1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
Campbellton, New Brunswick
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Campbellton is a city with a population of 7,385 in Restigouche County, New Brunswick, Canada. Situated on the bank of the Restigouche River opposite Pointe-à-la-Croix, Quebec, Campbellton was officially incorporated in 1889. Forestry and tourism are major industries in the economy, while a pulp mill in nearby Atholville is the largest single employer in the area. As part of the industry, wealthy sportfishermen seeking Atlantic Salmon flock to the scenic Restigouche Valley every summer. The region sees extensive annual snowfall, alpine and Nordic ski facilities at Sugarloaf Provincial Park provide winter recreation opportunities for both visitors and local residents. Campbellton is also a retail and service centre for Restigouche County, the area around the site of the present city was settled by French people circa 1700 with a trading post based upon fishing and fur trading with the Migmaq. More settlers arrived here when Ile St. Jean was lost to the French as the result of the capitulation of Louisbourg in 1758. It was here that the Battle of the Restigouche, the naval battle between the English and French for the possession of North America during the Seven Years War, was waged in 1760. It marked a point for the settlement. Robert Ferguson and the development of Campbellton and Atholville owed their development to the immigrants from Scotland. In 1769, only nine years after the Battle of Restigouche, Scotsman Hugh Baillie, the business was sold to London merchant John Shoolbred, who in 1773 established the first British settlement on the Restigouche. His agent, William Smith, brought over eight Scottish fishermen from Aberdeen, Scotland, two of these fishermen were John Duncan and Robert Adams, who brought their families with them as well. These two fishermen devoted themselves to the fishing industry at Old Church Point, today Atholville. In 1794, a Scotsman from Perth named Alexander Ferguson settled in Martins Point, considered the founder of Restigouche County, Robert Ferguson established his control over the development of northern New Brunswick during the first half of the 19th century. In 1803, Ferguson inherited his brothers business and quickly became the largest merchant, until the 1840s, he shipped between 1,200 and 1,400 barrels of salted salmon per year. He became the most important landowner in the region and he also operated a flour mill and a sawmill and exported hewn wood. He even constructed his own boats in the village now bears the name of Atholville. In 1812, he built a residence there that he named Athol House in memory of his native region of Scotland
3.
River mouth
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A river mouth is the part of a river where the river flows into a larger river, a lake, a reservoir or an ocean. The water from a river can enter the body in a variety of different ways. The motion of the river mainly depends on the density of the river compared to the receiving water and any ambient motion in the receiving water. If the river water is denser than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse, at the mouth of a river, the change in flow condition can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, many places in England take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, for example Plymouth, Sidmouth and Great Yarmouth. Confluence River delta Estuary Liman Aber and Inver
4.
Chaleur Bay
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Chaleur Bay - also known informally in English as Bay of Chaleur due to the influence of its French translation - is an arm of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence located between Quebec and New Brunswick. The name of the bay is attributed to explorer Jacques Cartier and it translates into English as bay of warmth or bay of torrid weather. Chaleur Bay opens to the east with its southern shore formed by the shore of New Brunswick. The northern shore is formed by the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The bay measures approximately 50 km in width at its widest point between Bathurst and New Carlisle, the western end of the bay transitions into the estuary of the Restigouche River at Dalhousie, New Brunswick. The mouth of the bay is delineated by a running from Haut-fond Leander near Grande-Rivière, Quebec in the north. Canadian Hydrographic Service chart number 4486 is the navigational data repository for the area. The shores of Chaleur Bay include numerous beaches, particularly on the southern shore, many rivers also form barachois or barrier beaches. This sand bar is not only because it has fresh water on one side and salt water on the next. Tourism in the region has been driven in the months by users of the bays beaches. The warm ocean currents that enter the bay from the larger Gulf of St. Lawrence result in some of the warmest saltwater on the Atlantic coast north of the state of Virginia. The estuaries of rivers emptying into the bay create a prominent smell of salt water. Patapédia River Chaleur Bay has several islands, although not entirely located within the bay, the northern shores of Miscou Island and Lameque Island form part of the southern shore of the bay. Heron Island lies near Dalhousie, New Brunswick and is located south of Carleton-sur-Mer, the bays shape and the steep cliffs along its northern shore sometimes create particularly windy conditions especially off Nepisiguit Bay. Under the right direction and speed, sea conditions on large areas of the bay can become quite treacherous. Tidal currents are weak, except at the mouths of some rivers. Its configuration tends to channel the wind for two reasons, the cliffs on its North side, and its V shape. This means that in the middle of this section, off Nepisiguit Bay, there is a zone that is particularly windy, tidal currents in this section rarely reach one knot, except at the mouths of some rivers and some channels
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
7.
