1.
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
2.
Rafael Correa
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Rafael Vicente Correa Delgado is an Ecuadorian politician and economist who has served as President of Ecuador since 2007. The leader of the PAIS Alliance political movement, Correa is a democratic socialist, internationally, he served as president pro tempore of the Union of South American Nations. Returning to Ecuador, in 2005 he became the Minister for the Economy in President Alfredo Palacios government, successfully lobbying Congress for increased spending on health, Correa won the presidency in the 2006 general election on a platform criticizing the established political elites. Taking office in January 2007, he sought to move away from Ecuadors neoliberal economic model by reducing the influence of the World Bank and he oversaw the introduction of a new constitution, and was re-elected in 2009. Correa was re-elected in the 2013 general election, Ecuador was able to achieve political stability. Eventually, some Ecuadorians had also grown disenchanted with corruption, as well as Correas confrontational behavior with media organizations, however, according to Transparency International, corruption decreased under Correas government. Between 2006 and 2016, poverty decreased from 36. 7% to 22. 5%, at the same time, inequalities, as measured by the Gini index, decreased from 0.55 to 0.47. Correas father was Rafael Correa Icaza, born in the Province of Los Ríos, Ecuador and he had three siblings, Fabricio Correa, Pierina Correa and Bernardita Correa. Having grown up in the city of Guayaquil, he has described his family background as being that of the lower middle class. When Correa was five, his father was arrested and imprisoned for three years attempting to smuggle illegal narcotics into the United States. Publicly acknowledging this incident while president, Correa stated that I do not condone what he did drug smugglers are not criminals and they are single mothers or unemployed people who are desperate to feed their families. Correa was 18 years of age before he was told about his fathers actions, Correas family faced financial hardship when he was 17, but a family friend paid for him to be educated at an elite local school, where he excelled. During his secondary studies he was president of the Lasallian Student Cultural Association and it was here that he furthered his faith in Catholicism, and developed a working understanding of the Quechua language spoken by most of Ecuadors indigenous people. In Zumbahua he became aware of the poverty that afflicted Ecuadors indigenous population. He received a Master of Arts in Economics from the Université Catholique de Louvain in June 1991, in 1993 he was a director at the Ministry of Education and Culture in Ecuador, with administrative oversight and supervision of improvement programs for the national educational system. The improvement programs were funded by the Inter-American Development Bank, Correa was able to afford a university education with the aid of funding grants. He later studied at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he earned a Master of Science in Economics in May 1999, during graduate studies, he came under the particular influence of the left-leaning economist Joseph Stiglitz. Correas adviser at the University of Illinois was Werner Baer, who commented that at the time Correa did not seem anti-capitalist but was concerned by uneven income distribution in society
3.
Fernando Cordero Cueva
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Juan Fernando Cordero Cueva is an Ecuadorian politician and architect. He was the mayor of Cuenca between 1996 and 2005 and he was also Member of the Ecuadorian Congress and President of the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly in 2008. Between 2009 and 2013 he was President of the National Assembly, from September 2014 to March 2016 he was Minister of National Defence. He is also known as Corcho Cordero. Cordero was born 1952 in Cuenca the son of Leonardo Cordero Vega and his wife and his maternal grandfather was the recognized politician Carlos Cueva Tamaríz. Cordero studied architecture at the University of Cuenca, of which he served as dean from 1989–1991. He graduated 1975, absolved a post-gradual program in Brasil until 1977 and he has been a professor at his alma mater since 1977 and has been involved in international architectural organizations such as Sociedad Interamericana de Planificación. He was elected mayor of Cuenca in 1996 and was reelected for a term in 2000. As such he won 2004 a prize for the best work as mayor in Ecuador among 22 participants,2006 Cueva was elected member of the Ecuadorian Congress as the most voted candidate in the country and 2007 of the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly. Cordero Cueva was Minister of National Defense from September 26,2014 to March 1,2016 and he succeeded María Fernanda Espinosa, and was himself succeeded by Ricardo Patiño. Cordero Cueva is married to Nelly Carvallo and has three children, Fernando Cordero at the Website of the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly Official Website
4.
Guayaquil
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Guayaquil, officially Santiago de Guayaquil, is the largest and the most populous city in Ecuador, with around 2.69 million people in the metropolitan area, as well as the nations main port. The city is the capital of the Ecuadorian province of Guayas, Guayaquil is located on the western bank of the Guayas River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Guayaquil. Guayaquil is recognized by the government as having been founded on July 25,1538 with the name Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de Santiago de Guayaquil by Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Orellana, even before it was founded by the Spanish, it already existed as a native village. In 1687, Guayaquil was attacked and looted by English and French pirates under the command of George dHout and Picard, of the more than 260 pirates,35 died and 46 were wounded,75 defenders of the city died and more than 100 were wounded. The pirates took local women as concubines, Guayaquil declared independence from Spain, becoming Provincia Libre de Guayaquil, and José Joaquín de Olmedo was named Jefe Civil of Guayaquil. This would prove to be a key victory for the Ecuadorian War of Independence, on July 26,1822, José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar held a famous conference in Guayaquil to plan for the independence of Spanish South America. In 1829, the city was invaded by the Peruvian Army, large portions of the city were destroyed by a major fire in 1896. Guayaquileños main sources of income are, formal and informal trade, business, most commerce consists of small and medium businesses, adding an important informal economy occupation that gives thousands of guayaquileños employment. The Port of Guayaquil is Ecuadors most important commercial port, most international import and export merchandise passes through the Gulf of Guayaquil, as the largest city in the country, most industries are located either in the city or its peripheral areas. Ongoing projects seek urban regeneration as an objective of the growth of the citys commercial districts. These projects in the city driven by the recent mayors have achieved this goal after investing large sums of money, the current municipal administration aims to convert Guayaquil into a place for first-class international tourism and multinational businesses. Guayaquils current mayor is Jaime Nebot, in August 2006, the citys first rapid transit bus system, Metrovia, opened to provide a quicker, high-capacity service. One of the projects was called Malecón 2000, the renovation of the waterfront promenade along the Guayas River. The park cost the city about 7 million dollars, the two bridges were a big addition to the Guayas River scenery. Guayaquil is the nations largest city and the capital of Guayas Province and it is on the Guayas River about 60 kilometres north of the Gulf of Guayaquil, near the Equator. Guayaquil is constantly facing tsunami and major earthquake threats due to its soil stratigraphy and location near the Gulf of Guayaquil and the south of North-Andean subduction zone. The city can be damaged by earthquake as its weak and compressible soil stratigraphy is composed of deep soft sediments over hard rocks. The tsunami threat is caused by the nearby Gulf of Guayaquil which also is one of the locations on the Earth where earthquakes tend to happen all the time
5.
