or if no ether is present, the product is bornyl chloride 6b. For many years 6b was referred to as pinene hydrochloride, until it was confirmed as identical with bornyl chloride made from camphene, if more HCl is used, achiral 7 is the major product along with some 6b. Nitrosyl chloride followed by base leads to the oxime 8 which can be reduced to pinylamine 9, both 8 and 9 are stable compounds containing an intact four-membered ring, and these compounds helped greatly in identifying this important component of the pinene skeleton. A variety of such as iodine or PCl3 cause aromatisation. Under aerobic oxidation conditions, the oxidation products are pinene oxide, verbenyl hydroperoxide, verbenol. Monoterpenes, of which α-pinene is one of the species, are emitted in substantial amounts by vegetation. This has been shown in laboratory experiments for the mono-. Products of α-pinene which have been identified explicitly are pinonaldehyde, norpinonaldehyde, pinic acid, pinonic acid, at low exposure levels, α-Pinene is a bronchodilator in humans, and is highly bioavailable with 60% human pulmonary uptake with rapid metabolism or redistribution. α-Pinene is an anti-inflammatory via PGE1, and seems to be a broad-spectrum antibiotic and it exhibits activity as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, aiding memory. Like borneol, verbenol and pinocarveol -α-pinene is a modulator of GABAA receptors. It acts at the binding site. α-Pinene forms the base for CB2 ligands, such as HU-308
12.
Pinene
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Pinene is a bicyclic monoterpene chemical compound. There are two isomers of pinene found in nature, α-pinene and β-pinene. Both isomers are used by insects in their chemical communication system. The two isomers of pinene constitute the major component of turpentine, α-Pinene and β-pinene are both produced from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclisation of linaloyl pyrophosphate followed by loss of a proton from the carbocation equivalent. Alpha-pinene is the most widely encountered terpenoid in nature and is highly repellant to insects, alpha-pinene appears in conifers and numerous other plants. Pinene is a component of the essential oils of Sideritis spp. Resin from Pistacia terebinthus is rich in pinene, pine nuts produced by pine trees contain pinene. Makrut lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil, in chemical industry, selective oxidation of pinene with some catalysts gives many compounds for perfumery, such as artificial odorants. An important oxidation product is verbenone, along with pinene oxide, verbenol, pinenes are the primary constituents of turpentine. Pinene has also used as anti-cancer agent in Traditional Chinese medicine, also for its anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, expectorant. Mann, J. Davidson, R. S. Hobbs, banthorpe, D. V. Harborne, J. B. Harlow, UK, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd. pp. 309–311
13.
Carene
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Carene, or delta-3-carene, is a bicyclic monoterpene which occurs naturally as a constituent of turpentine, with a content as high as 42% depending on the source. Carene has a sweet and pungent odor and it is not soluble in water, but miscible with fats and oils. In higher concentrations, delta-3-carene can be a skin irritant or central nervous system depressant, aromas attributed to carene include sweet, pine, cedar, woodsy, and pungent. Natural sources of carene include turpentine, rosemary, and cedar
14.
Sabinene
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Sabinene is a natural bicyclic monoterpene with the molecular formula C10H16. It is isolated from the oils of a variety of plants including holm oak. It has a ring system with a cyclopentane ring fused to a cyclopropane ring. Sabinene is one of the compounds that contributes to the spiciness of black pepper and is a major constituent of carrot seed oil. It also occurs in tea tree oil at a low concentration and it is also present in the essential oil obtained from nutmeg, Laurus nobilis and Clausena anisata. Thujene, a double bond isomer of sabinene
15.
Limonene
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Limonene is a colorless liquid hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic terpene. The more common d-isomer possesses a strong smell of oranges and it is used in chemical synthesis as a precursor to carvone and as a renewables-based solvent in cleaning products. The less common l-isomer is found in mint oils and has a piney, limonene takes its name from the lemon, as the rind of the lemon, like other citrus fruits, contains considerable amounts of this compound, which contributes to their odor. Limonene is a molecule, and biological sources produce one enantiomer, the principal industrial source, citrus fruit, contains d-limonene. Racemic limonene is known as dipentene, d-Limonene is obtained commercially from citrus fruits through two primary methods, centrifugal separation or steam distillation. Limonene is a relatively stable terpene and can be distilled without decomposition and it oxidizes easily in moist air to produce carveol, carvone, and limonene oxide. With sulfur, it undergoes dehydrogenation to p-cymene, limonene occurs commonly as the d or -enantiomer, but racemizes to dipentene at 300 °C. When warmed with mineral acid, limonene isomerizes to the conjugated diene α-terpinene, evidence for this isomerization includes the formation of Diels-Alder adducts between α-terpinene adducts and maleic anhydride. It is possible to effect reaction at one of the double bonds selectively, anhydrous hydrogen chloride reacts preferentially at the disubstituted alkene, whereas epoxidation with mCPBA occurs at the trisubstituted alkene. In another synthetic method Markovnikov addition of trifluoroacetic acid followed by hydrolysis of the acetate gives terpineol, limonene is formed from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclization of a neryl carbocation or its equivalent as shown. The final step involves loss of a proton from the cation to form the alkene, the most widely practiced conversion of limonene is to carvone. The three step reaction begins with the addition of nitrosyl chloride across the trisubstituted double bond. This species is then converted to the oxime with base, d-Limonene applied to skin may cause irritation, but otherwise appears to be safe for human uses. Limonene is common in cosmetic products, as the main odor constituent of citrus, d-limonene is used in food manufacturing and some medicines, e. g. It is added to cleaning products such as hand cleansers to give a lemon-orange fragrance, in contrast, l-limonene has a piney, turpentine-like odor. In natural and alternative medicine, d-limonene is marketed to relieve gastroesophageal reflux disease, limonene is increasingly being used as a solvent for cleaning purposes, such as the removal of oil from machine parts, as it is produced from a renewable source. It is used as a paint stripper and is useful as a fragrant alternative to turpentine. Limonene is also used as a solvent in some model airplane glues, all-natural commercial air fresheners, with air propellants, containing limonene are used by philatelists to remove self-adhesive postage stamps from envelope paper
16.
Terpinene
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The terpinenes are a group of isomeric hydrocarbons that are classified as terpenes. They each have the molecular formula and carbon framework. α-Terpinene has been isolated from cardamom and marjoram oils, and from natural sources. β-Terpinene has no natural source, but has been prepared synthetically from sabinene. γ-Terpinene and δ-terpinene are natural and have been isolated from a variety of plant sources, α-Terpinene is a perfume and flavoring chemical used in the cosmetics and food industries. Its use in both the pharmaceutical and the electronics semi-conductor manufacturing industries has also proven to be valuable, the biosynthesis of α-terpinene and other terpenoids occurs via the mevalonate pathway because its starting reactant, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate, is derived from mevalonic acid. GPP then loses the pyrophosphate group to form the resonance-stable geranyl cation, the reintroduction of the pyrophosphate group to the cation produces GPP isomer, known as linalyl pyrophosphate. LPP then forms a resonance-stable cation by losing its pyrophosphate group, cyclization is then completed thanks to this more favorable stereochemistry of the LPP cation, now yielding a terpinyl cation. Finally, a 1, 2-hydride shift via a Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement produces the terpinen-4-yl cation and it is the loss of a hydrogen from this cation that generates α-terpinene. Cuminum cyminum Melaleuca alternifolia Cannabis sativa Origanum syriacum
17.