Matapedia River
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The Matapedia River is a river in the Matapedia Valley in the province of Quebec, Canada. It runs on 65 kilometres from Matapedia Lake down to the village of Matapédia where it empties into the bank of Restigouche River on the provincial border of New Brunswick. This freshwater course forms a border between the administrative regions of Bas-Saint-Laurent and Gaspésie-Îles-de-la-Madeleine. The river is a North South divide in the Notre Dame Mountains that characterize the relief of the Gaspé Peninsula, the Matapedia River basin drains an area of about 3,900 kilometres. Matapedia River is often called the Salmon Capital, from the South side of Matapedia Lake and going to the South, the route 132 along the river goes on its entire length by the East bank. The track then continues South on 8.5 kilometres, then again in the West Bank via the railway bridge located at 1.1 kilometres North of the confluence of the creek Doyle. The railway then rest on the West bank up to the bridge at the confluence of the Rivière du Moulin. From there, the last railway segment passes through the Eastern shore, Matapedia Lake becomes Matapedia River at Amqui, where it is a meander river for a distance of approximately 15 kilometres. It widens into an elongated lake 1 kilometre wide and 7 kilometres long at Lac-au-Saumon before narrowing back to a river below the dam in the village of Causapscal. There, it joins with a tributary, the Causapscal River. From there, the river continues on until the New Brunswick border, the Lake Matapedia is the head of water of the Matapedia River. This water plan 38 kilometres is located in the municipality Matapedia Lake and its mouth is located in the Southeast to the height of a covered bridge. Another source from the nineteenth century indicates that the Mikmaq named the area Magabegeak which means roughly flowing. It has also been spelled many different ways over time such as Matapediach, Madapeguia, Matapeguia, Matapediac, Matakpediack, Madapeguia, Metapedia, or Matapediac. The Matapedia is a world-renowned Atlantic salmon fishing river and was given the title The Fishing Capital of the World due to the abundance of large, healthy and it is recommended to inquire in the village of Matapedia for information on permits and guides. Public waters are available to anglers in the portions of the river. Limited-access salmon fishing, generally with outfitters or guides to the most productive salmon pools is made available to the public via an annual lottery. Area 1, Lower Lawlor, also called simply Lawlor and his name has existed since at least 1978 and is in honor of Jack Lawlor and his family who lived before the pit
8.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
9.
Appalachian Mountains
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The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period and it once reached elevations similar to those of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains before naturally occurring erosion. The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel, as it forms a series of alternating ridgelines, definitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians. A common variant definition does not include the Adirondack Mountains, which belong to the Grenville Orogeny and have a different geological history from the rest of the Appalachians. The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3,000 ft. The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet, the term Appalachian refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range. Most broadly, it refers to the mountain range with its surrounding hills. The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma were originally part of the Appalachians as well, the name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváezs expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15,1528, now spelled Appalachian, it is the fourth-oldest surviving European place-name in the US. After the de Soto expedition in 1540, Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The first cartographic appearance of Apalchen is on Diego Gutierrezs map of 1562, the name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the Allegheny Mountains, Alleghenies, in the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In U. S. dialects in the regions of the Appalachians. In northern parts of the range, it is pronounced /ˌæpəˈleɪtʃᵻnz/ or /ˌæpəˈleɪʃᵻnz/, the third syllable is like lay. There is often debate between the residents of the regions as to which pronunciation is the more correct one. Elsewhere, a commonly accepted pronunciation for the adjective Appalachian is /ˌæpəˈlætʃiən/, the whole system may be divided into three great sections, Northern, The northern section runs from the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador to the Hudson River. The Monteregian Hills, which cross the Green Mountains in Quebec, are also unassociated with the Appalachians, Central, The central section goes from the Hudson Valley to the New River running through Virginia and West Virginia. Southern, The southern section runs from the New River onwards and it consists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, which is divided into the Western Blue Ridge Front and the Eastern Blue Ridge Front, the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and the Cumberland Plateau
10.
Dalhousie, New Brunswick
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Dalhousie is a Canadian town located in Restigouche County, New Brunswick. Dalhousie is the town of Restigouche County and dates European settlement to 1800. The Town of Dalhousie has been some very distinct periods between its founding in 1825 and today. Lumbermen looked north to the pine stands of the Nipisiguit. Dalhousie, located at the mouth of the Restigouche, began to grow, soon it was a booming town and became the Shiretown of the newly created Restigouche County. Lumber and fishing were the interests, although agriculture was more important in the early days than it is today. Dalhousie was the town of the area until the arrival of the railway following confederation. With steep hills at its back, the Intercolonial Railway bypassed the town while its rival, Campbellton. That would be the situation until the late 1920s, when Dalhousie was picked as the site of a giant paper mill, the International Paper Company built what was then one of the largest newsprint mills in the world and the town changed forever. From 1929 on, the mill would dominate life in Dalhousie, for a time, the deepwater port attracted ships to move ore from the Bathurst Mining Camp deposits to various offshore smelters. Parents of some of our older citizens would tell their children that, in some ways, certainly the mill is one of the towns most imposing features. It occupies much of one side of the street, blocking access to. Dalhousie has been called a waterfront town without a waterfront, the mill also meant that the town had a high average income. It brought a new and different kind of prosperity, still, Dalhousie was in the situation of many one-industry towns – dependent on the success of that one main sector of its economy. The hilly town site was first laid out in 1826 with the first settlement established by Scottish settlers in 1827 and it was named after the 9th Earl of Dalhousie, who was then the governor of both Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Some Acadians displaced in the Great Upheaval also settled in Dalhousie, many of the present residents can trace ancestry back to the original European settlers in the region. The Eel River Bar First Nation, adjacent to Dalhousie, is home to many Micmac natives, Dalhousie was officially incorporated in 1905. It has been, the past, referred to as a Papertown, Dalhousie is the most northern point in New Brunswick, and thus is in the Maritime provinces
11.