Ecuador
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Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
6.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
7.
Metropolitan Autonomous University
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The Metropolitan Autonomous University also known as UAM, is a Mexican public university, founded in 1974, with the support of then-President Luis Echeverria Alvarez. The institution aims to be linked to the social and human environment, conserving at the forefront, with constant reinvention of research. As an autonomous university is an agency of the State, based on the principles of academic freedom and research. The institution is one of the top greater academic universities in Mexico, one of the leading universities in Mexico to submit the highest number of research. It has five academic units located in Mexico City and Greater Mexico City, Azcapotzalco, in north, Iztapalapa, in east, Cuajimalpa, in west, Xochimilco, in south, and Lerma in State of Mexico. It then proposed that the nascent university project also constituted an opportunity to modernize education in the country. On 10 January of that year, he was appointed first Rector of the UAM architect Pedro Ramirez Vazquez, in turn, the Rector of the Azcapotzalco Unit was Dr. Juan Casillas García de León, which opened its doors 11 November 1974. For the Xochimilco was Rector Dr. Ramon Villarreal Perez, initiating teaching also the November 11,1974. Recently, the possibility of creating a new unit of the UAM was analyzed. The April 26,2005 the Academic College of the approved the creation of the Cuajimalpa campus. The activities of the Unit officially pulled the September 14,2005, using different locations, then he took three temporary facilities, Baja California, Artifice and Constituents Constituents adding a fourth in 647. UAM Lerma — located near Toluca, in the State of Mexico, UAM Rectoría is the main office of the university system. It is located in the south of the city, on Canal de Miramontes street near Xochimilco
8.
Iztapalapa
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Iztapalapa is one of the Federal Districts of Mexico City’s 16 boroughs, located on the east side of the entity. The borough is named after and centered on the independent municipality of Iztapalapa. The rest is made up of a number of communities which are governed by the city of Iztapalapa. With a population of 1.8 million as of 2010, Iztapalapa is the most populous borough of Mexico City, over 90% of its territory is urbanized. This is the result of an influx of people into the borough starting from the 1970s. The area has a level of socioeconomic marginalization, with a significant number of people lacking sufficient access to clean potable water. Crime is also a problem, with much of it related to drug trafficking. However, the borough is home of one of Mexico City’s major cultural events, Iztapalapa today is a borough of the Federal District of Mexico City, centered on what used to be an independent settlement with its origins in the pre-Hispanic period. It has a territory of 116. 67km2, and is located on the east side of the Federal District bordering the boroughs of Iztacalco, Xochimilco, Tláhuac, Coyoacán and Benito Juárez. The State of Mexico borders the borough on the east side, the modern borough is made up of 15 “barrios” or neighborhoods, considered to be part of city of Iztapalapa, and 18 other “pueblos” or communities outside of it. To distinguish the city of Iztapalapa from the rest of the borough. Records of the barrios of Iztapalapa” go back at least until 1898. Borough authorities have sought “Barrios Mágicos Turísticos” status for these, for a similar to the “Pueblos Mágicos” tourism program run by the federal government. The borough has an elevation of 2240 masl and extends over firm land. These are recent geological formations, with evidence of lava flow still existent, culturally, the most important of these elevations is the Cerro de la Estrella, which was the site of the New Fire ceremony. Since the pre-Hispanic period, Lake Texcoco has been drained, leaving only two natural river called the Churubusco and La Piedad, which unite to form the Unido River. However, the rivers are encased in tubes as is one of the canals, for this reason, there are no longer any naturally occurring surface water. The climate of the area is divided into four zones, one consists of a warm wet climate with temperatures above 18C in the coldest months
9.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
10.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
11.
