1.
Trinity Church (Boston)
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Trinity Church in the City of Boston, located in the Back Bay of Boston, Massachusetts, is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. The congregation, currently standing at approximately 3,000 households, was founded in 1734, five services are offered each Sunday, and weekday services are offered three times a week from September through June. Within the spectrum of styles in the Anglican tradition, Trinity Church has historically been considered a Broad Church parish. In addition to worship, the parish is actively involved in service to the community, pastoral care, programs for children and teenagers, the church is home to several high-level choirs, including the Trinity Choir, Trinity Schola, Trinity Choristers, and Trinity Chamber Choir. The building is currently under study for becoming a Boston Landmark, the church and parish house were designed by Henry Hobson Richardson and construction took place from 1872 to 1877, when the complex was consecrated. Situated on Copley Square in Back Bay, Trinity Church is the building that established Richardsons reputation and it is the birthplace and archetype of the Richardsonian Romanesque style, characterized by a clay roof, polychromy, rough stone, heavy arches, and a massive tower. This style was adopted for a number of public buildings across the United States. The stone used was Dedham Granite, each December, the choirs of Trinity offer three iterations of a service of Candlelight Carols. These are a Boston tradition, and very popular events, drawing nearly 5,000 attendees from as far away as Maine, a traditional scene in Copley Square in December is that of a long line of people waiting to enter the church for the free event. The service is based on the Nine Lessons and Carols model developed at Kings College, Cambridge, in addition to their primary function of supporting worship, the choirs of Trinity Church are fixtures in the rich musical landscape of Boston. The Trinity Choir has toured extensively, and can be heard on several critically acclaimed recordings, the Trinity Choristers are a group of children who learn music and sing in the tradition of the Royal School of Church Music. The current Director of Music and Organist is Richard Webster, the Trinity Choir and Trinity Choristers tour England every three years, serving as choirs-in-residence at major houses of worship such as Ely Cathedral, Chichester Cathedral, and Westminster Abbey. 1876, The original organ at Trinity was built by Hilborne L. Roosevelt in 1876,1903, Hutchings-Votey built a new instrument for the chancel and made both organs playable from a single console. 1924, Ernest M.1956, Aeolian-Skinner provided a new console in 1956 and, in 1960,1962, The gallery organ was extensively rebuilt, and major tonal modifications were made by Jason McKown, who maintained the organs for many years. 1987, Jack Steinkampf installed a rank of trumpet pipes under the west gallery window. This festival trumpet is given in memory of Paul Albert Merrill, late 1990s, In conjunction with the parishs building campaign, a plan was set out with Foley-Baker, Inc. for the cleaning and refurbishment of both organs and their joint console. The nave and chancel organs feature 121 stops,113 ranks, weekday services include Wednesday Evensong and Thursday Holy Eucharist with Prayers for Healing. The parish supports many forms of community outreach and social justice ministry, the Trinity Boston Foundation is a nonprofit organization with a mission to support the social and emotional well-being and development of young people
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
4.
Romanesque architecture
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Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
5.
First Presbyterian Church (Detroit, Michigan)
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The former First Presbyterian Church, now the Ecumenical Theological Seminary, is located at 2930 Woodward Avenue in Midtown Detroit, Michigan. It was built in 1889 as the First Presbyterian Church, the building, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is a designated Michigan State Historic Site, and a contributing property to the Brush Park Historic District. George D. Mason and Zachariah Rice modeled the First Presbyterian Church after Henry Hobson Richardsons Trinity Church in Boston, the church, in the Richardsonian Romanesque style, is made from rough-cut red sandstone, with the floorplan in the shape of a Greek cross. Masonry arches support a red sandstone tower with a slate roof, the stained glass windows of the church are exceptional, with many of Tiffany glass. When Woodward was widened in 1936, the entrance porch was moved from the Woodward façade to the Edmund Place side. A State of Michigan historical marker was placed at the site on August 26,1980, the building is currently used as the Ecumenical Theological Seminary. The Seminary was founded in 1980
6.