Miguasha, Quebec
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Miguasha National Park is a protected area near Carleton-sur-Mer on the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec in Canada. Other names for this site are the Miguasha Fossil Site, the Bay of Escuminac Fossil Site, the Upper Devonian Escuminac Formation, and it is also sometimes referred to on fossil specimens as Scaumenac Bay or Scaumenac Bay P. Q. The parks museum features exhibits about the fossils and paleontology of the park, the museums collection includes over 9000 specimens of fossil fish and plants. The coastal cliffs are Upper Devonian strata of sedimentary rock. They are composed of alternating layers of sandstone and shale, which are 350–375 million years old, the area today supports mainly birch, aspen, and fir forests. Some of the fish, fauna, and spore fossils found at Miguasha are rare, for example, Spermasposita is thought to be one of the oldest flowering plant genera on Earth. Miguasha National Park is considered to be the worlds greatest palaeontological record of fossils from the Devonian Period, five of the six main fossil fish groups from this period can be found here. A great quantity of some of the fossil specimens of lobe-finned fish. The fossil site was first discovered in 1842, by Abraham Gesner, a geologist and medical doctor, Gesner found a vast array of important fossils, which were handed over to the British Museum and the Royal Scottish Museum, these discoveries caused great excitement throughout the world. There was a rumour in the 1970s that some Americans were seeking to purchase the land containing the fossil deposits, in 1985 the Québec government blocked this possible privatization by purchasing a large tract of the land and declaring it a provincial park. The peripheral area is owned by people who limit development. To date, over 5000 fossils from one site have been identified and categorized. It was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999, List of fossil sites Parcs Québec, Parc National de Miguasha UNEP-WCMC profile World Heritage List, Miguasha National Park
12.
Estuary
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An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea began to rise about 10. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns, the banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 60% of the worlds population living along estuaries and the coast. The word estuary is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, there have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. However, this definition excludes a number of water bodies such as coastal lagoons. This broad definition also includes fjords, lagoons, river mouths, an estuary is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides. The sea water entering the estuary is diluted by the water flowing from rivers. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on the volume of water, the tidal range. Drowned river valleys are known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and this is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border, the width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m, examples of this type of estuary in the U. S. are the Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and Delaware Bay along the Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations and these estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches. Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses the estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters, bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U. S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments, barrier beaches form in shallow water and are generally parallel to the shoreline, resulting in long, narrow estuaries
13.
Tide Head, New Brunswick
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Tide Head is a Canadian village in Restigouche County, New Brunswick. Located on the bank of the Restigouche River 10 km west of Campbellton, the village is situated where the tides on the Restigouche River cease to become visible. The first settlers of the area were Scottish, early area farms were owned by Moffats, Gerrards, Duncans, Adams, Duffs, Barclays, Christophers, and Ayletts. Graves in the date from as early as 1791. The Athol House Cemetery is the oldest British Cemetery in Restigouche County, the railway that passes through Tide Head was started in 1875 and the first train went west in 1878. The train passes through a tunnel in the hillside of Morrisey Rock, Tide Head was incorporated into a village in 1966. The first Mayor of the village was Jim Adams. The current Mayor of Tide Head is Randy Hunter, Tide Head bills itself as the Fiddlehead Capital of the World and is predominantly anglophone. List of communities in New Brunswick Official Village website
14.