International Labour Organization
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The International Labour Organization is a United Nations agency dealing with labour problems, particularly international labour standards, social protection, and work opportunities for all. The ILO has 187 member states,186 of the 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO, the ILO registers complaints against entities that are violating international rules, however, it does not impose sanctions on governments. Unlike other United Nations specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization has a governing structure – representing governments, employers. The rationale behind the structure is the creation of free and open debate among governments. The ILO secretariat is referred to as the International Labour Office, juan Somavía was the ILOs director-general from 1999 until October 2012, when Guy Ryder was elected as his replacement. This governing body is composed of 28 government representatives,14 workers representatives, ten of the government seats are held by member states that are nations of chief industrial importance, as first considered by an impartial committee. The nations are Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, the terms of office are three years. The ILO organizes the International Labour Conference in Geneva every year in June, also known as the parliament of labour, the conference also makes decisions about the ILOs general policy, work programme and budget. Each member state has four representatives at the conference, two government delegates, a delegate and a worker delegate. All of them have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, the employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers. Usually, the workers delegates coordinate their voting, as do the employers delegates, all delegate have the same rights, and are not required to vote in blocs. Through July 2011, the ILO has adopted 189 conventions, if these conventions are ratified by enough governments, they become in force. However, ILO conventions are considered international labour standards regardless of ratification, when a convention comes into force, it creates a legal obligation for ratifying nations to apply its provisions. Every year the International Labour Conferences Committee on the Application of Standards examines a number of alleged breaches of international labour standards, governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the conventions they have ratified. Conventions that have not been ratified by member states have the legal force as do recommendations. In 1998, the 86th International Labour Conference adopted the Declaration on Fundamental Principles, the ILO asserts that its members have an obligation to work towards fully respecting these principles, embodied in relevant ILO Conventions. The ILO Conventions which embody the principles have now been ratified by most member states. Recommendations do not have the force of conventions and are not subject to ratification
12.
Nicaragua
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Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. Nicaraguas capital, Managua, is the countrys largest city and the third-largest city in Central America, the multi-ethnic population of six million includes indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Native tribes on the eastern coast speak their own languages, the Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a democratic republic. The biological diversity, warm climate and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The name Nicaragua was coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, when Spaniard Gil González Dávila came to Nicaragua in 1521 he found in the areas between Rivas and San Jorge the first pre-Columbian natives of Nicaragua. At the time the city was called Quauhcapolca and the cacique leaders name was Macuilmiquiztli. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC, meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and they lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. In 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama, on his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Miskito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The Spanish attempted to convert all three tribes to Christianity, Nicaragua and Nicarao and their people converted, but Dirangen, however, did not, the first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520. The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524, conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaraguas principal towns in 1524, Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors, Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo, the clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as the War of the Captains, Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner, although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony, many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital and it was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the ruins of Old León
13.
Nicaraguan Revolution
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During the 1980s both the FSLN and the Contras received large amounts of aid from the Cold War super-powers. The Contra War ultimately ended following the signing of the Tela Accord in 1989, a second election in 1990 resulted in the election of a majority of anti-Sandinista parties and the FSLN handing over power. The Somoza dynasty consisted of Anastasio Somoza García, his eldest son Luis Somoza Debayle, in 1961 Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, and Tomás Borge Martínez formed the FSLN with other student activists at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua in Managua. For the founding members of the FSLN, this was not their first experience with political activism, Amador, first General Secretary of the organization, had worked with others on a newspaper “broadly critical” of the Somoza reign titled Segovia. The FSLN focused on guerrilla tactics almost immediately, inspired by the campaigns of Fidel Castro and Ché Guevara. Penetrating the Northern coast of Nicaragua, the Río Coco/Bocay-Raití campaign was largely a failure, “when guerrillas did encounter the National Guard, they had to retreat…with heavy losses. ”During this time, the FSLN reduced attacks, instead focusing on solidifying the organization as a whole. This led to condemnation of the regime and in 1978 the administration of U. S. president Jimmy Carter cut off aid to the Somoza regime due to its human rights violations. After two days, the government agreed to pay $500,000 and release certain prisoners resulting in a victory for the FSLN. In early 1979 the Organization of American States supervised negotiations between the FSLN and the government, however, these broke down when it became clear that the Somoza regime had no intention of allowing democratic elections to take place. Immediately following the fall of the Somoza regime, Nicaragua was largely in ruins, the country had suffered both war and, earlier, natural disaster in the form of the devastating 1972 Nicaragua earthquake. In 1979, approximately 600,000 Nicaraguans were homeless and 150,000 were either refugees or in out of a total population of just 2.8 million. It is famously stated that Somoza himself owned 1/5 of all land in Nicaragua. While this is not correct, Somoza or his adepts did own or give away banks, ports, communications, services, the Nicaraguan Revolution brought immense restructuring and reforms to all three sectors of the economy, directing it towards a mixed economy system. Economic reforms overall needed to out of limbo the inefficient. As a third-world country, Nicaragua had, and has, an economy, undeveloped and susceptible to the flow of market prices for its agricultural goods, such as coffee. The Revolution faced a rural economy well behind in technology and, at the time, devastated by the guerrilla warfare. This represented about 75 percent of all distributed to peasants since 1980. According to Project, the reform had the twofold purpose of increasing the support for the government among the campesinos
14.
Muhammad Yunus
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These loans are given to entrepreneurs too poor to qualify for traditional bank loans. In 2006, Yunus and the Grameen Bank were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts through microcredit to create economic, Yunus has received several other national and international honours. He received the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009, in 2008, he was rated number 2 in Foreign Policy magazines list of the Top 100 Global Thinkers. In February 2011, Yunus together with Saskia Bruysten, Sophie Eisenmann, YSB creates and empowers social businesses to address and solve social problems around the world. In 2012, he became Chancellor of Glasgow Caledonian University in Scotland and he is a member of the advisory board at Shahjalal University of Science and Technology. Previously, he was a professor of economics at Chittagong University in Bangladesh and he published several books related to his finance work. He is a board member of Grameen America and Grameen Foundation. Yunus also serves on the board of directors of the United Nations Foundation, in March 2011, the Bangladesh government fired Yunus from his position at Grameen Bank, citing legal violations and an age limit on his position. Bangladeshs High Court affirmed the removal on 8 March, Yunus and Grameen Bank are appealing the decision, claiming Yunus removal was politically motivated. In March 2017, the employees of Bangladeshs Grameen Telecom, established by Muhammad Yunus and his father was Hazi Dula Mia Shoudagar, a jeweler, and his mother was Sufia Khatun. His early childhood was spent in the village, in 1944, his family moved to the city of Chittagong, and he moved from his village school to Lamabazar Primary School. By 1949, his mother was afflicted with psychological illness, later, he passed the matriculation examination from Chittagong Collegiate School ranking 16th of 39,000 students in East Pakistan. During his school years, he was an active Boy Scout, and traveled to West Pakistan and India in 1952, later while Yunus studied at Chittagong College, he became active in cultural activities and won awards for drama. In 1957, he enrolled in the Department of Economics at Dhaka University and completed his BA in 1960, after his graduation, Yunus joined the Bureau of Economics as a research assistant to the economics researches of Professor Nurul Islam and Rehman Sobhan. Later, he was appointed lecturer in economics in Chittagong College in 1961, during that time, he also set up a profitable packaging factory on the side. In 1965, he received a Fulbright scholarship to study in the United States and he obtained his PhD in economics from the Vanderbilt University Graduate Program in Economic Development in 1971. From 1969 to 1972, Yunus was assistant professor of economics at Middle Tennessee State University in Murfreesboro and he also published the Bangladesh Newsletter from his home in Nashville. After the War, he returned to Bangladesh and was appointed to the governments Planning Commission headed by Nurul Islam, however, he found the job boring and resigned to join Chittagong University as head of the Economics department
15.
