1.
Portrait miniature
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A portrait miniature is a miniature portrait painting, usually executed in gouache, watercolour, or enamel. They were especially valuable in introducing people to other over distances. Soldiers and sailors might carry miniatures of their loved ones while traveling, the first miniaturists used watercolour to paint on stretched vellum. During the second half of the 17th century, vitreous enamel painted on copper became increasingly popular, in the 18th century, miniatures were painted with watercolour on ivory, which had now become relatively cheap. As small in size as 40 mm ×30 mm, portrait miniatures were used as personal mementos or as jewellery or snuff box covers. The portrait miniature developed from the manuscript, which had been superseded for the purposes of book illustration by techniques such as woodprints. Lucas Horenbout was another Netherlandish miniature painter at the court of Henry VIII and these might be paintings, or finished drawings with some colour, and were produced by François Clouet, and his followers. Following these men we find Simon Renard de St. André, others whose names might be mentioned were Joseph Werner, and Rosalba Carriera. The colours are opaque, and gold is used to heighten the effect and they are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. Hilliard worked for a while in France, and he is identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as Nicholas Belliart. Hilliard was succeeded by his son Lawrence Hilliard, his technique was similar to that of his father, but bolder, Isaac Oliver and his son Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac was the pupil of Hilliard, Peter was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted and they signed their best works in monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as 10 in ×9 in. They copied for Charles I of England on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters, other miniaturists at about the same date included Balthazar Gerbier, George Jamesone, Penelope Cleyn and her brothers. Samuel Cooper was a nephew and student of the elder Hoskins and he spent much of his time in Paris and Holland, and very little is known of his career. His work has a breadth and dignity, and has been well called life-size work in little. His portraits of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth to life and he painted upon card, chicken skin and vellum, and on two occasions upon thin pieces of mutton bone. The use of ivory was not introduced until long after his time and his work is frequently signed with his initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date
2.
Tiverton, Devon
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Tiverton is a town in the English county of Devon and the main commercial and administrative centre of the Mid Devon district. The built-up area had a population of 19,544 in 2011, the towns name is conjectured to derive from Twy-ford-ton or Twyverton, meaning the town on two fords, and was historically referred to as Twyford. The town stands at the confluence of the rivers Exe and Lowman, human occupation in the area dates back to the Stone Age, with many flint tools found in the area. Countess Gytha of Wessex controlled the town in 1066 and the Domesday Book indicates that William the Conqueror was its tenant-in-chief in 1086, Tiverton was also the seat of the court of the hundred of Tiverton. It was the site chosen by Henry I for a Norman castle, Tiverton Castle first built in 1106 as a motte-and-bailey type. Isabella also controlled the Port of Topsham, Devon, through much of Tivertons woollen exports were shipped. Every seven years there is a Perambulation of the Town Leat ceremony to clear the path of the Leat, the leat can be seen in Castle Street, where it runs down the centre of the road, and at Coggans Well, in Fore Street. Tiverton owes its growth and prosperity to the wool trade. Many wealthy wool merchants added to the towns heritage, peter Blundell, another wealthy merchant, who died in 1601, bequeathed the funds and land for Blundells School to educate local children. It was founded in Tiverton in 1604, and relocated to its present location on the outskirts of town in 1882, john Waldron founded Waldrons Almshouses, on Wellbrook Street, and his elaborate chest tomb survives in St Peters Church. In about 1600 there were two fires in the town, the first in 1596, allegedly started in a frying pan. The second, in 1612, was known as the fire because a dog fight had distracted people who were supposed to be looking after a furnace. During the English Civil War in 1645 Tiverton Castle, held by the Royalists, was the scene of a brief siege by Thomas Fairfaxs Parliamentarian forces. The Parliamentarian forces entered Tiverton under Major General Massey on 15 October and they left a defending force in the castle and church. Fairfax arrived from Cullompton on 17 October, set up his artillery, on Sunday Fairfax had several great pieces of artillery brought up, ready for a renewed barrage on Monday, which commenced at 7 a. m. The siege was ended when a shot broke one of the drawbridge chains. Fairfax then set up his quarters in Tiverton due to the inclement weather. He was joined there in December 1645 by Oliver Cromwell and they left to lay siege to Exeter in January 1646
3.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
Maria Cosway
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Maria Luisa Caterina Cecilia Cosway was an Italian-English artist, who exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts in London. She also worked in France, where she cultivated a large circle of friends and clients and she commissioned the first portrait of Napoleon to be seen in England. Her paintings and engravings are held by the British Museum, the New York Public Library and her work was included in recent exhibits at the National Portrait Gallery in London in 1995–96 and the Tate Britain in 2006. Cosway was a composer, musician, and society hostess with her husband. She is notable for sharing a romantic relationship with the widowed American statesman Thomas Jefferson in 1786 while he served in Paris as the American envoy to France. They kept up a correspondence until his death in 1826. Cosway founded a school in Paris, which she directed from 1803 to 1809. Soon after it closed, she founded a Catholic convent and girls school in Lodi, northern Italy and she was born in 1760 in Florence, Italy to Charles Hadfield, said to have been a native of Shrewsbury, England, and an Italian mother. Her father was an innkeeper at Livorno, where he had become very wealthy. The Hadfields operated three inns in Tuscany, frequented by British aristocrats taking the Grand Tour, one of eight children, Maria demonstrated artistic talent at a young age during her Roman Catholic convent education. She remained a devout Catholic all her life, four of the Hadfield children were killed by a mentally ill nursemaid, who was caught after being overheard talking about killing Maria. The nurse claimed that her young victims would be sent to Heaven after she killed them and she was sentenced to life in prison. Maria, her brothers Richard and George, and a younger sister Charlotte were the survivors, at her fathers death, Maria expressed a strong desire to become a nun. Three years later, her mother returned with her to England, Marias brother George Hadfield became an architect and designed Arlington House in Virginia. It later was owned by Robert E. Lee, noted as a Confederate general during the American Civil War, while still in Florence, Maria Hadfield studied art under Violante Cerroti and Johann Zoffany. From 1773 to 1778, she copied Old Masters at the Uffizi Gallery, for her work, she was elected to the Academia del Disegno in Florence in 1778. She also went to Rome, where she studied art under Pompeo Batoni and she studied with Anton Raphael Mengs, Henry Fuseli, and Joseph Wright of Derby. Two women artists, Angelica Kauffman and Mary Moser, were among the members of the Royal Academy of Arts in London in 1768
6.