Mergini
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The seaducks form a subfamily of the Anatidae, which is a group of waterfowl that includes the ducks, geese and swans. Most species within this group spend their winters near coastal marine waters, many species have developed specialized salt glands to allow them to tolerate salt water, but these are poorly developed in juveniles. Some of the species prefer riverine habitats, all but two of the 20 species in this group occupy habitats in far northern latitudes. The fish-eating members of group, such as the mergansers. These are therefore known as sawbills. Other seaducks forage by diving underwater, taking molluscs or crustaceans from the sea floor, unlike the Alcidae, the Merginae take on the eclipse plumage during the late summer, and molt into their breeding plumage during the winter. There are twenty living species in ten extant genera, Genus †Chendytes and these birds became extinct in prehistoric times. They were large, goose-like ducks with reduced wings which were unfit for flying, at least one species survived to the Holocene. †Chendytes lawi Genus †Shiriyanetta, similar to Chendytes, but lived on the side of the Pacific. †Shiriyanetta hasegawai Genus Polysticta Stellers eider Genus Somateria, the eiders, the drakes have body plumage showing varying amounts of black and white, and distinctive head patterns. Common eider Spectacled eider King eider Genus Histrionicus Harlequin duck Genus †Camptorhynchus †Labrador duck Genus Melanitta, the drakes are mostly black and have swollen bills. Common scoter Black scoter or American scoter Velvet scoter White-winged scoter Surf scoter Genus Clangula Long-tailed duck or oldsquaw Genus Bucephala and these are less marine than some species in this group, and will winter on fresh water. Drakes have white bodies with black backs and distinctive head markings, females are grey with chestnut heads. Common goldeneye Barrows goldeneye Bufflehead Genus Mergellus Smew Genus Lophodytes Hooded merganser Genus Mergus and these are the least marine of this group, only red-breasted and common mergansers being common on the sea. These are large saw-billed ducks which dive for fish, brazilian merganser †New Zealand merganser Red-breasted merganser Common merganser or goosander Scaly-sided merganser
15.
Black scoter
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The black scoter or American scoter is a large sea duck,43 to 49 cm in length. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek melas black and netta duck, the species name is from the Latin for American. Together with the common scoter M. nigra, it forms the subgenus Oidemia and its French name, used in parts of its Canadian range, is macreuse noire. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN and this large sea duck is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. The male is all black with a bulbous bill which is mostly yellow. The female is a bird with pale cheeks, very similar to female common scoter. The adult female averages about 980 g and 45 cm in length and this species can be distinguished from other scoters, apart from common scoter, by the lack of white anywhere on the drake, and the more extensive pale areas on the female. The black scoter and common scoter have diagnosably distinct vocalisations, the black scoter breeds in the far north of North America in Labrador and Newfoundland to the southeast Hudson Bay. It also occurs on the Siberian side of the Bering Straits east of the Yana River, some birds may over-winter on the Great Lakes. This species is a rare vagrant to western Europe, only drakes are safely identifiable out of range. It forms large flocks on coastal waters in winter quarters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together and it has been suggested that in coastal waters this species prefers sheltered embayments, and possibly waters that include some mixed depths. The lined nest is built on the close to the sea, lakes or rivers. Each eggs weighs from 60–74 g, or 8% of the body weight. The incubation period may range from 27 to 31 days, females brood their young extensively for about 3 weeks, after which the still flightless young must fend for themselves. The male performs a diagnostic downward head movement when stretching his wings, Black scoter photo gallery at VIREO Black Scoter Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Interactive range map of Melanitta americana at IUCN Red List maps
16.
Surf scoter
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The surf scoter is a large sea duck, which breeds in Canada and Alaska. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek melas black and netta duck, the species name is from the Latin perspicillatus, spectacled, in turn derived from perspicere, to see through. It is placed in the subgenus Melanitta, along with the velvet and white-winged scoters, distinct from the subgenus Oidemia, black and it winters farther south in temperate zones, on the coasts of the northern United States. Small numbers regularly winter in western Europe as far south as the British Isles, some birds may over-winter on the Great Lakes. It forms large flocks on coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together, the lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. An egg may range from 55–79 g and average 43.9 mm in breadth and 62.4 mm in length, occasional brood mixing between different females occurs in areas with high densities of nests. Growth is relatively rapid and the period is about 28 to 30 days. The offspring will fledge independently at about 55 days, the adult female averages about 900 g and 44 cm in length, while the adult male is on average 1,050 g and 48 cm in length, making this the smallest species of scoter on average. It is characterised by its shape and large bill. The male is all black, except for white patches on the nape and it has a bulbous red, yellow and white bill. The females are brown birds with pale head patches, the wedge-shaped head and lack of white in the wings helps to distinguish female surf scoters from female velvet scoters. Adult scoters of this species dive for crustaceans and molluscs, while the ducklings live off any variety of freshwater invertebrates, in November,2007, an oil spill in San Francisco harbour oiled and killed thousands of birds including many surf scoters. About 40% of the affected were from this species. Surf Scoter photo gallery at VIREO
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Bird migration
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Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds. Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality, including from hunting by humans and it occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funnelled on to specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea. More recently, Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749, threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction especially of stopover and wintering sites, as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms. The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year, shorter migrations are common, including altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas. The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length, migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the sun and stars, the earths magnetic field, and probably also mental maps. Records of bird migration were made as much as 3,000 years ago by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus and Aristotle. The Bible also notes migrations, as in the Book of Job, the author of Jeremiah wrote, Even the stork in the heavens knows its seasons, and the turtle dove, the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival. Aristotle noted that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile, pliny the Elder, in his Historia Naturalis, repeats Aristotles observations. Aristotle however suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated and this belief persisted as late as 1878, when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. It was not until the end of the century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted. Bewick then describes an experiment which succeeded in keeping alive in Britain for several years. He concludes, These experiments have since been confirmed by. Migration is the seasonal movement, often north and south. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat, sometimes, journeys are not termed true migration because they are irregular or in only one direction. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality, non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1800 of the worlds 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants, many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer, of course, in the southern hemisphere the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food, for example, also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young
18.