Detroit
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Detroit is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state, the municipality of Detroit had a 2015 estimated population of 677,116, making it the 21st-most populous city in the United States. Roughly one-half of Michigans population lives in Metro Detroit alone, the Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U. S. Border, has a population of about 5.7 million. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States, the City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and various bridges, Detroit was founded on July 24,1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region, with expansion of the American automobile industry in the early 20th century, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States. The city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period, in the 1950s and 1960s, suburban expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system. A great portion of Detroits public transport was abandoned in favour of becoming a city in the post-war period. Due to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, between 2000 and 2010 the citys population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nations 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and this resulted from suburbanization, corruption, industrial restructuring and the decline of Detroits auto industry. In 2013, the state of Michigan declared an emergency for the city. Detroit has experienced urban decay as its population and jobs have shifted to its suburbs or elsewhere, conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, for the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, the 1798 raids and resultant 1799 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400, by 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec
7.
George D. Mason
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George DeWitt Mason was an American architect who practiced in Detroit, Michigan in the latter part of the 19th and early decades of the 20th centuries. George Mason was born in Syracuse, New York, the son of James H. in 1870 the family moved to Detroit, where Mason received his early education. He began his career working for Detroit architect Hugh Smith in 1875. After this he moved to the firm of Henry T. Brush, Mason started out assigned to some specific detailing work on the George O. Robinson House and the Detroit Public Library. One of the first buildings in which Mason received equal billing for the design was the Ransom Gillis House, in 1878 he joined with Zachariah Rice to form the firm Mason & Rice. This partnership lasted until 1898, after which time Mason continued his practice alone, from 1884 until 1896 Albert Kahn worked with Mason and Rice, and he returned to partner with Mason for a few years early in the 20th Century. A number of Masons works, either by himself or as part of Mason & Rice, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, all buildings are located in Detroit, unless otherwise indicated. Scripps House Engine House No.18 Belle Isle Police Station Franklin H. Buildings of Michigan, the Buildings of Detroit, A History. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, Michigan, hill, Eric J. and John Gallagher. AIA Detroit, The American Institute of Architects Guide to Detroit Architecture, kvaran, Einar Einarsson, Architectural Sculpture in America, unpublished manuscript. Masonic Temple, Detroit, Michigan A. D.1926, A. L.5926 dedication booklette, no date, Parducci, Corrado, Work Records of Corrado J. Parducci, unpublished manuscript. University of Michigan Architecture, Albert Khan http, //www2. si. umich. edu/umarch/architects/kahn. html Historic Detroit — George D. Mason
8.
Architectural style
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An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials, styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the subject of architectural history, at any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, one example is the Spanish missions in California, brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique style. After a style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur, for instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different, the Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival. Vernacular architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately and it is the native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, as western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded due to new technology and to national building standards. Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing grand schemes tracing the transmission of elements of styles across great ranges in time and this type of art history is also known as formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in art. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were often applied to other areas of the visual arts, and then more widely still to music, literature. In architecture stylistic change often follows, and is possible by. While many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism wants to take style a step further and explores the aesthetics of hyperbole, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than balance and clarity, the definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. An example of mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola. in the country side outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles, a center of Mannerist design was Antwerp during its 16th-century boom. Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were introduced in England, Germany. During the Mannerist Renaissance period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms
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Romanesque Revival architecture