Sesquiterpene
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Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and have the Molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be acyclic or contain rings, including many unique combinations, biochemical modifications such as oxidation or rearrangement produce the related sesquiterpenoids. Sesquiterpenes are found naturally in plants and insects, as semiochemicals, the reaction of geranyl pyrophosphate with isopentenyl pyrophosphate results in the 15-carbon farnesyl pyrophosphate which is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes such as farnesene. Oxidation of farnesene then provides sesquiterpenoids such as farnesol, there are more cyclic sesquiterpenes than cyclic monoterpenes because of the increased chain length and additional double bond. In addition to common six-membered ring systems such as is found in zingiberene, the cadinenes contain two fused six-membered rings. Caryophyllene, a component of essential oils such as clove oil. Vetivazulene and guaiazulene are aromatic bicyclic sesquiterpenoids, with the addition of a third ring, the possible structures become increasingly varied. Examples include longifolene, copaene and the alcohol patchoulol, two sesquiterpenes named dictyophorine A and B were identified from the fungus Phallus indusiatus. These compounds are based on the skeleton, and they are the first eudesmane derivatives isolated from fungi. The dictyophorines promote the synthesis of growth factor in astroglial cells. Sesquiterpenes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings
18.
Longifolene
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Longifolene is the common chemical name of a naturally occurring, oily liquid hydrocarbon found primarily in the high-boiling fraction of certain pine resins. The name is derived from that of a species from which the compound was isolated, Pinus longifolia Chemically. This molecule is chiral, and the commonly found in pines. The other enantiomer is found in small amounts in certain fungi, Longifolene is used in organic synthesis for the preparation of dilongifolylborane, a chiral hydroborating agent. Longifolene is also one of two most abundant aroma constituents of lapsang souchong tea, because the tea is smoked over pine fires, due to the compact tricyclic structure and lack of functional groups, Longifolene is an attractive target for research groups highlighting new synthetic methodologies. Notable syntheses are by Corey, McMurray, Johnson, < Oppolzer, fallis has publised a stereoselective synthesis of -longifolene using an intramolecular Diels-Alder strategy. The Johnson biosynthesis has since been validated as feasible using modern quantum mechanical computational methods, the subsequent cationic cascade mechanism has been shown to go through a non-classical cation intermediate. The biosynthesis of longifolene begins with farnesyl diphosphate by means of a cationic polycyclization cascade, loss of the pyrophosphate group and cyclization by the distal alkene gives intermediate 3, which by means of a 1, 3-hydride shift gives intermediate 4. After two additional cyclizations, intermediate 6 produces longifolene by a 1, 2-alkyl migration, the borane derivative dilongifolylborane is used in organic synthesis as a chiral hydroborating agent
19.
Caryophyllene
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It is usually found as a mixture with isocaryophyllene and α-humulene, a ring-opened isomer. Caryophyllene is notable for having a ring, as well as a trans-double bond in an 8-membered ring. The first total synthesis of caryophyllene in 1964 by E. J, corey was considered one of the classic demonstrations of the possibilities of synthetic organic chemistry at the time. Caryophyllene is one of the compounds that contributes to the spiciness of black pepper. 14-Hydroxycaryophyllene oxide was isolated from the urine of rabbits treated with -caryophyllene, the x-ray crystal structure of 14-hydroxycaryophyllene has been reported. The metabolism of caryophyllen progresses through -caryophyllene oxide since the compound also afforded 14-hydroxycaryophyllene as a metabolite. Caryophyllene → caryophyllene oxide → 14-hydroxycaryophyllene → 14-hydroxycaryophyllene oxide, caryophyllene oxide, in which the olefin of caryophyllene has become an epoxide, is the component responsible for cannabis identification by drug-sniffing dogs and is also an approved food flavoring. Antinociceptive, neuroprotective, anxiolytic and antidepressant and anti-alcoholism activity in in vitro studies, whether this compound is able to modulate inflammatory processes in humans via the endocannabinoid system is yet unknown. However, it is found to elicit significant neuroprotection by its anti-inflammatory, caryophyllene does not bind to the centrally expressed cannabinoid receptor type-1 and therefore does not exert psychoactive effects. Scientific evidence have been presented for non-cannabinoid plant components as putative antidotes to intoxicating effects of THC, that could increase its therapeutic index
20.
Cadinene
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Cadinene is the trivial chemical name of a number of isomeric hydrocarbons that occur in a wide variety of essential oil-producing plants. The name is derived from that of the Cade juniper, the wood of which yields an oil from which cadinene isomers were first isolated, chemically, the cadinenes are bicyclic sesquiterpenes. The term “cadinene” has sometimes used in a broad sense to refer to any sesquiterpene with the so-called cadalane carbon skeleton. The name cadinene is now used only for the first subclass below. Only one enantiomer of each subclass is depicted, with the understanding that the other bears the same subclass name
21.
Resin acid
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Resin acid refers to mixtures of several related carboxylic acids, primarily abietic acid, found in tree resins. Nearly all resin acids have the basic skeleton, three fused ring fused with the empirical formula C19H29COOH. Resin acids are tacky, yellowish gums that are water-insoluble and they are used to produce soaps for diverse applications, but their use is being displaced increasingly by synthetic acids such as 2-ethylhexanoic acid or petroleum-derived naphthenic acids. Resin acids are protectants and wood preservatives that are produced by epithelial cells that surround the resin ducts in trees from temperate coniferous forests. The resin acids are formed when two-carbon and three-carbon molecules couple with isoprene building units to form monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, pines contain numerous vertical and radial resin ducts scattered throughout the entire wood. The accumulation of resin in the heartwood and resin ducts causes a maximum concentration in the base of the older trees, resin in the sapwood, however, is less at the base of the tree and increases with height. These increased levels show that a tree uses the resins as a defense, resins are both toxic to the beetle and the fungus and also can entomb the beetle in diterpene remains from secretions. Increasing resin production has been proposed as a way to slow the spread of the beetle in the Red Zone or the urban interface. Kraft soap can be reneutralized with sulfuric acid to restore the acidic forms abietic acid, palmitic acid and this refined mixture is called tall oil. Other major components include fatty acids and unsaponifiable sterols, resin acids, because of the same protectant nature they provide in the trees where they originate, also impose toxic implications on the effluent treatment facilities in pulp manufacturing plants. Furthermore, any residual resin acids that pass the treatment facilities add toxicity to the stream discharged to the receiving waters, the chemical composition of tall oil varies with the species of trees used in pulping, and in turn with geographical location. For example, the areas of the southeastern United States have a high proportion of Slash Pine. Slash Pine generally contains a concentration of resin acids than Loblolly Pine. In general, the oil produced in coastal areas of the southeastern United States contains over 40% resin acids. The fatty acids fraction is usually lower than the resin acids, farther north in Virginia, where Pitch Pine and Shortleaf Pine are more dominant, the resin acid content decreases to as low as 30-35% with a corresponding increase in the fatty acids present. Similar variations may be found in parts of the United States. For example, in Finland, Sweden and Russia, resin acid values from Scots Pine may vary from 20 to 50%, fatty acids from 35 to 70%, and unsaponifiables from 6 to 30%
22.