Royal Canadian Navy
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The Royal Canadian Navy is the naval force of Canada. The RCN is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces, as of 2017 Canadas navy operates 12 frigates,4 patrol submarines,12 coastal defence vessels and 8 unarmed patrol/training vessels, as well as several auxiliary vessels. The Royal Canadian Navy consists of 8,500 Regular Force and 5,100 Primary Reserve sailors, vice-Admiral Ron Lloyd is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Navy and Chief of the Naval Staff. In 2011, its title of Royal Canadian Navy was restored. The bill received assent on 4 May 1910. Initially equipped with two former Royal Navy vessels, HMCS Niobe and HMCS Rainbow, the service was renamed Royal Canadian Navy by King George V on 29 August 1911. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the Navy had 11 combat vessels,145 officers and 1,674 men, during the Second World War, the Royal Canadian Navy expanded significantly, ultimately gaining responsibility for the entire Northwest Atlantic theatre of war. During the Battle of the Atlantic, the RCN sank 31 U-boats and sank or captured 42 enemy surface vessels, the Navy lost 24 ships and 1,797 sailors in the war. In 1940–41, the Royal Canadian Navy Reserves scheme for training yacht club members developed the first central registry system, from 1950 to 1955, during the Korean War, Canadian destroyers maintained a presence off the Korean peninsula, engaging in shore bombardments and maritime interdiction. During the Cold War, the Navy developed a capability to counter the growing Soviet naval threat. At that time, Canada was also operating a carrier, HMCS Bonaventure, flying the McDonnell F2H Banshee fighter jet until 1962. In 1968, under the Liberal government of Lester B, pearson, the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and Canadian Army were amalgamated to form the unified Canadian Forces. This process was overseen by then–Defence Minister Paul Hellyer, the controversial merger resulted in the abolition of the Royal Canadian Navy as a separate legal entity. All personnel, ships, and aircraft became part of Maritime Command, ship-borne aircraft continued to be under the command of MARCOM, while shore-based patrol aircraft of the former Royal Canadian Air Force were transferred to MARCOM. In 1975 Air Command was formed and all aircraft were transferred to Air Commands Maritime Air Group. The unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968 was the first time that a nation with a military combined its formerly separate naval, land. In 1990, Canada deployed three warships to support the Operation Friction, later in the decade, ships were deployed to patrol the Adriatic Sea during the Yugoslav Wars and the Kosovo War. More recently, Maritime Command provided vessels to serve as a part of Operation Apollo, the Royal Canadian Navy is headquartered at National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa, Ontario
19.
HMS Comet (H00)
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HMS Comet was a C-class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s. Comet transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1938 and renamed HMCS Restigouche, Restigouche was sold for scrap in 1946. Comet displaced 1,375 long tons at load and 1,865 long tons at deep load. The ship had a length of 329 feet, a beam of 33 feet. She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of 36,000 shaft horsepower and gave a speed of 36 knots. Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers, Comet carried a maximum of 473 long tons of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5,500 nautical miles at 15 knots. The ships complement was 145 officers and men, the ship mounted four 45-calibre 4. 7-inch Mk IX guns in single mounts, designated A, B, X, and Y from front to rear. For anti-aircraft defence, Comet had a single QF 3-inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels, and two 40-millimetre QF 2-pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck. The 3-inch AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2-pounders were relocated to between the funnels and she was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21-inch torpedoes. Three depth-charge chutes were fitted, each with a capacity of two depth charges, after World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges, delivered by one or two rails and two throwers. The ship was ordered on 15 July 1930 from Portsmouth Dockyard under the 1929 Programme, Comet was laid down on 12 September 1930, launched on 30 September 1931, as the 14th ship to carry the name, and completed on 2 June 1932. After sea trials in May 1932, Comet was commissioned for service in the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla, Home Fleet, on 21 July, she was damaged in a collision with her sister Crescent at Chatham and repaired at Chatham Dockyard between 28 July and 20 August. The ship was refitted at Chatham from 20 July to 3 September 1934, following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, Comet was sent in August 1935 to the Red Sea with the other ships of the 2nd Flotilla to monitor Italian warship movements until March 1936. Comet returned to the UK in April 1936 and refitted at Sheerness between 23 April and 29 June before resuming duty with the Home Fleet. On 9 August she assisted the crew of the crippled British yacht Blue Shadow off Gijon, the ship was briefly placed in reserve in late 1936 while discussions were held about transferring her to the Royal Canadian Navy. Two of her sisters were chosen instead and Comet was recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet as plane guard for the aircraft carrier Glorious on 29 December. In April 1937 she returned to Portsmouth with Glorious, and on 20 May the ship participated in the Coronation Review of the fleet at Spithead by King George VI, four days later, Comet began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 18 June. The ship resumed plane guard duties for Glorious in the Mediterranean and she began a major refit at Chatham on 26 May 1938 to bring her up to Canadian specifications that included the installation of Type 124 ASDIC
20.