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Romanesque Revival is a style of building employed beginning in the mid-19th century inspired by the 11th- and 12th-century Romanesque architecture. Unlike the historic Romanesque style, however, Romanesque Revival buildings tended to feature more simplified arches, an early variety of Romanesque Revival style known as Rundbogenstil was popular in German lands and in the German diaspora beginning in the 1830s. By far the most prominent and influential American architect working in a free Romanesque manner was Henry Hobson Richardson, in the United States, the style derived from examples set by him are termed Richardsonian Romanesque, of which not all are Romanesque Revival. In Scotland the style started to emerge with the Duke of Argyl’s castle at Inverary, started in 1744, and castles by Robert Adam at Culzean, Oxenfoord, Dalquharran and it was at this point that the Norman Revival became a recognisable architectural style. In 1817 Thomas Rickman published his An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest To the Reformation and it was now realised that ‘round-arch architecture’ was largely Romanesque in the British Isles and came to be described as Norman rather than Saxon. The start of an archaeologically correct Norman Revival can be recognised in the architecture of Thomas Hopper and his first attempt at this style was at Gosford Castle in Armagh in Ireland, but far more successful was his Penrhyn Castle near Bangor in North Wales. This was built for the Pennant family, between 1820 and 1837, however, the Norman Revival did catch on for church architecture. It was Thomas Penson, a Welsh architect, who would have been familiar with Hopper’s work at Penrhyn, Penson was influenced by French and Belgian Romanesque architecture, and particularly the earlier Romanesque phase of German Brick Gothic. At St David’s Newtown, 1843–47 and St Agatha’s Llanymynech,1845, he copies the tower of St. Salvators Cathedral, other examples of Romanesque revival by Penson are Christ Church, Welshpool, 1839–1844, and the porch to Langedwyn Church. He was an innovator in his use of Terracotta to produce decorative Romanesque mouldings, during the 19th century the architecture selected for Anglican churches depended on the churchmanship of particular congregations. Some of the examples of this Romanesque architecture is seen in Non-conformist or Dissenting churches. A good example of this is by the Lincoln architects Drury and Mortimer, after about 1870 this style of Church architecture in Britain disappears, but in the early 20th century, the style is succeeded by Byzantine Revival architecture. Two of Canadas provincial legislatures, the Ontario Legislative Building in Toronto, University College, one of seven colleges at the University of Toronto, is a chief example of the Romanesque Revival style. The building, designed by Frederic Cumberland and William G. Storm, was intended to be Gothic in style but was rejected by the governor general. Construction of the design began on 4 October 1856. The facade of University College has thick walls, incorporating layers of both stone and brick. The building possesses a number of round arches characteristic of the Roman Revival style, the arches are configured in arcades, most notably on the south side of the building. There is a deal of ornamentation on both the interior and exterior of University College
10.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
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Henry Hobson Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
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National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
13.
Richardson Olmsted Complex
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The Richardson Olmsted Complex in Buffalo, New York, United States was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986. Over the years, as mental health treatment changed and resources were diverted, in 2006, the Richardson Center Corporation was formed with a mandate to save the buildings and bring the Complex back to life through a State appropriation for this architectural treasure. The remaining buildings have been stabilized pending future opportunities, the large Medina red sandstone and brick hospital buildings were designed in 1870 in the Kirkbride Plan by architect Henry Hobson Richardson with grounds by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. The complex consists of a central tower and five pavilions or wards progressively set back on each side, for eleven buildings total. Patients were segregated by sex, males on the east side, the wards housed patients until the mid-1970s. The central administration building was used for offices until 1994, in 1973, the Asylum was added to the National Register of Historic Places and in 1986, it was designated a National Historic Landmark. The complex, the largest commission of Richardsons career, marks the advent of his characteristic Romanesque Revival style, when emulated by later architects, this style is referred to as Richardsonian Romanesque. It has been the subject of a preservation campaign. Nevertheless, three pavilions on the east side were demolished in the 1970s to make way for newer psychiatric facilities, in 1927, the northern farmlands were transferred back to the State for the development of what is today Buffalo State College. Patient records from 1881 to 1975 are in the collection of the New York State Archives in Albany, a successful lawsuit filed by the Preservation Coalition of Erie County forced the State of New York to commit $100 million to its rehabilitation. Both former New York State Assembly Member Sam Hoyt and former Buffalo State College President Muriel A. Howard were actively involved in plans for the restoration, as a result, the State established the Richardson Center Corporation in 2006 to rehabilitate the Complex. Perimeter fencing and lighting have been installed and a Peace Officer is on duty at all times to conduct patrols of the area to prevent. On March 5,2008, stabilization began with the most severely damaged buildings, including the roof, on April 10,2010, a two-alarm fire occurred. The cause of the fire was under investigation, in 2013, the South Lawn landscape on the property was completed. The re-greening of the nine-acre South Lawn transformed two large parking lots at the Complex’s south entry into a space for community gathering. At every stage of planning, the Richardson Center Corporation has used a public process. Ten public meetings have taken place since 2007 to inform the planning, on January 25,2013, Phase I plans were announced to redevelop 1/3 of the Complex into hotel, event and conference space and the Buffalo Architecture Center. This first phase of redevelopment will be completed in 2016 and Hotel Henry, official website Historic American Buildings Survey No
14.