Amber
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Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects and it has also been used as a healing agent in folk medicine. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents, because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as inclusions. Amber occurring in coal seams is also called resinite, and the term ambrite is applied to that found specifically within New Zealand coal seams, the English word amber derives from Arabic ʿanbar عنبر via Middle Latin ambar and Middle French ambre. The word was adopted in Middle English in the 14th century as referring to what is now known as ambergris, in the Romance languages, the sense of the word had come to be extended to Baltic amber from as early as the late 13th century. At first called white or yellow amber, this meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century, as the use of ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word. The two substances conceivably became associated or confused because they both were washed up on beaches. Ambergris is less dense water and floats, whereas amber is too dense to float. The classical names for amber, Latin electrum and Ancient Greek ἤλεκτρον, are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ meaning beaming Sun, according to myth, when Phaëton son of Helios was killed, his mourning sisters became poplar trees, and their tears became elektron, amber. Earlier Pliny says that an island of three days sail from the Scythian coast called Balcia by Xenophon of Lampsacus, author of a fanciful travel book in Greek, is called Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same as Abalus and it is assumed that there were well-established trade routes for amber connecting the Baltic with the Mediterranean. Pliny states explicitly that the Germans export amber to Pannonia, from where it was traded further abroad by the Veneti, the ancient Italic peoples of southern Italy were working amber, the most important examples are on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Siritide to Matera. Amber used in antiquity as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the Mediterranean comes from deposits of Sicily. Besides the fanciful explanations according to which amber is produced by the Sun, Pliny cites opinions that are aware of its origin in tree resin. Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the genus, like gum from the cherry. This is confirmed by the recorded Old High German glas and Old English glær for amber, in Middle Low German, amber was known as berne-, barn-, börnstēn. The Low German term became dominant also in High German by the 18th century, the Baltic Lithuanian term for amber is gintaras and Latvian dzintars. They, and the Slavic jantar or Hungarian gyanta, are thought to originate from Phoenician jainitar, Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury
23.
Balm of Gilead
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Balm of Gilead was a rare perfume used medicinally, that was mentioned in the Bible, and named for the region of Gilead where it was produced. The expression stems from William Tyndales language in the King James Bible of 1611, the tree or shrub producing the balm is commonly identified as Commiphora gileadensis. Some botanical scholars have concluded that the source was a Terebinth tree in the genus Pistacia. In the Bible, balsam is designated by names, בֹּשֶׂם, בֶּשֶׂם, צֳרִי, נׇטׇף, and, in rabbinic literature, קׇטׇף, בַּלְסׇם, אַפּוֹבַּלְסַמוֹן. After having cast Joseph into a pit, his brothers noticed a caravan on its way from Gilead to Egypt, with their camels bearing spicery, and balm, when Jacob dispatched his embassy into Egypt, his present to the unknown ruler included a little balm. During the final years of the Kingdom of Judah, Jeremiah asks Is there no balm in Gilead, still later, from an expression in Ezekiel 27,17, we find that balm was one of the commodities which Hebrew merchants carried to the market of Tyre. 10,10, balsam was among the precious gifts of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon. According to Josephus, the Queen of Sheba brought the root of the balsam as a present to King Solomon. In describing Palestine, Tacitus says that in all its productions it equals Italy, besides possessing the palm and the balsam, and the far-famed tree excited the cupidity of successive invaders. By Pompey it was exhibited in the streets of Rome as one of the spoils of the conquered province,65 B. C. E. During the invasion of Titus, two battles took place at the balsam groves of Jericho, the last being to prevent the Jews in their frenzy from destroying the trees. Then they became public property, and were placed under the protection of an imperial guard, according to Pliny, the balsam-tree was indigenous only to Judea, but known to Diodorus Siculus as a product of Arabia also. He tells us that, in general, the plant, a shrub, has the nearest resemblance to the grapevine. The leaves, however, more closely resemble those of the rue, and its height does not exceed two cubits. From slight incisions made very cautiously into the rind the balsam trickles in thin drops, which are collected with wool into a horn, at first it is whitish and pellucid, but afterwards it becomes harder and reddish. That is considered to be the best quality which trickles before the appearance of the fruit, much inferior to this is the resin pressed from the seeds, the rind, and even from the stems. This description, which is not sufficiently characteristic of the plant itself, the plant, however, is not indigenous to Egypt, but the layers are brought there from Arabia Felix, Prosperus Alpinus has published a plate of it. In the Talmud, balsam appears as an ointment which was a highly praised product of the Jericho plain, however, its main use was medicinal rather than cosmetic
24.
Canada balsam
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Canada balsam, also called Canada turpentine or balsam of fir, is a turpentine made from the resin of the balsam fir tree of boreal North America. The resin, dissolved in essential oils, is a viscous, sticky, Canada balsam is amorphous when dried. Since it does not crystallize with age, its properties do not deteriorate. However, it has poor thermal and solvent resistance, lenses glued with Canada balsam are called cemented lenses. Also, other elements can be cemented with Canada balsam. Balsam was phased out as an optical adhesive during World War II, in favour of polyester, epoxy, in modern optical manufacturing, UV-cured epoxies are often used to bond lens elements. Canada balsam was also used for making permanent microscope slides. Xylene balsam, Canada balsam dissolved in xylene, is used for preparing slide mounts. Some workers prefer terpene resin for slide mounts, as it is less acidic and cheaper than balsam. Synthetic resins have largely replaced organic balsams for such applications, another important application of Canada balsam is in the construction of the Nicol prism. A Nicol prism consists of a crystal cut into two halves. Canada balsam is placed between the two layers, calcite is an anisotropic crystal and has different refractive indices for rays polarized along directions parallel and perpendicular to its optic axis. These rays with differing refractive indices are known as the ordinary and extraordinary rays, the refractive index for Canada balsam is in between the refractive index for the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Hence the ordinary ray will be totally internally reflected, the emergent ray will be linearly polarized, and traditionally this has been one of the popular ways of producing polarized light. Balm of Gilead, a compound made from the resinous gum of Commiphora gileadensis
25.
Boswellia
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Boswellia is a genus of trees in the order Sapindales, known for their fragrant resin which has many pharmacological uses, particularly as anti-inflammatories. The Biblical incense frankincense was an extract from the resin of the tree Boswellia sacra, there are four main species of Boswellia which produce true frankincense. B. sacra, B. frereana, B. papyrifera, and B. serrata, the grades depend on the time of harvesting, and the resin is hand sorted for quality. Boswellia are moderate-sized flowering plants, including trees and shrubs, and are native to tropical regions of Africa and Asia. The distributions of the species are associated with the tropics. The greatest diversity of species presently is in Africa and India, the flowers may have 4-5 faintly connate but imbricate sepals with an equal number of distinct, imbricate petals. The gynoecium contains 3-5 connate carpels, one style, and one stigma that is head-like to lobed, each locule of the superior ovary has 2 ovules with axile placentation that are anatropous to campylotropous. The 1-5 pitted fruit is a drupe that opens at maturity, the endosperm is usually lacking in the embryo. Boswellia has long used in Ayurvedic medicine. Recently, the acids that are a component of the resin it produces have shown some promise as a treatment for asthma. In West Africa, the bark of Boswellia dalzielii is used to treat fever, rheumatism, Boswellia incense may even relieve depression
26.
Copal
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More generally, the term copal describes resinous substances in an intermediate stage of polymerization and hardening between gummier resins and amber. The word copal is derived from the Nahuatl language word copalli, copal is still used by a number of indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America as an incense, during sweat lodge ceremonies and Sacred Mushroom ceremonies. It is available in different forms, the hard, amber-like yellow copal is a less expensive version. The white copal, a hard, milky, sticky substance, is an expensive version of the same resin. Copal resin from Hymenaea verrucosa is found in East Africa and is used in incense. By the 18th century, Europeans found it to be an ingredient in making a good wood varnish. It became widely used in the manufacture of furniture and carriages and it was also sometimes used as a picture varnish. By the late 19th and early 20th century varnish manufacturers in England and America were using it on train carriages, in 1859 Americans consumed 68 percent of the East African trade, which was controlled through the Sultan of Zanzibar, with Germany receiving 24 percent. The American Civil War and the creation of the Suez Canal led to Germany, India, East Africa apparently had a higher amount of subfossil copal, which is found one or two meters below living copal trees from roots of trees that may have lived thousands of years earlier. This subfossil copal produces a harder varnish, subfossil copal is also well-known from New Zealand, Japan, the Dominican Republic, Colombia and Madagascar. It often has inclusions and is sold as young amber. Copal can be distinguished from genuine amber by its lighter citrine colour
27.