International Monetary Fund
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The International Monetary Fund is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D. C. It now plays a role in the management of balance of payments difficulties. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had SDR477 billion, the rationale for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets. The IMF provides alternate sources of financing and this assistance was meant to prevent the spread of international economic crises. The IMF was also intended to help mend the pieces of the economy after the Great Depression. As well, to provide investments for economic growth and projects such as infrastructure. The IMFs role was altered by the floating exchange rates post-1971. It shifted to examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy, the IMF also researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery. Rather than maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates and their role became a lot more active because the IMF now manages economic policy rather than just exchange rates. In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements, the Flexible Credit Line, the Precautionary and Liquidity Line, and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid Financing Instrument to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs, the IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial system and monitor the economic and financial policies of its member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international cooperation, the responsibilities changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members’ policies. In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, the system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals, some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS. The IMF does require collateral from countries for loans but also requires the government seeking assistance to correct its macroeconomic imbalances in the form of policy reform, if the conditions are not met, the funds are withheld. The concept of conditionality was introduced in a 1952 Executive Board decision, conditionality is associated with economic theory as well as an enforcement mechanism for repayment
16.
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
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It consists of 33 sovereign countries in the Americas representing roughly 600 million people. CELAC is an example of a push for deeper integration within Latin America. CELAC was created to deepen Latin American integration and by some to reduce the significant influence of the United States on the politics and economics of Latin America, CELAC is the successor of the Rio Group and the Latin American and Caribbean Summit on Integration and Development. In July 2010, CELAC selected President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez and President of Chile Sebastián Piñera, as co-chairs of the forum to draft statutes for the organization. On February 23,2010, Latin American leaders at the 23rd Rio Group summit in Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mexico, once its charter was developed, the group was formally established in July 2011, at a summit in Caracas. The bloc will be the forum for political dialogue for the area. It is necessary to create a body that excludes the United States. Hegemony and the rise of a group of regional blocs that form part of the new global balance, cELACs inaugural summit was due to be held in mid-2011, but was postponed because of the ill-health of Hugo Chávez, president of the host nation, Venezuela. The summit was held on December 2 and 3,2011 in Caracas. It primarily focused on the economic crisis and its effects on the region. Correa called for a new human rights commission to replace the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, other leaders argued that the organisation should be used as a tool to resolve regional disagreements and uphold democratic values, but not as a replacement of the OAS. Santos stated that he would like to see dialogue within the group over whether existing counter-drug regulations should be revised, the president of the Latin American Parliament said he expects that Parlatino will become the main legislative institution of CELAC. Amongst the key issues on the agenda were the creation of a new architecture, sanction for maintaining the legal status of coca in Bolivia. The EU-LAC chose CELAC to be the main representative of the relationship between European and Latin American and Caribbean countries. Therefore, the EU-LAC is now called the EU-CELAC, during the summit, the region was declared a peace zone. After three days and with the approval of participating representatives, a document with 83 focus points was created and it emphasized that, despite cultural and regional differences, unity between the participating countries is necessary in order to create progress. It also states which countries have been developing the best and how they are doing it in order for them to be a model for other countries, the issue of poverty was widely discussed. He argued that CELAC countries can work together, support each other, countries discussed plans to eradicate hunger by 2025
17.