Buffalo, New York
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Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
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Historicism (art)
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Historicism or also Historism comprises artistic styles that draw their inspiration from recreating historic styles or imitating the work of historic artisans. This is especially prevalent in architecture, such as revival architecture, through combination of different styles or implementation of new elements, historicism can create completely different aesthetics than former styles. Thus it offers a variety of possible designs. The change is related to the rise of the bourgeoisie during. The Arts and Crafts movement managed to combine a looser vernacular historicism with elements of Art Nouveau, influences of historicism remained strong even until the 1950s in many countries
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
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Rustication (architecture)
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The visible face of each individual block is cut back around the edges to make its size and placing very clear. In addition the central part of the face of each block may be given a rough or patterned surface. Rusticated masonry is usually dressed, or squared off neatly, on all sides of the stones except the face that will be visible when the stone is put in place. This is given wide joints that emphasize the edges of block, by angling the edges. The main part of the face may worked flat and smooth or left or worked with a more or less rough or patterned surface. Rustication is often used to give weight to the ground floor in contrast to smooth ashlar above. Though intended to convey a rustic simplicity, the finish is highly artificial, and it remains in use in some modern architecture. Rough finishes on stone are very common in architecture outside the European tradition. For example, the bases of Japanese castles and other fortifications usually use rough stone, probably the earliest and most influential example is the Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence, built between 1444 and 1484, with two contrasting rusticated finishes. The ground floor has an irregular and genuinely rugged appearance, with a variation in the degree to which parts of the faces of blocks project from the wall that is rarely equalled later. Above, the rustication is merely to emphasize the blocks. Also in Florence, Palazzo Strozzi, begun 1489, with large oblong rounded cushions, and these facades only used the classical orders in mullions and aedicules, with arched forms in rustication the main relief from the massive flat walls. The Palazzo Rucellai, probably of the 1460s, begins to classicize such facades, using smooth-faced rustication throughout, in Rome, Donato Bramantes Palazzo Caprini provided a standard model for the integration of rustication with the orders. The first major Renaissance building in Spain, the Palace of Charles V in Granada, had a deeply rusticated ground floor facade with regular rounded cushions, the technique was enthusiatically taken up by the next generation of Mannerist architects, with Giulio Romano in the lead. Most early examples of rustic style are therefore built for sophisticated patrons in the leading centres of taste. The Mannerist architectural writer Sebastiano Serlio and others of his generation enjoyed the play between rusticated and finished architectural elements, the Italians brought in to expand the Palace of Fontainebleau introduced the technique to France. Its spread to Germany and England took longer, but by about the end of the 16th century it had reached all parts of Europe. In his Banqueting House in London, Inigo Jones gave a lightly rusticated surface texture to emphasize the blocks on both storeys, and to them behind his orders of pilasters and columns
18.
Beaux-Arts architecture
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Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
19.