Protium (plant)
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Protium is a genus of more than 140 species of flowering plants in the family Burseraceae. It is native to the Neotropics, Madagascar, New Guinea, the genus was for some time included in Bursera, but is distinct, being most closely related to Crepidospermum and Tetragastris. The species are small or medium-sized trees, but some can be large. In their native range, some species are grown for timber, used as firewood, as plants, for their fruit. Protium icicariba Protium inconforme Protium panamense Protium pittieri Protium serratum Protium widgrenii Engl, germplasm Resources Information Network, Protium Flora of Pakistan
28.
Hymenaea courbaril
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Hymenaea courbaril is a tree common in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. It is a hardwood that is used for furniture, flooring and its hard fruit pods have edible dry pulp surrounding the seeds. Its sap, denominated animé, is used for incense, perfume, Hymenaea courbaril is commonly known as the courbaril, West Indian locust, Brazilian copal, and amami-gum. Although it is sometimes denominated Brazilian cherry and South American cherry, it is not a cherry tree and it is also known as stinking toe, old mans toe, and stinktoe because of the unpleasant odor of the edible pulp of its seed pods. Its fruit also known as locust was a food for indigenous peoples. Those who eat it do not consider the odor unpleasant, the pulp inside the hard shells appears like miniature soluble fibers that dissolve easily in water or milk, which it thickens. Some add sugar to it for more sweetness, if consumed raw it tends to stick inside the mouth like dry dust. It is one of the richest vegetable foods known because of its high concentrations of starches and it is further an excellent concentrated feed for animals. The tree produces an orange, soft, sticky resin or gum, the resin has a specific gravity varying from 1.054 to 1.057. It melts readily over fire, and softens even with the heat of the mouth and it diffuses white fumes and a very pleasant odor. Insects are generally entrapped in it in large numbers and it is insoluble in water, and nearly so in cold alcohol. It is similar to copal in its nature and appearance, the production of animé may be encouraged by wounding the bark. The resin collects between the principal roots and it can be obtained from other species of Hymenaea growing in tropical South America. Brazilians use it internally to treat diseases of the lungs and it was formerly an ingredient of ointments and plasters, but at present its only use is for incense and varnish. The wood is hard, measuring 5.6 on the Brinell scale and 2,350 lbf on the Janka scale. For comparison, Douglas fir measures 660 lbf, white oak 1,360 lbf and it features a tan to salmon color with black accent stripes that over time turn to a deep and vibrant red. Animé, Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. Vol. II, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1878, animé, Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. Vol. II, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1911, pp. 52–53. Media related to Hymenaea courbaril at Wikimedia Commons
29.
Dammar gum
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Dammar gum, or damar gum, is obtained from the Dipterocarpaceae family of trees in India and East Asia, principally those of the genera Shorea, Balanocarpus or Hopea. Most is produced by tapping trees, however, some is collected in fossilised form from the ground, the gum varies in colour from clear to pale yellow, while the fossilised form is grey-brown. Dammar gum is a resin, containing a large number of triterpenes. Many of them are low molecular compounds, but dammar also contains a polymeric fraction. Dammar is used in foods, as a clouding or glazing agent, dammar crystals are also dissolved in molten paraffin wax to make batik, to prevent the wax from cracking when it is drawn onto silk or rayon. Damar crystals are disolved into beeswax wih pigment added to harden it in order to make encaustic paints, dammar resins were often used in the past to caulk ships, frequently together with pitch or bitumen. The name is a Malay word meaning ‘resin’ or ‘torch made from resin’, there are two further types of dammar, besides the gum, Mata kucing is a crystalline resin, usually in the form of round balls. Batu is stone or pebble-shaped, opaque dammar collected from the ground, appearance, white powder Melting point, approx. 120 °C Density,1.04 to 1.12 kg/m³ Refractive index,1.5 CAS number, 9000-16-2 EINECS, 232-528-4 Harmonised Tariff, 1301-90 The gum is stable, probably combustible and incompatible with strong oxidising agents. Its toxicity is low, but inhalation of dust may cause allergies
30.
Dipterocarpaceae
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Dipterocarpaceae are a family of 16 genera and approximately 695 known species of mainly tropical lowland rainforest trees. The family name, from the type genus Dipterocarpus, is derived from Greek, the largest genera are Shorea, Hopea, Dipterocarpus, and Vatica. Many are large forest emergent species, typically reaching heights of 40–70 m, some even over 80 m, the species of this family are of major importance in the timber trade. Their distribution is pantropical, from northern South America to Africa, the greatest diversity of Dipterocarpaceae occurs in Borneo. Some species are now endangered as a result of overcutting, extensive illegal logging and they provide valuable woods, aromatic essential oils, balsam, resins and are a source for plywood. The dipterocarp family is divided into two subfamilies, Dipterocarpoideae, the largest of the subfamilies, it contains 13 genera and about 475 species. Distribution includes the Seychelles, Sri Lanka, India, Southeast Asia to New Guinea, and a distribution in Borneo. North Borneo is the richest area in the world for dipterocarp species, the genera of this group have valvate sepals in fruit, solitary vessels, scattered resin canals, and basic chromosome number x =11. The genera of this group have imbricate sepals in fruit, grouped vessels, resin canals in tangential bands, a recent molecular study suggest that the genus Hopea forms a clade with Shorea sections Anthoshorea and Doona, and should be merged into Shorea. Monotes has 26 species, distributed across Africa and Madagascar, pseudomonotes is native to the Colombian Amazon. Pakaraimoideae, formerly placed here contains a single species, Pakaraimaea roraimae, the first dipterocarp pollen has been found in Myanmar and it dates from the upper Oligocene. 52-million-year-old amber found in the Gujarat province, India, containing an amount of fossilized arthropods, was identified as sap from the Dipterocarpaceae family. Dipterocarpaceae species can be evergreen or deciduous. Species occurring in Thailand grows from sea level to c.1300 m elevation, environments in which the species of the family occur in Thailand include, Lowland dipterocarp forest 0–350 m, Riparian fringe, Limestone hills, and Coastal hills. A Review of Dipterocarps, Taxonomy, ecology and silviculture, Dipterocarpaceae Data Base Dipterocarpaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
31.
Dragon's blood
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Dragons blood is a bright red resin that is obtained from different species of a number of distinct plant genera, Croton, Dracaena, Daemonorops, Calamus rotang and Pterocarpus. The red resin has been in use since ancient times as varnish, medicine, incense. A great degree of confusion existed for the ancients in regard to the source, some medieval encyclopedias claimed its source as the literal blood of elephants and dragons who had perished in mortal combat. The resin of Dracaena species, true dragons blood, and the very poisonous mineral cinnabar were often confused by the ancient Romans, in ancient China, little or no distinction was made among the types of dragons blood from the different species. Voyagers to the Canary Islands in the 15th century obtained dragons blood as dried garnet-red drops from Dracaena draco, the resin is exuded from its wounded trunk or branches. Dragons blood is obtained by the same method from Dracaena cinnabari. This resin was traded to ancient Europe via the Incense Road, Dragons blood resin is also produced from the rattan palms of the genus Daemonorops of the Indonesian islands and known there as jerang or djerang. It is gathered by breaking off the layer of red resin encasing the unripe fruit of the rattan, the collected resin is then rolled into solid balls before being sold. The red latex of the Sangre de Drago, aka Sangre de Grado, tree, has wound-healing and antioxidant properties, and has been used for centuries by native people. The dragons blood known to the ancient Romans was mostly collected from D. cinnabari, Socotra had been an important trading centre since at least the time of the Ptolemies. Dragons blood was used as a dye, painting pigment, and medicine in the Mediterranean basin, and was held by early Greeks, Romans, dioscorides and other early Greek writers described its medicinal uses. It was also used in ritual magic and alchemy. Dragons blood of both Dracaena draco and Dracaena cinnabari were used as a source of varnish for 18th century Italian violinmakers, there was also an 18th-century recipe for toothpaste that contained dragons blood. In modern times it is used as a varnish for violins, in photoengraving, as an incense resin. Dragons blood from both Daemonorops were used for ceremonies in India, sometimes Dracaena resin, but more often Daemonorops resin, was used in China as red varnish for wooden furniture. It was also used to colour the surface of writing paper for banners and posters, used especially for weddings and it is also added to red ink to make Dragons Blood Ink, which is used to inscribe magical seals and talismans. In folk medicine, dragons blood is used externally as a wash to promote healing of wounds and it is used internally for chest pains, post-partum bleeding, internal traumas and menstrual irregularities. In neopagan Witchcraft, it is used to increase the potency of spells for protection, love, banishing, in New Age shamanism it is used in ceremonies in a similar way as the neopagans use it
32.