HMCS Restigouche (DDE 257)
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HMCS Restigouche was the lead ship of the Restigouche-class destroyers that served in the Royal Canadian Navy and later the Canadian Forces. Commissioned in 1958, Restigouche remained in service until 1994 and she was sold for use as an artificial reef, however controversy arose over her acquisition and instead she was scuttled off the coast of Mexico in 2001. She was the second Canadian warship to carry the name HMCS Restigouche, based on the preceding St. Laurent-class design, the Restigouches had the same hull and propulsion, but different weaponry. Initially the St. Laurent class had been planned to be 14 ships, however the order was halved, and the following seven were redesigned to take into improvements made on the St. Laurents. As time passed, their design diverged further from that of the St. Laurents, the ships had a displacement of 2,000 tonnes,2,500 t at deep load. They were designed to be 112 metres long with a beam of 13 metres, the Restigouches had a complement of 214. The Restigouches were by powered by two English Electric geared steam turbines, each driving a shaft, using steam provided by two Babcock & Wilcox boilers. They generated 22,000 kilowatts giving the vessels a speed of 28 knots. The Restigouches were equipped with SPS-10, SPS-12, Sperry Mk 2 and SPG-48 radar along with SQS-501, the Restigouches diverged from the St. Laurents in their weaponry. A Mk 69 fire control director was added to control the new guns and they were also armed with two Limbo Mk 10 mortars and two single Bofors 40 mm guns. However the 40 mm guns were dropped in the final design, the 3 in/70 mounting was placed in the A position and the 3 in/50 mounting was placed in the Y position. The destroyers were also equipped beginning in 1958 with Mk 43 homing torpedoes in an effort to increase the distance between the ships and their targets, the Mk 43 torpedo had a range of 4,100 metres at 15 knots. They were pitched over the side by a depth charge thrower. As part of the 1964 naval program, the Royal Canadian Navy planned to improve the capabilities of the Restigouche class. The destroyers also received a stepped lattice mast, called the Improved Restigouche Escorts, Terra Nova was the first to undergo conversion, beginning in May 1965. The conversion took ten months to complete, followed by sea trials, the sea trials delayed the conversion of the next ship for four years. By 1969, the budget for programs had been cut and only four out of the seven would get upgraded to IRE standards. The ASROC launcher replaced the 3 in/50 cal twin mount and one Mk 10 Limbo mortars aft, the ASROC was rocket-propelled acoustically-guided Mk 44 torpedo that had a minimum range of 820 metres and a maximum range of 9,100 metres
21.
Kedgwick, New Brunswick
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Kedgwick is a Canadian rural community in Restigouche County, New Brunswick. Originally a local improvement district, then a village, Kedgwick became a rural community in 2012 when it amalgamated with the surrounding parish of Grimmer. Being surrounded by woods, Kedgwick is spectacular during the Fall season, every autumn the population celebrates it with the Festival dAutomne. In July 2012, all of Grimmer parish was incorporated into the community of Kedgwick forming the village of Kedgwick, on July 1,2012, the village and the Local Service District of Grimmer merged to form the Rural Community of Kedgwick. Forestry is the industry in the area. List of communities in New Brunswick Canadian Encyclopedia, history Kedgwick. ca www. festivaldautomne. com Village et musée forestier. ca
22.