American Museum of Natural History
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The American Museum of Natural History, located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, is one of the largest museums in the world. The museum has a scientific staff of 225, sponsors over 120 special field expeditions each year. Before construction of the present complex, the museum was housed in the Arsenal building in Central Park. Sherman, A. G. Phelps Dodge, William A. Haines, Charles A. Dana, Joseph H. Choate, Henry G. Stebbins, Henry Parish, the founding of the museum realized the dream of naturalist Dr. Albert S. Bickmore. Bickmore, a student of Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz, lobbied tirelessly for years for the establishment of a natural history museum in New York. In 1874, the cornerstone was laid for the museums first building, the original Victorian Gothic building, which was opened in 1877, was designed by J. Wrey Mould, both already closely identified with the architecture of Central Park. The original building was eclipsed by the south range of the museum, designed by J. Cleaveland Cady. It extends 700 feet along West 77th Street, with corner towers 150 feet tall and its pink brownstone and granite, similar to that found at Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River, came from quarries at Picton Island, New York. The entrance on Central Park West, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt and it leads to a vast Roman basilica, where visitors are greeted with a cast of a skeleton of a rearing Barosaurus defending her young from an Allosaurus. The museum is accessible through its 77th street foyer, renamed the Grand Gallery. The hall leads into the oldest extant exhibit in the museum, since 1930, little has been added to the exterior of the original building. The architect Kevin Roche and his firm Roche-Dinkeloo have been responsible for the planning of the museum since the 1990s. Various renovations both interior and exterior have been carried out including improvements to Dinosaur Hall and mural restoration in Roosevelt Memorial Hall, in 1992 the firm designed the new eight story AMNH Library. The museums south façade, spanning 77th Street from Central Park West to Columbus Avenue was cleaned, repaired and re-emerged in 2009, steven Reichl, a spokesman for the museum, said that work would include restoring 650 black-cherry window frames and stone repairs. The museums consultant on the latest renovation is Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. an architectural and engineering firm with headquarters in Northbrook, the museums first two presidents were John David Wolfe and Robert L. Stuart, both among the museums founders. The museum was not put on a sound footing until the appointment of the president, Morris K. Jesup. Jesup was president for over 25 years, overseeing its expansion, the fourth president, Henry Fairfield Osborn, was appointed in 1906 on the death of Jesup. Osborn consolidated the museums expansion, developing it into one of the worlds foremost natural history museums, F. Trubee Davison was president from 1933 to 1951, with A. Perry Osborn as Acting President from 1941 to 1946
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J. Cleaveland Cady
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He worked in partnership from 1870 with Milton See and from 1873 with Louis DeCoppet Berg in the firm of Cady, Berg & See. The firm was dissolved in 1909, Cady was the son of Josiah Cady and his wife Lydia, of Providence, Rhode Island, where he was born. He graduated from Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, in 1860, here he utilized the Carpenter Gothic or Stick Style to create a surprising effect for this wood-frame church building set on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay. Cady was the architect of the original Metropolitan Opera House, opened October 1883, soon the facade was flanked by matching seven-story towers, to provide extra space and income to support the opera. Cadys original auditorium was gutted by fire on August 27,1892, the American Museum of Natural History has a magnificently rusticated Richardsonian Romanesque entrance range by Cady, Berg & See, stretching 707 feet along its 77th Street frontage. The Museum also preserves its Cady auditorium, restored in 2002 as the Samuel J. Cady and See designed the New York-Presbyterian Hospital, the Skin and Cancer Hospital, Bellevue Medical School, and the Hudson Street Hospital, and also many churches. They designed many buildings, fifteen buildings for Yale University alone. Cady served as a trustee for Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, during the tenure of President William Goodell Frost and he designed many of the buildings on the Berea College Campus. At Trinity College, Cadys 1878 St. Anthony Hall is massively rusticated Richardsonian