Dracaena (plant)
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Dracaena Dracaena arborea – tree dracaena Dracaena aubryana Brongn. – ribbon dracaena, marketed as lucky bamboo Dracaena camerooniana Baker Dracaena cincta Dracaena cinnabari Balf. f, – Socotra dragon tree Dracaena concinna Kunth Dracaena draco L. – Canary Islands dragon tree Dracaena ellenbeckiana - Kedong Dracaena Dracaena elliptica Dracaena fragrans Ker Gawl. – Pleomele dracaena or Song of India Dracaena serrulata Baker – Yemen dragon tree Dracaena surculosa Lindl, – spotted or gold dust dracaena. Formerly D. godseffiana Dracaena tamaranae – Gran Canaria dragon tree Dracaena umbraculifera Jacq, asparagus asparagoides Druce Cordyline australis Endl. Cordyline obtecta Baker Cordyline stricta Endl, liriope graminifolia Baker Lomandra filiformis Britten Some shrubby species, such as D. deremensis, D. fragrans, D. godseffiana, D. marginata, and D. braunii, are popular as houseplants. Many of these are toxic to pets, though not humans, rooted stem cuttings of D. braunii are widely marketed in the U. S. A. and the UK as lucky bamboo, although only superficially resembling true bamboos. A bright red resin, dragons blood, is produced from D. draco and, in ancient times, modern dragons blood is however more likely to be from the unrelated Daemonorops rattan palms. Media related to Dracaena at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Dracaena at Wikispecies Socotra botany
33.
Canarium luzonicum
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Canarium luzonicum, commonly known as elemi, is a tree native to the Philippines. The oleoresin harvested from it is known as elemi. Elemi resin is a yellow substance, of honey-like consistency. Aromatic elemi oil is distilled from the resin. It is a fragrant resin with a pine and lemon-like scent. One of the components is called amyrin. Elemi resin is used commercially in varnishes and lacquers. It is used as a medicine to treat bronchitis, catarrh, extreme coughing, mature skin, scars, stress. The constituents include phellandrene, limonene, elemol, elemicin, terpineol, carvone, the word elemi has been used at various times to denote different resins. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term denoted a resin from trees of the genus Icica in Brazil. The word, like the older term animi, appears to have derived from enhaemon. The name Elemi is derived from an Arabic phrase meaning above and below, an abbreviation of As above, so below, pili nut World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, international Union for Conservation of Nature. Listed as Vulnerable J. Lawless, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils, R. Tisserand, Essential Oil Safety,135. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
34.
Frankincense
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The English word is derived from Old French franc encens. There are four species of Boswellia that produce true frankincense. Resin from each of the four is available in various grades, the grades depend on the time of harvesting, the resin is hand-sorted for quality. Frankincense is tapped from the scraggy but hardy trees by slashing the bark, which is called striping and these hardened resins are called tears. There are several species and varieties of trees, each producing a slightly different type of resin. Differences in soil and climate create even more diversity of the resin, Boswellia sacra trees are considered unusual for their ability to grow in environments so unforgiving that they sometimes grow out of solid rock. The initial means of attachment to the rock is unknown, but is accomplished by a bulbous swelling of the trunk. This growth prevents it from being ripped from the rock during violent storms and this feature is slight or absent in trees grown in rocky soil or gravel. The trees start producing resin when they are eight to 10 years old. Tapping is done two to three times a year with the final taps producing the best tears due to their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiterpene and diterpene content, generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Fine resin is produced in Somalia, from which the Roman Catholic Church purchases most of its stock, recent studies have indicated that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly due to over-exploitation. Heavily tapped trees produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%, in addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by the longhorn beetle have reduced the tree population. Conversion of frankincense woodlands to agriculture is also a major threat, Frankincense has been traded on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa, and Somalia for more than 5000 years. A mural depicting sacks of frankincense traded from the Land of Punt adorns the walls of the temple of ancient Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut, who died circa 1458 BC. Frankincense was one of the consecrated incenses described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud used in Ketoret ceremonies and it was offered on a specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Temples. It is mentioned in the Book of Exodus 30,34 and it was one of the ingredients in the perfume of the sanctuary, and was used as an accompaniment of the meal-offering. It was also mentioned as a commodity in trade from Sheba, when burnt it emitted a fragrant odor, and the incense was a symbol of the Divine name and an emblem of prayer. It was often associated with myrrh, a specially pure kind, lebhonah zakkah, was presented with the showbread
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Boswellia sacra
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Boswellia sacra is a tree in the Burseraceae family. It is the tree in the genus Boswellia from which frankincense. It is native to the Arabian Peninsula, and northeastern Africa and this species of Boswellia is a small deciduous tree, which reaches a height of 2 to 8 m, with one or more trunks. Its bark has the texture of paper and can be removed easily and it has compound leaves and an odd number of leaflets, which grow opposite to one another along its branches. Its tiny flowers, a white, are gathered in axillary clusters composed of five petals, ten stamens. The fruit is a capsule about 1 cm long, the new leaves are covered with a fine down. Individual trees growing on steep slopes tend to develop some buttressing that extends from the roots up into the base of the stem and this forms a sort of cushion that adheres to the rock and ensures a certain stability. Boswellia sacra is abundant in Oman and southern Yemen in arid woodland, on the steep, precariously eroding slopes in the mountains of Dhofar, but it is most prevalent in northern Somalia. B. sacra tolerates the most critical situations and often grows on slopes and ravines, up to an altitude of 1,200 m. The trees start producing resin when they are about 8 to 10 years old, the resin is extracted by making a small, shallow incision on the trunk or branches of the tree or by removing a portion of the crust of it. The resin is drained as a substance that coagulates in contact with air and is collected by hand. Growing conditions vary significantly, affecting both tree development and resin produced, trees in the narrow fog-laden zone where the desert meets Dhofar mountain range, a region known as the Nejd, grow extremely slowly and produce very high quality resin in large, white clumps. Not surprisingly, Omanis and other Gulf State Arabs consider this to be superior to all other resins produced in North and Northeast Africa, India, and Asia, recent studies have indicated that frankincense tree populations are declining due to overexploitation. Heavily tapped trees have been found to produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%. Animals in Oman often browse on the foliage, flowers, and seedlings, resulting in scant regeneration
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Galbanum
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Galbanum is an aromatic gum resin, the product of certain umbelliferous Persian plant species in the genus Ferula, chiefly Ferula gummosa and Ferula rubricaulis. Galbanum-yielding plants grow plentifully on the slopes of the ranges of northern Iran.212. It contains about 8% terpenes, about 65% of a resin which contains sulfur, about 20% gum, and it also contains α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, cadinene, 3-carene, and ocimene. In the Book of Exodus 30,34, it is mentioned as being used in the making of a Ketoret which is used referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible. It is also referred to as the HaKetoret and it was offered on the specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples. The ketoret was an important component of the Temple service in Jerusalem, rashi of the 12th century comments on this passage that galbanum is bitter and was included in the incense as a reminder of deliberate and unrepentant sinners. The debut of Galbanum in fine modern perfumery is generally thought to be the origin of the Green family of scents, the drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It has the common to substances containing a resin and a volatile oil. The Latin name Ferula derives in part from Ferule which is a rod, such as a cane, stick, or flat piece of wood. A ferula called narthex, which shares the galbanum-like scent, has long, straight and sturdy hollow stalks, which are segmented like bamboo. They were used as torches in antiquity and it is such a torch that, according to Greek mythology, Prometheus. Bacchae were described using the stalks as weapons. Such rods were used for walking sticks, splints, for stirring boiling liquids. Some of the mythology may have transferred to the related galbanum which was referred to as the sacred “mother resin. ”Galbanum was highly treasured as a substance by the ancient Egyptians. The “green” incense of Egyptian antiquity is believed to have been galbanum, Galbanum resin has a very intense green scent accompanied by a turpentine odor. The initial notes are a bitter, acrid, and peculiar scent followed by a complex green, spicy, woody. When diluted the scent of galbanum has variously described as reminiscent of pine, evergreen, green bamboo, parsley, green apples, musk. The oil has a pine like topnote which is pronounced in the odor of the resinoid