Canadian National Railway
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The Canadian National Railway Company is a Canadian Class I railway headquartered in Montreal, Quebec that serves Canada and the Midwestern and Southern United States. CNs slogan is North Americas Railroad, CN is a public company with 24,000 employees. It had a capitalization of 32 billion CAD in 2011. CN was government-owned, having been a Canadian Crown corporation from its founding to its privatization in 1995, bill Gates was, in 2011, the largest single shareholder of CN stock. Its range once reached across the island of Newfoundland until 1988, the railway was referred to as the Canadian National Railways between 1918 and 1960, and as Canadian National/Canadien National from 1960 to the present. On November 17,1995, the government privatized CN. Over the next decade, the company expanded significantly into the United States, purchasing Illinois Central Railroad and Wisconsin Central Transportation, now primarily a freight railway, CN also operated passenger services until 1978, when they were assumed by Via Rail. The Newfoundland mixed trains lasted until 1988, while the Montreal commuter trains are now operated by Montreals AMT, the absorption of the Intercolonial Railway would see CNR adopt that systems slogan The Peoples Railway. The federal governments Department of Railways and Canals took over operation of the GTPR until July 12,1920, the Canadian National Railway was organized on October 10,1922. After several years of arbitration, the GTR was absorbed into CNR on January 30,1923, Canadian National Railways was born out of both wartime and domestic urgency. Railways, until the rise of the automobile and creation of taxpayer-funded all-weather highways, were the only viable long-distance land transportation available in Canada for many years. As such, their operation consumed a great deal of public, in the early 20th century, many governments were taking a more interventionist role in the economy, foreshadowing the influence of economists like John Maynard Keynes. This political trend, combined with broader geo-political events, made nationalization an appealing choice for Canada, the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 and allied involvement in the Russian Revolution seemed to validate the continuing process. The need for a rail system was paramount in a time of civil unrest. CN Telegraph originated as the Great North West Telegraph Company in 1880 to connect Ontario and Manitoba, in 1915, facing bankruptcy, GNWTC was acquired by the Canadian Northern Railways telegraph company. When Canadian Northern was nationalized in 1918 and amalgamated into Canadian National Railways in 1921, CN Telegraphs began co-operating with its Canadian Pacific owned rival CPR Telegraphs in the 1930s, sharing telegraph networks and co-founding a teleprinter system in 1957. In 1967 the two services were amalgamated into a joint venture CNCP Telecommunications which evolved into a telecoms company, CN sold its stake of the company to CP in 1984. This led to the creation of a network of CNR radio stations across the country, as anyone in the vicinity of a station could hear its broadcasts the networks audience extended far beyond train passengers to the public at large
23.
New Brunswick Route 11
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Route 11 is a provincial highway in northeastern New Brunswick, Canada. The 435 kilometre long road runs from Shediac to the Quebec border near Campbellton at the Interprovinciale Bridge, between Shediac and Miramichi, and between Bathurst and Campbellton, it is a two-lane road with some sections designed as a Super two expressway. The highway is twinned for 2 kilometres in the Shediac region near the Route 15 interchange, the highways southern terminus is at the interchange with Route 15 and the northern terminus of Route 132 in Shediac. It runs northward Parallel to Route 134 as a Super 2 controlled-access highway, the route passes through the communities of Shediac Cape, intersecting Route 134, then crossing the Shediac River, then entering Cocagne crossing the Cocagne River. Intersecting with Route 535, the route continues through Ward Corner passing McKees Mills, the Route Crosses the Little Bouctouche River then the Bouctouche River as it enters Bouctouche. The Route then Continues to Richibucto as well as Kouchibouguac National Park, the highway reverts to a 2-lane uncontrolled access highway between the national park and the city of Miramichi to the northwest. The highway crosses the Miramichi River in the Miramichi borough of Chatham on the Centennial Bridge, immediately after crossing the Miramichi River, Route 11 interchanges with Route 8. Through this region, Route 11 typically forms the street through most of the coastal towns and settlements such as Neguac, Caraquet, Bertrand, Grande-Anse. The only exception is a recently opened Super 2 controlled access bypass of the town of Tracadie-Sheila, Route 11 interchanges again with Route 8 at Bathurst where Route 8 has its northern terminus. At Tide Head, Route 11 interchanges in a T-intersection with Route 17, since the late 1960s, Route 11 has received several upgrades and re-designations as it progresses toward eventually becoming an expressway. In 1972 a new 4-lane expressway opened between Moncton and Shediac, which was referred to as the Shediac Four-Lane Highway or Shediac Expressway. Prior to this new expressway, Route 11 followed the Shediac Road from Shediac to Moncton, terminating at Route 2, Route 11s southern terminus was then changed to the current interchange at Route 15 in Shediac. Controlled access Super 2 expressway sections on Route 11 were completed during the 1970s in Bathurst, the Super 2 section in Bathurst was also extended eastward past Salmon Beach at the citys east end. A bypass of Tracadie-Sheila opened to traffic in 2002, also, an extension to that existing bypass was done in 2009, linking the northern end and Six-Roads, near Pokemouche. Route 11 has been identified for major upgrades following completion of the project on the Trans-Canada Highway in 2007. Caraquet bypass was open to traffic on October 2016, also going south from exiting Route 11 from Portage Road to Bertrand. The 13 km construction started in 2013, then finished in 2016, the most heavily travelled sections will be twinned and the rest of the route will be upgraded in phases as funding becomes available. Twinning the entire Route 11 highway was estimated to cost upwards of $1 billion, stephen, and Route 7 between Grand Bay-Westfield and Oromocto
24.
J. C. Van Horne Bridge
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The J. C. Van Horne Bridge is a Canadian steel through truss/steel deck truss bridge crossing the Restigouche River between Campbellton, New Brunswick and Pointe-à-la-Croix, Quebec. Built between June 1958 and October 1961, the bridge was opened to traffic on October 15,1961, as an interprovincial crossing, the bridge was constructed under a three-party agreement between the governments of Canada, New Brunswick and Quebec. Measuring 805 m in length, the bridge consists of four deck-truss approach-spans joined in the middle with a cantilever-through-truss structure. The middle structure is composed of two spans and one clear span over the navigational channel measuring 380 m. It carries 2 traffic lanes and 2 sidewalks, crossing the Restigouche River between Campbellton, NB and Pointe-à-la-Croix, QC had long been a bone of contention by locals in both provinces. A federally funded inter-provincial ferry service between the two communities had proven adequate until the 1950s when vehicle traffic began to grow at higher rate than forecast. Van Horne had chosen the Ste, anne Feast weekend where the lineups would be predictably long on both sides. The government representatives were convinced of the need for a bridge to replace the ferry service, the bridge was later named in his honour
25.