ALBA
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The name Bolivarian refers to the ideology of Simón Bolívar, the 19th-century South American independence leader born in Caracas who wanted Hispanic America to unite as a single Great Nation. The eleven member countries are Antigua and Barbuda, Bolivia, Cuba, Dominica, Ecuador, Grenada, Nicaragua, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Suriname was admitted to ALBA as a guest country at a February 2012 summit. ALBA nations may conduct trade using a regional currency known as the SUCRE. Venezuela and Ecuador made the first bilateral trade using the Sucre, instead of the US dollar. The name initially contained Alternative instead of Alliance, but was changed on June 24,2009, Venezuela began to deliver about 96,000 barrels of oil per day from its state-owned oil company, PDVSA, to Cuba at very favorable prices. In exchange, Cuba sent 20,000 state-employed medical staff, the agreement also made it possible for Venezuelans to travel to Cuba for specialized medical care, free of charge. When it was launched in 2004, ALBA had only two states, Venezuela and Cuba. Subsequently, a number of other Latin American and Caribbean nations entered into this Peoples Trade Agreement, Bolivia under Evo Morales joined in 2006, Nicaragua under Daniel Ortega in 2007, and Ecuador under Rafael Correa in 2009. Honduras, under Manuel Zelaya, joined in 2008, but withdrew in 2009 after the 2009 Honduran coup détat, the Caribbean nations Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Saint Lucia also joined. Jamaica, at the invitation of Hugo Chávez, the President of Venezuela and Mexico, at the invitation of Daniel Ortega, Hugo Chávez also invited the countries of Central America to join ALBA, and Argentina, to use SUCRE, the currency of this organization. Vietnam has been invited to join as an observer, in the eleventh Summit of ALBA in February 2012, Suriname, St. Lucia and Haiti requested admission to the organization. Haiti was granted the status of permanent member, while the other two countries were named special members, while awaiting their full incorporation. In October 2009, ALBA leaders agreed, at a summit in Bolivia, the document is approved, said Bolivian President Evo Morales, the summit host. President Hugo Chávez announced The sucre an autonomous and sovereign monetary system that will be agreed upon today so that it can be implemented in 2010. As of 2015, the currency is being used to compensate trade between Bolivia, Cuba, Nicaragua, and especially Ecuador and Venezuela. In addition, Suriname is a special guest member that intends to become a full member, Haiti, an observer member, also intends to join ALBA. This initiative provides the Caribbean nations with important hydrocarbon resources, which many do not possess on their territories, in the case of Cuba, Petrocaribe ensures a continual flow to a nation that has been deprived of oil since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989. Launched in 2005, TeleSUR is a conglomerate that provides news
18.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
19.
Carondelet Palace
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Carondelet Palace is the seat of government of the Republic of Ecuador, located in Quito. Access is by the space known as Independence Square or Plaza Grande, around which are also the Archbishops Palace, Municipal Palace, Hotel Plaza Grande. The history of this building dates back to colonial times, around 1570. The earthquake of 1627 forced them to buy the buildings that, because of their age, were rebuilt in stone. Thereafter, the power of the audience settled in front of the Plaza Grande, in 1799, the Barón Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet was appointed chairman of the hearing. During the Republican era, almost all the presidents have dispatched from this building, there has been some changes over the years, the most important in the presidencies of Gabriel García Moreno, Camilo Ponce Enríquez and Sixto Durán Ballén. In addition to the units in the third level of the Palace is the presidential residence. Designated areas were organized to house objects within their cultural contexts, allotting several rooms and spaces within the palace, furthermore, she located objects and antique furniture with cultural value from within the palace to be placed in the exhibition gallery. According to the researcher, Dr. María del Carmen Molestina, it is amazing how, over the years, the investigation, which Dr. Molestina is currently conducting, is directed at when the so-called looting began. The Carondelet Palace was restored during the presidency of Camilo Ponce Enriquez and until the presidency of León Febres Cordero, from that period there is no information about the fate of much of the belongings of the Presidential Palace. Additionally, Molestina believes that everything was kept until the presidency of Rodrigo Borja after which Sixto Durán Ballen ordered a new presidential suite on the floor of the palace
20.
Organization of American States
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The Organization of American States, or the OAS or OEA, is a continental organization founded on 30 April 1948, for the purposes of regional solidarity and cooperation among its member states. Headquartered in Washington, United States, the OASs members are the 35 independent states of the Americas, as of 26 May 2015, the Secretary General of OAS is Luis Almagro. Bolívars dream of American unity was meant to unify Hispanic American nations against external powers, the pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–1890, at the First International Conference of American States. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which the OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins. At the Fourth International Conference of American States, the name of the organization was changed to the Union of American Republics, the Pan American Union Building was constructed in 1910, on Constitution Avenue, Northwest, Washington, D. C. In the mid-1930s, U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt organized a conference in Buenos Aires. One of the items at the conference was a League of Nations of the Americas, an idea proposed by Colombia, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic. At the subsequent Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace,21 nations pledged to remain neutral in the event of a conflict between any two members. The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure the integrity of the American nations in the event of external aggression. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, the meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the worlds first general human rights instrument. The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS would have been if it had not been for the assassination of Colombian leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán. The Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo, became the Organizations first Secretary General, the current Secretary General is former Uruguayan minister of foreign affairs Luis Almagro. Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following,1959,1969, American Convention on Human Rights signed. 1970, OAS General Assembly established as the Organizations supreme decision-making body,1979, Inter-American Court of Human Rights created. 1991, Adoption of Resolution 1080, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup détat in any member country,1994, First Summit of the Americas, which resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005. 2009, OAS revokes 1962 suspension of Cuba,2009, OAS suspends Honduras due to the coup which ousted president Manuel Zelaya. 2011, OAS lifts the suspension of Honduras with the return of Manuel Zelaya from exile, article 2 then defines eight essential purposes, To strengthen the peace and security of the continent. To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention, to prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states
21.