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Lignum vitae
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Lignum vitae is a wood, also called guayacan or guaiacum, and in parts of Europe known as pockholz, from trees of the genus Guaiacum. The trees are indigenous to the Caribbean and the northern coast of South America and have been an important export crop to Europe since the beginning of the 16th century. The wood was very important for applications requiring a material with its extraordinary combination of strength, toughness. It is also the tree of the Bahamas and the Jamaican national flower. The wood is obtained chiefly from Guaiacum officinale and Guaiacum sanctum, all species of the genus Guaiacum are now listed in Appendix II of CITES as potentially endangered species. Demand for the wood has been reduced by modern materials science, other names for lignum vitae include palo santo and bastard greenheart, lignum vitae is also one of the numerous hard, dense woods loosely referred to as ironwood. Lignum vitae is hard and durable, and is also the densest wood traded, on the Janka Scale of Hardness, which measures hardness of woods, lignum vitae ranks highest of the trade woods, with a Janka hardness of 4500 lbf. Various other hardwoods may also be called lignum vitae and should not be confused with it, some hardwoods from Australasia are also referred to as lignum vitae. Due to the density of the wood, cricket bails, in particular heavy bails used in conditions, are sometimes made of lignum vitae. It is also used to make lawn bowls, croquet mallets. The wood also has seen widespread usage in mortars and pestles. The belaying pins and deadeyes aboard USS Constitution and many sailing ships were made from lignum vitae. Due to its density and natural oils, they require replacement, despite the severity of typical marine weathering conditions. The sheaves of blocks on sailing vessels were made of lignum vitae until the introduction of modern synthetics, due to lignum vitaes toughness, it can also be used as a lap in the process of cutting gems. The wood is covered with powdered industrial diamond, attached to a spindle, master clockmaker John Harrison used lignum vitae in the bearings and gears of his pendulum clocks and his first three marine chronometers, since the wood is self-lubricating. The use of lignum vitae eliminates the need for horological lubricating oil, 18th-century horological oil would get gummy, according to the San Francisco Maritime National Park Association website, the shaft bearings on the WWII submarine USS Pampanito were made of this wood. The aft main shaft strut bearings for USS Nautilus, the worlds first nuclear-powered submarine, were composed of this wood, also, the bearings in the original 1920s turbines of the Conowingo hydroelectric plant on the lower Susquehanna River were made from lignum vitae. The shaft bearings on the turbines at the Pointe du Bois generating station in Manitoba are made from lignum vitae
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Guaiacum
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Guaiacum, sometimes spelled Guajacum, is a genus of flowering plants in the caltrop family Zygophyllaceae. It contains five species of slow-growing shrubs and trees, reaching a height of approximately 20 m but are less than half of that. All are native to subtropical and tropical regions of the Americas and are known as lignum-vitae, guayacán. The genus name originated in Maipurean, the language spoken by the native Taínos of the Bahamas, it was adopted into English in 1533, members of the genus have a variety of uses, including as lumber, for medicinal purposes, and as ornamentals. The trade of all species of Guaiacum is controlled under CITES Appendix II, Guaiacum officinale is the national flower of Jamaica, while Guaiacum sanctum is the national tree of The Bahamas. The genus is famous as the supplier of Lignum vitae, which is the heartwood of several species in the genus. It is the hardest wood that is measured using the Janka hardness test, gum from the wood was used to treat syphilis, for example, Benvenuto Cellini records this use of it in his memoirs. Guaiacum resin has been used to treat a variety of conditions from coughs to arthritis. Wood chips can also be used to brew a tea, the artist Jan van der Straet painted a scene of a wealthy man receiving treatment of syphilis with Guaiacum wood sometime around 1580. The title of the work is Preparation and Use of Guayaco for Treating Syphilis, epidemic syphilis had been raging through Europe for nearly a century at the time of the painting, and hopes were high that this plant from the New World would provide a cure. The richly colored and detailed work depicts four servants preparing the concoction while a physician looks on, gum guaicum was used to stimulate menstruation, and at least one case in late eighteenth century Virginia suggests it was used as an abortifacient. One male physician noted several physicians have apprehended mischief from the use of the guaiacum in a spirituous tincture, in a 1793 court case, Martha Jefferson Randolph testified that she had provided gum guaiacum to a female relative to produce an abortion. The 1955 edition of the Textbook of Pharmacognosy also says that, the resin is used in chronic gout and rheumatism, whilst the wood is an ingredient in the compound concentrated solution of sarsaparilla, which was formerly much used as an alternative in syphilis. A phenolic compound derived from the resin of Guaiacum trees is used in a common test for blood in stool samples. The presence of heme in the causes the formation of a coloured product in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The effect of peroxidases in horseradish on guiacum was first noted in 1810 by Planche, as a food additive Guaiacum has the E number of E314 and is classified as an antioxidant. A widely used drug is the expectorant known as guaifenesin. The soap fragrance oil of guaiac comes from Bulnesia sarmientoi, a South American tree from the same family, members of the genus are grown in Florida and California as ornamental plants
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Kauri gum
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Kauri gum is a fossilized resin detracted from kauri trees, which is made into crafts such as jewellery. Kauri forests once covered much of the North Island of New Zealand, before Māori and European settlers caused deforestation, causing areas to revert to sand dunes, scrubs. Even afterward, ancient kauri fields continued to provide a source for the gum, Kauri gum formed when resin from kauri trees leaked out through fractures or cracks in the bark, hardening with the exposure to air. Lumps commonly fell to the ground and became covered with soil and forest litter, other lumps formed as branches forked or trees were damaged, which released the resin. The Māori had many uses for the gum, which they called kapia, fresh gum was used as a type of chewing gum. Highly flammable, the gum was used as a fire-starter. Burnt and mixed with fat, it made a dark pigment for moko tattooing. Kauri gum was also crafted into jewellery, keepsakes, and small decorative items, like amber, kauri gum sometimes includes insects and plant material. Kauri gum was used commercially in varnish, and can be considered a type of copal, Kauri gum was found to be particularly good for this, and from the mid-1840s was exported to London and America. Tentative exports had begun a few years earlier, however, for use in marine glue and as fire-kindlers, gum had even made up part of an export cargo to Australia in 1814. Since the kauri gum was found to mix more easily with linseed oil, at lower temperatures, than other resins and it was used to a limited extent in paints during the late 19th century, and from 1910 was used extensively in the manufacture of linoleum. From the 1930s, the market for gum dropped as synthetic alternatives were found, Kauri gum was Aucklands main export in the second half of the 19th century, sustaining much of the early growth of the city. Between 1850 and 1950,450,000 tons of gum were exported, the peak in the gum market was 1899, with 11,116 tons exported that year, with a value of £600,000. The average annual export was over 5,000 tons, with the price gained £63 per ton. The gum varied in color depending on the condition of the original tree and it also depended on where the gum had formed and how long it had been buried. Colors ranged from chalky-white, through red-brown to black, the most prized was a gold, as it was hard. The size of each lump also varied greatly, swamps tended to yield the small nuggets known as chips, whereas the hillsides tended to produce larger lumps. The majority were the size of acorns, although some were found which weighed a few pounds, most of the gumfields were in Northland, Coromandel and Auckland, the site of the original kauri forests