Mi'gmaq language
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The Mikmaq language is an Eastern Algonquian language spoken by nearly 11,000 Mikmaq in Canada and the United States out of a total ethnic Mikmaq population of roughly 20,000. The word Mikmaq is a word meaning my friends, the adjectival form is Míkmaw. The languages native name is Lnuismk, Míkmawísimk or Míkmwei, the phonemic inventory of Mikmaq is shown below. The consonants of Mikmaq can be divided into two groups, the obstruents /p, t, k, kʷ, t͡ʃ, s, x, xʷ/, the vowels of Mikmaq are also counted as sonorants. The obstruents have a variety of pronunciations. When they are located word-initially or next to another obstruent, they are voiceless, however, when they are located between sonorants, they are voiced, and appear as. When the stops and affricate are located word-finally, they may be aspirated, an example of each kind of pronunciation is given below. Mikmaq distinguishes between long and short vowels and consonants, symbolized in Listuguj by doubling the consonant. Beyond expanding in length, long consonants add a schwa when they precede other consonants, Listuguj orthography occasionally begins words with consonant clusters, such as with gtan or mgumi. However, such clusters are pronounced over separate syllables, with a preceding the cluster, for instance, gtan is pronounced /ək. ta. On the other hand, word-final clusters, such as in asigetg are pronounced over a single syllable, compare the pronunciation of asigetg, /a. si. getk/, with mestg, /mes. tək/. Mikmaq uses free word order, based on rather than a traditionally fixed order of subjects, objects. While it is difficult to classify Mikmaq under traditional word-order categories such as SVO or SOV. However, these elements of verbs are paired with markers that can appear throughout the word, depending again on emphasis. In short, while a few aspects of Mikmaq can be predicted, its syntax in general is largely free. Mikmaq is written using a number of Latin alphabets based on ones devised by missionaries in the 19th century, previously, the language was written in Mikmaq hieroglyphic writing, a script of partially native origin. The Francis-Smith orthography used here was developed in 1974, and adopted as the orthography of the Míkmaq Nation in 1980. It is the most widely used orthography, used by Nova Scotian Mikmaq and it is quite similar to the Lexicon orthography, differing from it only in its use of the straight apostrophe ⟨⟩ or acute accent ⟨´⟩ instead of the colon ⟨, ⟩ to mark vowel length
26.
Listuguj Mi'gmaq First Nation
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The Listuguj Migmaq First Nation is a Migmaq First Nations band government with a registered population of 3152 members, most of whom are of Mikmaq ancestry. The name Listuguj, is the origin for the name of the Restigouche River, Listuguj is also used as a name for one of the Míkmaq orthographies. Its southern border is adjacent to Pointe-a-la-Croix, Quebec, anns Day in July, or the traditional powwow in August. The community is also allied to other Migmaq communities in the Gaspé region of Quebec, together, their elected Chiefs advance ancestral claims to self-government and to the traditional territory called Gespegewagi, the last land. Gespegewagi is the Migmaq Nation District that extends from the Miramichi River to the tip of the Gaspé Peninsula, the First Nation is a strong advocate of Aboriginal peoples in Canada, and Aboriginal and treaty rights. Its main resource is the Atlantic salmon and other fruits of the waters and forests, political representatives of the Migmaq of Listuguj and the greater district of Gespegewagi continue talks with the Government of Quebec over access to traditional lands. The Battle of Listuguj, also called Battle of Restigouche, was the last naval battle between the British and the French during the Seven Years War, in 1759, after the fall of Quebec, the French hurried to send reinforcements across the Atlantic. 400 troops were sent in merchant ships from Bordeaux, however, when they reached the Saint Lawrence River, the fleet commander discovered that the area was already occupied by a strong British fleet. He decided to sail south to the bottom of the baie des Chaleurs, eventually, they were spotted by British Captain John Byron, who engaged battle there. The battle opposed 3 French ships and ground batteries and a coalition of Migmaq, French and Acadian irregular troops, the French and their allies lost this battle, ending the hopes of reconquering Quebec. On June 11 and 20,1981, the Quebec Provincial Police conducted controversial raids on the reserve to stop the Migmaq from asserting their control over their native fishery. Federal Indian Affairs Minister John Munro was among those critical of the manner in which the Quebec government, all convictions resulting from the arrests were eventually overturned. The raids and their aftermath were documented by Alanis Obomsawin in her 1984 film Incident at Restigouche
27.
First Nations
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The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
28.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