Heather M. Hodges
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Heather Mary Hodges is a career United States foreign service officer. She has been the United States Ambassador to Moldova and the United States Ambassador to Ecuador, Hodges is a native of Cleveland, Ohio, United States. She has a B. A. in Spanish from the College of St. Catherine, St. Paul, Minnesota, and she lived and worked in Madrid, Spain, throughout the 1970s. Hodges joined the Foreign Service in 1980 and was assigned to Caracas, following Caracas, she served in Guatemala and later in Washington as Peru Desk Officer. In 1987, Ms. Hodges received a Pearson Fellowship to work in the U. S. Congress, in January 1989, she became Consul General at the U. S. In 1991, she returned to the U. S. to serve as Deputy Director of the Office of Cuban Affairs, in 1993, Hodges was assigned to Managua, Nicaragua, as Deputy Chief of Mission. From August 1996 to June 1997, Hodges participated in the Department of States Senior Seminar, a leadership program for select members of the Foreign Service. She served as the Deputy Chief of Mission in Lima, Peru, from July 1997 to May 2000 and was also Deputy Chief of Mission at the U. S. Embassy in Madrid, Spain, from June 2000 to July 2003. She served as U. S. Ambassador to Moldova from September 2003 to May 2006 and she was then appointed Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary in the Office of the Director General. She was sworn in as the U. S. Ambassador to Ecuador on July 15,2008, arrived in Ecuador in early August and she warned that their National Police Commander, Jaime Aquilino Hurtado, might be involved in illegal activity. According to the New York Times, this involved his possible involvement in schemes to extort bribes from a union, steal public funds. She also recommended the United States revoke Hurtados visa and it was also noted that President Rafael Correa may have known about Hurtado. The Government of Spain awarded Hodges the Spanish decoration of Isabel la Catolica – Encomienda de Numero for her contributions to Spain – United States relations, the Government of Moldova presented her with the Award of Honor in 2006. She was awarded a Presidential Meritorious Service Award in the U. S. in 2006
22.
Luis Gallegos
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Luis Gallegos Chiriboga, is an Ecuadorian diplomat who served as the Permanent Representative of Ecuador to the United Nations in Geneva between November 2011 and June 2014. In addition, Gallegos was a member for the Special Olympics. Gallegos resigned in June 2014 and was succeed in October the same year by María Fernanda Espinosa, prior to his appointment to the United Nations, Gallegos served as Ecuadors Ambassador to the United States from 2005 to 2011. In April 2011, after the Ecuadorian government declared the U. S. Ambassador in Quito as a persona non grata and his post remained vacant until January 2012 with the appointment of Nathalie Cely Suárez as the new ambassador to the United States. Gallegos earned his bachelors degree in Social and Political Science, in addition, he holds a Doctor of Law degree from the Central University of Ecuador. He speaks English, French, and Spanish, and has two children with his wife Fabiola Jaramillo Almeida de Gallegos
23.
WikiLeaks
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WikiLeaks /ˈwɪkiliːks/ is an international non-profit organisation that publishes secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources. Its website, initiated in 2006 in Iceland by the organisation Sunshine Press, Julian Assange, an Australian Internet activist, is generally described as its founder, editor-in-chief, and director. The group has released a number of significant documents that have become front-page news items, early releases included documentation of equipment expenditures and holdings in the Afghanistan war and a report informing a corruption investigation in Kenya. In July of the year, WikiLeaks released Afghan War Diary. In October 2010, the released a set of almost 400,000 documents called the Iraq War Logs in coordination with major commercial media organisations. In April 2011, WikiLeaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners detained in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in November 2010, WikiLeaks collaborated with major global media organisations to release U. S. State Department diplomatic cables in redacted format. During the 2016 U. S. presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails and other documents from the Democratic National Committee and from Hillary Clintons campaign manager and these releases caused significant damage to the Clinton campaign and may have contributed to the Democratic Partys loss. The U. S. intelligence community expressed high confidence that the emails had been hacked by Russia and supplied to WikiLeaks. During the campaign, WikiLeaks promoted conspiracy theories about Clinton and the Democratic Party, WikiLeaks has also been criticised for inadequately curating its content and violating the personal privacy of individuals. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers, the wikileaks. org domain name was registered on 4 October 2006. The website was established and published its first document in December 2006, sarah Harrison, Kristinn Hrafnsson and Joseph Farrell are the only other publicly known and acknowledged associates of Assange. Harrison is also a member of Sunshine Press Productions along with Assange, WikiLeaks was originally established with a wiki communal publication method, which was terminated by May 2010. As of June 2009, the website had more than 1,200 registered volunteers, despite some popular confusion, WikiLeaks and Wikipedia are not affiliated. Wikia, a for-profit corporation affiliated loosely with the Wikimedia Foundation, according to the WikiLeaks website, its goal is to bring important news and information to the public. One of our most important activities is to publish original source material alongside our news stories so readers, another of the organisations goals is to ensure that journalists and whistleblowers are not prosecuted for emailing sensitive or classified documents. The online drop box is described by the WikiLeaks website as an innovative, secure and that is why in the US Constitution the Bill of Rights says that Congress is to make no such law abridging the freedom of the press. It is to take the rights of the press outside the rights of the law because those rights are superior to the law because in fact create the law. Every constitution, every bit of legislation is derived from the flow of information, similarly every government is elected as a result of people understanding things
24.