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Agathis australis
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Agathis australis, commonly known by its Māori name kauri, is a coniferous tree of Araucariaceae in the genus Agathis, found north of 38°S in the northern districts of New Zealands North Island. It is the largest but not tallest species of tree in New Zealand, the tree has smooth bark and small narrow leaves. Other common names to distinguish A. australis from other members of the genus are southern kauri, Kauri forests are among the most ancient in the world. The antecedents of the kauri appeared during the Jurassic period, although the kauri is among the most ancient trees in the world, it has developed a unique niche in the forest. With its novel soil interaction and regeneration pattern it can compete with the recently evolved. Because it is such a species, forest containing kauri is generally known as kauri forest. In the warmer climate, kauri forests have a higher species richness than those found further south. The young plant grows straight upwards and has the form of a cone with branches going out along the length of the trunk. However, as it gains in height, the lowest branches are shed, by maturity, the top branches form an imposing crown that stands out over all other native trees, dominating the forest canopy. The flaking bark of the tree defends it from parasitic plants. On large trees it may pile up to a height of 2 m or more, the kauri has a habit of forming small clumps or patches scattered through mixed forests. Kauri leaves are 3 to 7 cm long and 1 cm broad, tough and leathery in texture, with no midrib, they are arranged in opposite pairs or whorls of three on the stem. The seed cones are globose,5 to 7 cm diameter, and mature 18 to 20 months after pollination, the cones disintegrate at maturity to release winged seeds. A single tree produces both male and female seed cones, fertilisation of the seeds occurs by pollination, which may be driven by the same or another trees pollen. Agathis australis can attain heights of 40 to 50 metres and trunk diameters big enough to rival Californian sequoias at over 5 metres. The largest kauri trees did not attain as much height or girth at ground level but contain more timber in their cylindrical trunks than comparable Sequoias with their tapering stems. The largest recorded specimen was known as The Great Ghost and grew in the mountains at the head of the Tararu Creek, Thames Historian Alastair Isdale says the tree was 8.54 metres in diameter, and 26.83 metres in girth. It was consumed by fire c.1890, a kauri tree at Mill Creek, Mercury Bay, known as Father of the Forests was measured in the early 1840s as 22 metres in circumference and 24 metres to the first branches
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Hashish
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Hash is an extracted cannabis product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes, from the plant. This all depends on the process and amount of solvent left over, the name comes from the Arabic word which means grass. It is believed that massive hashish production for international trade originated in Morocco during the 1960s, before the coming of the first hippies from the Hippie Hashish Trail, only small pieces of Lebanese hashish were found in Morocco. In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on Bangue in his work documenting his journeys in the East. He particularly mentioned the Egyptian Hashish and he said, Bangue is likewise much used in Turkie and Egypt, and is made in three sorts, having also three names. In the 1800s, hashish was embraced in some European literary circles, baudelaire later wrote the 1860 book Les paradis artificiels, about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish. At around the time, American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow wrote the 1857 book The Hasheesh Eater about his youthful experiences. Hashish can be consumed by oral ingestion or smoking, typically in a pipe, vaporizer or joints, Hashish is made from cannabinoid-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments. The flowers of a female plant contain the most trichomes. Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce amounts of trichomes. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen, are separated from the plant through various methods, mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from the plant, such as sieving through a screen by hand or in motorized tumblers. This technique is known as drysifting, the resulting powder, referred to as kief or drysift, is compressed with the aid of heat into blocks of hashish, if pure, the kief will become gooey and pliable. When a high level of pure THC is present, the end product will be almost transparent, ice-water separation is another mechanical method of isolating trichomes. Newer techniques have developed such as heat and pressure separations. Trichomes may break away from supporting stalks and leaves when plant material becomes brittle at low temperatures, the ice-water method requires ice, water, agitation, filtration bags with various-sized screens and plant material. With the ice-water extraction method the resin becomes hard and brittle and this allows large quantities of pure resins to be extracted in a very clean process without the use of solvents, making for a more purified hashish. Chemical separation methods use a solvent such as ethanol, butane or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin. Remaining plant materials are filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost, the solvent is then evaporated, or boiled off leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, hash oil, or just oil
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Cannabis indica
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Cannabis indica, formally known as Cannabis sativa forma indica, is an annual plant in the Cannabaceae family. A putative species of the genus Cannabis, in 1785, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica. Lamarck based his description of the named species on plant specimens collected in India. Richard Evans Schultes described C. indica as relatively short, conical, loran C. Anderson described C. indica plants as having short, broad leaflets whereas those of C. sativa were characterized as relatively long and narrow. Cannabis indica plants conforming to Schultess and Andersons descriptions may have originated from the Hindu Kush mountain range, because of the often harsh and variable climate of those parts, C. indica is well-suited for cultivation in temperate climates. Broad-leafed Cannabis indica plants in India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan are traditionally cultivated for the production of charas, differences in the terpenoid content of the essential oil may account for some of these differences in effect. Common indica strains for recreational or medicinal use include Kush and Northern Lights, a recent genetic analysis included both the narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug biotypes under C. indica, as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp landraces and wild Himalayan populations. There are several key differences between Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa and these include height and stature, internodal length, leaf size and structure, buds size and density, flowering time, odour, smoke and effects. Indica plants tend to grow shorter and bushier than the sativa plants, Indica strains tend to have wide, short leaves with short wide blades, whereas sativa strains have long leaves with thin long blades. The buds of indica strains tend to be wide, dense and bulky, while sativa strains are likely to be long, on average, Cannabis sativa has higher levels of THC compared to CBD, whereas Cannabis indica has lower levels of THC to CBD. However, huge variability exists within either species, a 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005. In the recent era of cannabis breeding higher-ratio CBD strains are being developed from Indica origins that may test out as 1,1 or even as high as a 22,1. The medical interests in Cannabis are taking this further and we will see increasing cultivation trends for more developed with CBD-dominant ratios. In California, cities such as Coachella and Desert Hot Springs are re-zoning areas for cannabis cultivation, low anxiety and hallucinogenic properties make these high-CBD strains very desirable for chronic treatment programs. There are three types of Cannabis, one with high levels of THC, one which is more fibrous and has higher levels of CBD. Cannabis strains with CBD, THC ratios above 5,2 are likely to be more relaxing and this may be due to CBDs antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptors, compared to THCs partial agonist effect. CBD is also a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, which may contribute to an anxiolytic-content effect. The effects of sativa are well known for its cerebral high, users can expect a more vivid and uplifting high, while indica is well known for its sedative effects which some prefer for night time use