Portrait
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A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
7.
Regency era
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The Regency in Great Britain was a period when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son ruled as his proxy as Prince Regent. On the death of George III in 1820, the Prince Regent became George IV, the term Regency can refer to various stretches of time, some are longer period than the decade of the formal Regency which lasted from 1811–1820. The Regency era ended in 1837 when Queen Victoria succeeded William IV, the Regency is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. This era encompassed a time of social, political. War was waged with Napoleon and on other fronts, affecting commerce both at home and internationally as well as politics, despite the bloodshed and warfare the Regency was also a period of great refinement and cultural achievement, shaping and altering the societal structure of Britain as a whole. One of the greatest patrons of the arts and architecture was the Prince Regent himself, upper class society flourished in a sort of mini-Renaissance of culture and refinement. Naturally, this required dipping into the treasury and the Regent, in many ways there was a dark side to the beauty and fashion in England at this time. In the dingier, less affluent areas of London, thievery, womanising, gambling, the existence of rookeries, the population boom—the population increased from just under a million in 1801 to one and a quarter million by 1820—created a wild, roiling, volatile, and vibrant scene. The formation of the Regency after the retirement of George III saw the end of a pious and reserved society. This change was influenced by the Regent himself, who was entirely removed from the machinations of politics. Driving these changes was not only money and rebellious pampered youth, in 1814 The Times adopted steam printing. By this method it could now print 1,100 sheets every hour, not 200 as before—a fivefold increase in production capability,1811 George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales began his nine-year tenure as regent and became known as The Prince Regent. This sub-period of the Georgian era began the formal Regency, the Duke of Wellington held off the French at Fuentes dOnoro and Albuhera in the Peninsular War. The Prince Regent held a fete at 9,00 p. m, june 19,1811, at Carlton House in celebration of his assumption of the Regency. 1812 Spencer Perceval assassinated in the House of Commons, final shipment of the Elgin Marbles arrived in England. Sarah Siddons retired from the stage, shipping and territory disputes started the War of 1812 between the United Kingdom and the United States. The British were victorious over French armies at the Battle of Salamanca), charles John Huffam Dickens English writer and social critic of the Victorian era was born on 7 February 18121813 Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen was published. William Hedleys Puffing Billy, a steam locomotive, ran on smooth rails
8.
John Smart
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John Smart, was an English painter of portrait miniatures. He was a contemporary of Richard Cosway, George Engleheart, William Wood, Smart was born in Norfolk, but not much is known of his early life. It is recorded that in 1755 he was runner up to Richard Cosway in a competition for under-14s held by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures. In the same year he began attending the new drawing school of William Shipley in London, along with Cosway and he exhibited at the Society of Artists, in London, from 1762 onwards, and became its president in 1778. He went to India in 1788 and obtained a number of commissions in that country and he settled down in London in 1797, and died there in 1811. He was a man of habits, and a member of the Society of Sandemanians. Smart mainly painted watercolour miniatures on ivory, and often signed and dated his work. A number of his drawings and sketches survive. His work is different from that of Cosway, quiet and grey in its colouring, with the flesh tints elaborated with much subtlety. He possessed a knowledge of anatomy, and his portraits are drawn with greater anatomical accuracy. Many of his drawings still exist in the possession of the descendants of a great friend of his only sister. Several of his miniatures are in Australia and belong to a branch of the family. Smart taught portrait painting to Isabella Beetham, who was one of Britains finest silhouette artists in the 18th century, Smart married Edith Vere, and is believed to have had only one son, who died in Madras in 1809. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. GC Williamson, The History of Portrait Miniatures, vol. ii
9.