Julian Assange
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Julian Paul Assange is an Australian computer programmer, publisher and journalist. He is editor-in-chief of the organisation WikiLeaks, which he founded in 2006 and he has won numerous accolades for journalism, including the Sam Adams Award and Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism. Assange founded WikiLeaks in 2006 but came to prominence in 2010 when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks. These leaks included the Collateral Murder video, the Afghanistan war logs, the Iraq war logs, following the 2010 leaks, the United States government launched a criminal investigation into WikiLeaks and asked allied nations for assistance. In November 2010, a request was made for Assanges extradition to Sweden, Assange continued to deny the allegations, and expressed concern that he would be extradited from Sweden to the United States due to his perceived role in publishing secret American documents. Assange surrendered himself to UK police on 7 December 2010 and was held for ten days in confinement before being released on bail. He sought and was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012 and he has since remained in the Embassy of Ecuador in London, and is unable to leave without being arrested for breaching his bail conditions. In 2016, WikiLeaks published the DNC leaks and the Podesta emails during the 2016 United States presidential election, Assange was born in the north Queensland city of Townsville, to Christine Ann Hawkins, a visual artist, and John Shipton, an anti-war activist and builder. The couple had separated before Assange was born, when he was a year old, his mother married Richard Brett Assange, an actor, with whom she ran a small theatre company. Christine Assange then became involved with Leif Meynell, also known as Leif Hamilton, Assange had a nomadic childhood, and had lived in over thirty different Australian towns by the time he reached his mid-teens, when he settled with his mother and half-brother in Melbourne, Victoria. He attended many schools, including Goolmangar Primary School in New South Wales and Townsville State High School and he studied programming, mathematics, and physics at Central Queensland University and the University of Melbourne, but did not complete a degree. In 1987 Assange began hacking under the name Mendax and he and two others—known as Trax and Prime Suspect—formed a hacking group they called the International Subversives. He is thought to have involved in the WANK hack at NASA in 1989. In September 1991, Assange was discovered hacking into the Melbourne master terminal of Nortel, the Australian Federal Police tapped Assanges phone line, raided his home at the end of October, and eventually charged him in 1994 with thirty-one counts of hacking and related crimes. In 1993 Assange gave technical advice to the Victoria Police Child Exploitation Unit, in the same year he was involved in starting one of the first public Internet service providers in Australia, Suburbia Public Access Network. He began programming in 1994, authoring or co-authoring the Transmission Control Protocol port scanner strobe, in 1998, he co-founded the company Earthmen Technology. In 1999 Assange registered the domain leaks. org, but, as he put it and he did, however, publicise a patent granted to the National Security Agency in August 1999 for voice-data harvesting technology, This patent should worry people. Everyones overseas phone calls are or may soon be tapped, transcribed and archived in the bowels of a foreign spy agency
25.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
26.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
27.
William Hague
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William Jefferson Hague, Baron Hague of Richmond PC FRSL is a British Conservative politician and life peer. He represented Richmond, Yorkshire as Member of Parliament from 1989 to 2015, Hague was educated at Wath-upon-Dearne Grammar School, the University of Oxford and INSEAD, subsequently being returned to the House of Commons at a by-election in 1989. Hague quickly rose through the ranks of the government of John Major and was appointed to Cabinet in 1995 as Secretary of State for Wales. Following the Conservatives landslide defeat at the 1997 general election by the Labour Party and he returned to the backbenches, pursuing a career as an author, writing biographies of William Pitt the Younger and William Wilberforce. He also held several directorships, and worked as a consultant, after David Cameron was elected Leader of the Conservative Party in 2005, Hague was reappointed to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Foreign Secretary. He also assumed the role of Senior Member of the Shadow Cabinet, after the formation of the Coalition Government in 2010, Hague was appointed First Secretary of State and Foreign Secretary. Cameron described him as his de facto political deputy, Hague was elevated as a Life Peer in the 2015 Dissolution Honours List and created Baron Hague of Richmond, of Richmond in the County of North Yorkshire, on 9 October. Hague was born on 26 March 1961 in Rotherham, Yorkshire and he initially boarded at Ripon Grammar School and then attended Wath-upon-Dearne Comprehensive, a State-secondary school near Rotherham, previously Wath Grammar School. His parents, Nigel and Stella Hague, ran a soft drinks manufacturing business where he worked during school holidays and his childhood nurse, Bessie Camm, went on to be the oldest living person in Britain as of 2017, at age 112. He first made the news at the age of 16 by addressing the Conservatives at their 1977 Annual National Conference. In his speech he told the delegates, half of you wont be here in 30 or 40 years time, but that others would have to live with consequences of a Labour Government if it stayed in power. Hague read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Magdalen College, Oxford and he was President of the Oxford University Conservative Association, but was convicted of electoral malpractice in the election process. Hague was playing the game of using his powers as President to keep his faction in power. There were accusations of blatant ballot box stuffing and he also served as President of the Oxford Union, an established route into politics. After Oxford, Hague went on to study for a Master of Business Administration degree at INSEAD and he then worked as a management consultant at McKinsey & Company, where Archie Norman was his mentor. After Lamont was sacked in 1993, Hague moved to the Department of Social Security where he was Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, the following year he was promoted as Minister of State in the DSS with responsibility for Social Security and Disabled People. His fast rise up through Government was attributed to his intelligence and he continued serving in Cabinet until the Conservatives were replaced by New Labour at the 1997 general election. At the age of 36, Hague was tasked with rebuilding the Conservative Party by attempting to build a modern image
28.