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Cistus
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Cistus is a genus of flowering plants in the rockrose family Cistaceae, containing about 20 species. They are perennial shrubs found on dry or rocky soils throughout the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal through to the Middle East, Cistus, with its many hybrids and cultivars, is commonly encountered as a garden flower. The common name rockrose is applied to the species, a name shared by the related genera Halimium, Helianthemum and Tuberaria. The common name gum cistus is applied to resin-bearing species, especially C. ladanifer, the leaves are evergreen, opposite, simple, usually slightly rough-surfaced, 2–8 cm long. In a few species, the leaves are coated with an aromatic resin called labdanum. They have showy 5-petaled flowers ranging from white to purple and dark pink, Cistus and Halimium form a cohesive and the most derived clade within Cistaceae. Molecular phylogenetic analyses conducted between 2005 and 2011 confirm that Cistus species divide into two well-defined clades, neither of which was resolved internally. The first clade consists of those with purple and pink flowers, the second clade consists of those with white flowers or, in the case of Cistus parviflorus, pale pink flowers. Although the flower colour of C. parviflorus is anomalous, it has short styles. A hybrid origin has been suggested, a simplified cladogram is shown below, Within the purple pink clade, C. crispus is consistently the first diverging species. C. albidus, C. creticus and C. heterophyllus form a well supported clade, seven species endemic to the Canary Islands form a polytomy, resolved differently in different analyses, in which subtaxa of some species do not always cluster together. Halimium and Cistus were regularly shown to be paraphyletic with respect to one another, there are about 25 species in the genus, In addition a large number of hybrids have been recorded, including, They are thermophilous plants, which require open, sunny places. This plant genus is peculiar in that it has developed a range of adaptations to resist summer drought and frequent disturbance events, such as fire. In addition, it can form both ectomycorrhizas and arbuscular mycorrhizas, more than 200 ectomycorrhiza-forming fungal species belonging to 40 genera have been reported so far to be associated with Cistus. As with many other Cistaceae, the species of Cistus have the ability to form associations with truffles and are thus able to thrive on poor sandy soils or rocks. Cistus ladanifer has been found to have associations with Boletus edulis, Boletus rhodoxanthus. Cistus are the only host of Cytinus hypocistis, a parasitic plant that lives on the roots and is noticeable only for a short period of time when in flower. The presence of the parasite does not seem to harm the host population, Cistus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Coleophora confluella and Coleophora helianthemella, the latter recorded on Cistus monspeliensis
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Mastic (plant resin)
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Mastic is a resin obtained from the mastic tree. In pharmacies and nature shops, it is called Arabic gum, in Greece, it is known as the tears of Chios, being traditionally produced on that Greek island, and, like other natural resins, is produced in tears or droplets. Originally a sap, mastic is sun-dried into pieces of brittle, when chewed, the resin softens and becomes a bright white and opaque gum. The flavor is bitter at first, but after some chewing, it releases a refreshing, the word mastic is derived from the Greek verb, μαστιχειν to gnash the teeth, which is the source of the English word masticate. The word mastic is a synonym for gum in many languages, within the European Union, mastic production in Chios is granted protected designation of origin. The islands mastic production is controlled by a co-operative of medieval villages, collectively known as the Mastichochoria, there is even a small Museum of Mastic in the village of Pyrgi. The harvest takes place from the beginning of July to the beginning of October, first, the area around the tree is cleared and sprinkled with inert calcium carbonate. Then, every 4–5 days, 5-10 incisions are made in the bark of each tree, the resin flows from the incisions and solidifies on the ground. The pieces of dry mastic can then be collected for cleaning, in addition to mastic, mastic oil is also produced. The rarity of mastic and the difficulty of its production make it expensive, as a result, imitations in the form of other resins appear in the market, sold as mastic, such as Boswellia or gum arabic. Other trees, such as Pistacia palaestina, can produce a resin similar to mastic. Yet other substances, such as pine resin and almond tree resin, are sometimes used in place of mastic. Mastic has been used as a medicine since antiquity and is used in traditional folk medicine of the Middle East. In ancient Greece, it was given as a remedy for snakebite, the first-century Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides mentions the healing properties of mastic in his book De Materia Medica. Hippocrates wrote that the mastic is good for prevention of digestive problems and colds, Mastic contains antioxidants and also has antibacterial and antifungal properties. A Nottingham University study published in The New England Journal of Medicine finds that mastic can cure peptic ulcers by killing Helicobacter pylori bacteria, Mastic oil is widely used in the preparation of ointments for skin disorders and afflictions. In the past, it was used in the manufacture of adhesive bandages. Mastic may have value in preventing tooth decay and gingivitis as well as chewing mastic reduces oral bacteria
45.
Pistacia lentiscus
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Pistacia lentiscus is a dioecious evergreen shrub or small tree of the pistacio genus growing up to 4 m tall which is cultivated for its aromatic resin, mainly on the Greek island of Chios. It resists heavy frosts and grows on all types of soils and it is also found in woodlands, dehesas, Kermes oak wood, oaks wood, garrigue, maquis, hills, gorges, canyons, and rocky hillsides of the entire Mediterranean area. It is a hardy pioneer species dispersed by birds. When older, it develops some large trunks and numerous thicker and longer branches, in appropriate areas, when allowed to grow freely and age, it often becomes a tree of up to 7 m. However, logging, grazing, and fires often prevent its development, the leaves are alternate, leathery, and compound paripinnate with five or six pairs of deep-green leaflets. It presents very small flowers, the male with five stamens, the fruit is a drupe, first red and then black when ripe, about 4 mm in diameter. In tourist areas, with palmitos or Mediterranean dwarf palm, and exotic plants, it is chosen to repopulate gardens and resorts, because of its strength. Unlike other species of Pistacia, it retains its leaves throughout the year, a related species, P. saportae, has been shown by DNA analysis to be a hybrid between maternal P. lentiscus and paternal P. terebinthus. The hybrid has imparipinnate leaves, with leaflets semipersistent, subsessile terminal, Pistacia lentiscus is native throughout the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Iberian peninsula in the west through southern France and Turkey to Iraq and Iran in the east. It is also native to the Canary Islands, the word mastic derives from the Latin word Masticare, in Greek, μαστιχάω verb mastichein or massein. Within the European Union, mastic production in Chios is granted protected designation of origin, although the tree is native to all of the Mediterranean region, only on southern Chios is the mastic trees bark scored to weep the masticha resin. The islands mastic production is controlled by a co-operative of medieval villages, collectively known as the Mastichochoria, originally liquid, it is hardened, when the weather turns cold, into drops or patties of hard, brittle, translucent resin. When chewed, the resin softens and becomes a bright white, the resin is collected by bleeding the trees from small cuts made in the bark of the main branches, and allowing the sap to drip onto the specially prepared ground below. The harvesting is done during the summer between June and September, after the mastic is collected, it is washed manually and is set aside to dry, away from the sun, as it will start melting again. Mastic resin is a relatively expensive kind of spice, it has been used principally as a chewing gum for at least 2,400 years, the flavour can be described as a strong, slightly smoky, resiny aroma and can be an acquired taste. Some scholars identify the bakha בכא mentioned in the Bible—as in the Valley of Baca of Psalm 84—with the mastic plant, the Valley of Baca is thought to be a valley near Jerusalem that was covered with low mastic shrubbery, much like some hillsides in northern Israel today. Mastic is known to have been popular in Roman times when children chewed it and it was the Sultans privilege to chew mastic, and it was considered to have healing properties. The spices use was widened when Chios became part of the Ottoman Empire, and it remains popular in North Africa, the Mastichochoria are located in the southern part of Chios
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