George Engleheart
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George Engleheart was one of the greatest English painters of portrait miniatures, and a contemporary of Richard Cosway, John Smart, William Wood, and Richard Crosse. Engleheart is generally thought to have born in Kew, Surrey. His father was Francis Englehart, a German plaster modeller who emigrated to England as a child, the family name was changed to Engleheart after his father died. He married his first wife, Elizabeth Brown, in 1776, Elizabeth died in April 1779, aged only 26. Engleheart moved to 4 Hertford Street in Mayfair, London and he married his second wife, Ursula Sarah Browne in 1785, and the couple had four children, George, Nathaniel, Harry and Emma. In 1813, Engleheart retired full-time to his house in Bedfont. He had built the house on land he purchased in 1783, and his second wife, Ursula, died in 1817, and Engleheart soon after gave up the house and went to live with his son Nathaniel in Blackheath, then a village to the southeast of London. Engleheart died in Blackheath on 21 March 1829, and was buried at St. Annes Church and his nephew, John Cox Dillman Engleheart, was also an accomplished portrait miniaturist, painting during the Regency era. Engleheart entered the newly formed Royal Academy Schools on 3 November 1769 and he was a pupil of George Barret, R. A. and of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Engleheart started on his own account in 1773, and worked mainly in London for the whole of his career and he regularly exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1773 to 1822. He kept a detailed fee book from 1775 to 1813, which included detailed sketches of his miniatures, the book remains in the possession of his family to this day. Engleheart was a prolific artist, during the period of 39 years covered by the fee book and his fees ranged from 3 guineas in 1775, up to 25 guineas by 1811. His professional income for many years exceeded £1,200 per annum, Engleheart mainly painted watercolour on ivory, and his work can be categorised into three distinct periods. His initial paintings were small in size and it was common for artists of the period circa 1775 to paint on small ivories of approximately 1½ to 2 inches in height. Miniaturists at this time were still learning to exploit the potential of ivory. Hence, they found it difficult to paint large areas of ivory and it was still fashionable for ladies to wear portrait miniatures on bracelets around their wrists, and small miniatures helped facilitate this. Englehearts portraits of this era are sometimes signed ‘G. E. ’ The flesh tones are coloured by reddish tints over a pale ground, during the period circa 1780–1795, Engleheart developed his very distinctive style, with his draughtsmanship and use of colour becoming consistent and high quality. He still sometimes paints small sized miniatures, but he more frequently paints on ivories of around 2½ inches in height, the corners of the mouth are drawn with diagonal grey strokes
10.
Richard Crosse
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Richard Crosse was a leading English painter of portrait miniatures. He was a contemporary of John Smart, George Engleheart, Richard Cosway, Crosse was born on 24 April 1742 in Knowle, in the parish of Cullompton, Devon, to parents John and Mary Crosse. His father was a lawyer, and his family were members of the landed gentry, Crosse was, like one of his sisters, completely deaf and never able to speak. He had at least six siblings, Crosse fell in love with his cousin, Sarah Cobley, but she was already engaged to Benjamin Haydon - and it appears that he was deeply affected by his disappointment, leaving Crosse heartbroken. He is said to have felt the pain of unrequited love for the rest of his life. Crosse lived and worked in Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London from 1760 and his brother kept house and acted as liaison between Crosse and his clients. Crosse retired to Wells in the late 1790s, and lived with Miss Cobley’s brother, Crosse met Sarah Cobley again in 1807, when she decided to visit her brother after she learned she was suffering from a fatal illness. She arrived unexpectedly, and her brother was not able to get Crosse out of the house beforehand, on seeing Sarah after so many years, Crosse rushed up to her and embraced her with strong emotion. Crosse died in May 1810, at his old home in Knowle. Crosse began painting as a hobby, as was the fashion amongst the gentry, at the age of 16 he won a premium at the newly created Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in London. He then moved to London and, like Richard Cosway and John Smart, he studied at the new drawing school of William Shipley and he also studied at the Duke of Richmond’s Gallery. Crosse exhibited his work at the new London societies, at the Society of Artists 1760–1796, the Free Society 1761–1766, and he lived and worked in Henrietta Street, in Covent Garden, London from 1760. His brother acted as intermediary between Crosse and his clients, despite not being able to hear or speak, Crosse was very successful, and was highly regarded by his distinguished clientele. His clients included the Prince of Wales, and the Dukes of Cumberland and he painted his works mainly with watercolour on ivory, he also executed a few miniatures in enamel, a difficult and not always successful medium, as well as painting portraits in oil. Many of his miniatures are small in size, being less than 2 inches in height. The miniaturists of the period 1760–1780 were still learning to paint on ivory, rather than attempt to paint on large surfaces, many portrait miniaturists from this period used ivories of only 1½ to 2 inches in height. Ivory was used for miniatures, as it gives a beautiful luminosity to the tones of the sitters face. During the 1780s and 1790s Crosse did use some large sized ivories of 3.5 inches or more in height and his fees started at around 8 guineas for small works, and rose up to 30 guineas for his largest portraits
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cosway, Richard". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