Romanesque in style, with narrow arrow-slit windows, the tower is half-embedded within the densely massed picturesque structure. The chapel was constructed in the Stick Style, ten years later Cady again built a chapel on Raquette Lake, St. Williams Roman Catholic Church on Long Point, again in Shingle Style, for Durants employees and local residents. Both churches, only accessible by water, preserve and reflect the Adirondack heritage, among the firms New York houses was the Isaac Stern House,858 Fifth Avenue. In 1909, after Cady, Berg & See was dissolved, Cady and William S. Gregory formed a partnership known as Cady & Gregory, with offices at 40 West 32nd Street, New York. Buildings designed by Cady which survive and which are listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places include, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West and 77th St. S of River Rd. Palisades, New York Demarest Railroad Depot,38 Park St. Demarest Borough, New Jersey First Presbyterian Church of Albany, Albany, New York First Presbyterian Church of Oyster Bay, E. Main St. Oyster Bay, New York First Romanian-American Congregation Synagogue, New York, New York Grace Episcopal Church Complex,15515 Jamaica Ave. Queens, New York Othniel C. New Haven, Connecticut, a U. S. National Historic Landmark One or more properties in Plantsville Historic District, summer St. Quinnipiac River, Grove St. S. Church St. and Closter Dock Rd. Alpine, New Jersey Cady presented his library to Trinity College in 1918. A1993 Trinity College exhibition Forgotten architect of the age, Josiah Cleaveland Cadys legacy with a catalogue by Kathleen A. Curran
21.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
22.
Neil R. Darrach
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Neil R. Darrach was a noted Canadian architect from St. Thomas, Ontario. He was architect for over five designated heritage properties in St. Thomas, Ontario and Regina and he was primarily active in the later 19th century. Neil was born in Southwold Township, Ontario in 1850 and he moved to St. Thomas as a youth and became involved in construction at the start of the railway boom in the early 1870s. Darrach received no training as an architect, but it was suggested he learnt the trade primarily through trade books. Simplicity of form and emphasis on using a central hall plan characterizes most of Darrachs buildings. Darrachs first building was designed in 1879 and this was the Centre Street Baptist Church in St. Thomas, one of many church designs to follow. In 1898 disaster struck the Elgin County Courthouse where a significant portion of the building was destroyed by fire, Darrach was retained to re-design the building and did so under the present Palladian style. The building is still in use today and recently received a government grant of over 100 million dollars for renovations, perhaps one of Neils more prominent constructions was the design of the St. Thomas City hall in 1898–99. Darrachs design was out of 10 applications submitted. The building was designed in the late Richardsonian Romanesque style, subsequently in 1903, Neil was retained to design the City Public Library. This was achieved through Neoclassical Revival style adjacent to the city hall, the building was largely paid for by a Carnegie Foundation grant. Over 24 buildings in St. Thomas are known to be designed by Neil, in the late 19th century in Canada architecture was a trade. Where more experienced architects would train younger architects and so on, Neil Darrach would be Maurice Sharons mentor, who would later become Saskatchewan’s first provincial architect. Later, as colleges and universities instituted architectural programs, architects could obtain more formal training. In 1911 Neil came to Regina, Saskatchewan to work in partnership with Maurice W. Sharon, together they designed the Western Trust Company building, now a heritage building. In a brief career that lasted until 1917, Darrachs designs also included the Leader Building, Westminster Presbyterian Church, after returning from Saskatchewan, Neil worked in St. Thomas again. The last piece of work prior to his death in 1926 was the Memorial Hospital, the building no longer remains today. Neil Darrach was referred to being a master of his art, dedicated and a prolific architect
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Menomonie, Wisconsin