Debtocracy
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Debtocracy is a 2011 left-wing documentary film by Katerina Kitidi and Aris Chatzistefanou. The documentary examines the causes of the Greek debt crisis in 2010, the documentary is available in Greek and English and is subtitled in French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. According to The Nation, half a million people watched the film in the first five days of its release, the film was followed by a Greek-language book with the same title. The production team coined the word debtocracy, defining it as the condition by which Greece found itself trapped in its debt, the term is derived from the words χρέος and the Greek κράτος. The title implies that the Greek government has been functioning mainly under the interests of the financial debt, the focus then shifts to the prelude to the recent global economic crisis and its origins in the 1970s. The documentary traces the roots of the Greek debt back to the revolution of 1821, the documentary criticises the notion that the Greek population, since it enjoyed the countrys prosperity produced by past loans, is now accountable as a whole for the debts. Debtocracy argues Greek politicians encouraged too much borrowing and corruption, the documentary praises Ecuadors decision to unilaterally default on part of its sovereign debt, on grounds of social justice. The solution suggested for the Greek crisis is the formation of a committee for the analysis of the debt in a way that Ecuador did. If the analysis proves all or part of the debt to be odious the people should not have to pay for it and therefore it should be erased, the film argues. The production team of Debtocracy have said that the producers are all individuals that donated money in order to finance the project. The documentary depicted scenes where Argentinian and Ecuadorian politicians had to evacuate the besieged parliaments by means of a helicopter, iconic images and references to helicopters were adopted by the Aganaktismenoi movement who surrounded the Greek Parliament in 2011. Lack of opposing point of views Only people in favor of a Greek default were questioned No alternative propositions Only a cancellation of the Greek debt is invoked, nothing about the competitiveness of the Greek economy. Major Greek newspapers such as To Vima and Kathimerini have criticized the documentary as a work of political propaganda, to Vima argues that Greeces and Ecuadors economies have little in common, as Ecuador is a major oil producer for its size and population, contrary to Greece. A similar critical review was published by Kathimerini, stating that Debtocracy is aimed at promoting political propaganda rather than presenting a proposed solution to the Greek crisis. Other Greek media that have criticized the film include Skai TV
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Socialism of the 21st century
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Socialism of the 21st century has democratic socialist elements, but primarily resembles Marxist revisionism. Between 1990 and 1999, the Gini coefficient rose in almost every Latin American country, volatile prices and inflation led to dissatisfaction. In 2000 only 37% of Latin Americans were satisfied with their democracies. According to Dieterich “the program of the Socialism of the 21st Century is necessarily a revolutionary one” in that the society is replaced by a “qualitatively different system. ”The model of socialism of the 21st century encourages economic and political integration among nations in Latin America. This often accompanied with opposition to North American influence, regional organizations like CELAC, Mercosur, UNASUR, and ALBA promote cooperation with Latin America and exclude North American countries. ALBA is most explicitly related to socialism of the 21st century, while other organizations focus on economic integration, ALBA promotes social, political, and economic integration among countries that subscribe to democratic socialism. Its creation was announced in direct opposition to George W. Bushs attempts to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas that included the United States, in 2008 ALBA introduced a monetary union using the SUCRE as its regional currency. Former Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez has called the process of socialist reforms in Venezuela the Bolivarian process and it is more heavily influenced by the theories of Mészáros, Lebowitz and Harnecker than by those of Dieterich. The process draws its name from Latin American liberator Simón Bolívar and is an example of Bolivarianism. Often translated to good living or living well, the concept of buen vivir is related to the movement for indigenous rights and rights of nature and it focuses on the living sustainably as the member of a community that includes both human beings and Nature. Buen vivir is enshrined in Ecuadors new constitution as an alternative to neoliberal development, the constitution outlines a set of rights, one of which is the rights of nature. This approach has been applied to the Yasuní-ITT Initiative, critics claim that democratic socialism in Latin America acts as a façade for authoritarianism. The charisma of figures like Hugo Chávez and mottoes like Country, Socialism, or Death. have drawn comparisons to the Latin American dictators, according to Steven Levitsky of Harvard University, Only under the dictatorships of the past. Were presidents reelected for life, with Levitsky further stating that while Latin America experienced democracy, citizens opposed indefinite reelection, Levitsky then noted that In Nicaragua, Venezuela and Ecuador, reelection is associated with the same problems of 100 years ago. The Washington Post also stated in 2014 Bolivia’s Evo Morales, Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua, used the ballot box to weaken or eliminate term limits. Western media coverage of Chávez and other Latin American leaders from the 21st century socialist movement has criticized as unfair by their supporters. The sustainability and stability of economic reforms associated with socialism of the 21st century have been questioned, for the Bolivarian government of Venezuela, their economic policies led to shortages in Venezuela, a high inflation rate and a dysfunctional economy. In 2015, Venezuela had the worlds worst performing economy, the currency is collapsed, it had the worlds highest inflation rate, on the other hand, economic growth increased in Bolivia under Evo Morales
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BBC Online
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BBC Online, formerly known as BBCi, is the BBCs online service. The website has gone through several branding changes since it was launched, originally named BBC Online, it was then rebranded as BBCi before being named bbc. co. uk. It was then renamed BBC Online again in 2008, however the service uses the branding BBC, the web-based service of the BBC is one of the most visited websites and the worlds largest news website. As of 2007, it contained two million pages. On 2 March 2010, the BBC reported that it cut its website spending by 25% and close BBC6 Music. On 24 January 2011, the cuts of 25% were announced leaving a £34 million shortfall. This resulted in the closure of several sites, including BBC Switch, BBC Blast, 6-0-6, and this led to the official launch of BBC Online at the www. bbc. co. uk address in December 1997. Later, BBC Online launched licence fee funded web sites for Top of the Pops and Top Gear, Beeb. com was later refocussed as an online shopping guide, and was closed in 2002. Beeb. com now redirects to the BBC Shop website, run by BBC Worldwide. In 1999, the BBC bought the www. bbc. com domain name for $375,000, previously owned by Boston Business Computing, as of 2005, www. bbcnc. org. uk no longer exists. In 2001, BBC Online was rebranded as BBCi. the website launched on 7 November 2001, the BBCi name was conceived as an umbrella brand for all the BBCs digital interactive services across web, digital teletext, interactive TV and on mobile platforms. The navbar was designed to offer a similar system to the i-bar on BBCi interactive television. Interactive TV services continued under the BBCi brand until it was dropped completely in 2008, the BBCs online video player, the iPlayer has, however, retained an i-prefix in its branding. The widget-based design was inspired by such as Facebook and iGoogle. The new homepage also incorporated the design used in the 1970s on the BBCs television service into the large header. The new BBC homepage left beta on Wednesday,27 February 2008 to serve as the new BBC Homepage under the same URL as the previous version. On 30 January 2010, a new design became available as a beta version. This homepage expanded on the idea and the customisation theme
Media related to Ricardo Patiño at Wikimedia Commons