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See also Menomonee, Menominee, and Menomonie Menomonie is a city in and the county seat of Dunn County in the western part of the U. S. state of Wisconsin. The citys population was 16,264 as of the 2010 census, the Menomonie MSA and the Eau Claire metropolitan area to the east form the Census Bureaus Eau Claire-Menomonie Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city center is located at the end of Lake Menomin. The earliest known residents of the area were people from the Trempealeau Hopewell Culture of the Middle Woodland Period, evidence from their culture includes a mound from the Wakanda Mounds Group in Wakanda Park, along the western shore of Lake Menomin. Most of these mounds are thought to be from Effigy Mound cultures from time period. Artifacts from the Late Woodland Period have also been uncovered and it is theorized that agricultural villages supported the population during summer months, transitioning to hunting and gathering from fall through spring. The next known population group is the Santee Dakota in the 1600s and 1700s, who engaged in conflicts with the Ojibwe people, armed with European weapons, the Ojibwe pushed westward, eventually winning at the Battle of Kathio in 1770. In 1788, French-Canadian fur trader and schoolmaster Jean Baptiste Perrault established a trading post, the lumber industry brought Menomonie permanent settlement and economic prosperity in the 1800s. In 1830 they received permission from the government to rebuild their lumber operation. This was the first permanent settlement on the land became the city of Menomonie. Lockwood built a mill and dam on the west side of the Red Cedar River. He sold this to Hiram S. Allen, a lumberman from Vermont, in 1839, Hiram S. Allen built a new sawmill in its place, which he sold to the McCann brothers, settlers from Ohio who later became the first permanent residents of Eau Claire. In 1849, the Gilbert Creek Mill became the site of the first post office, lockwood and Rolette sold their original operation to James Green in 1841, who turned over the deed to William Black in 1842. In 1846, William Wilson and John Holly Knapp jointly purchased the mill, Wilson and his family settled in the area, eventually building what is now the Wilson Place Museum in 1859. Wilson founded the city of Menomonie and became its first mayor, captain Andrew Tainter and Henry L. Stout acquired ⅓ interest in Wilson and Knapps company, forming Knapp, Stout & Co. in 1853, the company that would come to define the town for generations. Tainter was a silent partner, whose duties included shipping lumber down to the Mississippi River, by 1873, Knapp, Stout & Co. had grown into the largest lumber corporation in the world. In 43 years, its output grew from 100,000 to 5,706,602 feet of lumber and it had 1,200 employees and owned 115,000 acres of pine forest. The post office was moved to the site of the Knapp, Company in 1855, with Wilson as postmaster
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Mabel Tainter Memorial Building
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The building was commissioned by Captain and Mrs. Andrew Tainter, to honor their late daughter Mabel Tainter, who died in 1886 at age 19. The lumber barons daughter had enjoyed music and the arts, so the building was designed to serve those areas, designed by Harvey Ellis in the Richardsonian Romanesque style, the building was completed in 1889. As stated at the time, In accordance with her wish, the building was dedicated on July 3,1890, with a ceremony in the buildings theater. The presentation address was given by Rev. H. D. Maxson, the trust was accepted by S, W, Hunt, and the dedicatory address was delivered by Rev. J. H. Crocker of Madison, Wisconsin. Until Captain Tainters death in 1899, he provided the funds to cover the costs of the building. At his death, he established an endowment fund of $65,000 for the society, by 1925, the endowment had grown to $105,000 through legacies left by other members of the Tainter family and other individuals. The exterior stone is Dunnville sandstone quarried from along the Red Cedar River about six miles south of town, Ellis used Moorish influences in addition to the Richardsonian Romanesque style that guided most of his work. The interior contains hand-stenciled walls and ceilings, marble staircase and floors, stained windows, four fireplaces, brass fixtures and walnut. The building included both an ornate 313-seat theater and a reading room, the building was intended to be the home of the Unitarian Society of Menomonie. The original deed to the society gave the Unitarian Society free use of the auditorium, assembly room, parlors, ladies work room and it continues to meet there on a regular basis. As the name of the society indicates, the building was intended to become Menomonies public library. The city library donated 745 of its 3,000 volumes to the new library, the city also provided $200 a year to the new library. The Mabel Tainter Memorial Library opened January 21,1891 with nearly 4,000 volumes, by 1925 the collection included 16,374 volumes,2,577 public documents, and 3,930 pamphlets. The private library was open to any resident of the county, needing more space and better accessibility, the Menomonie Public library moved to a new single story building in 1986. The former Reading Room is now the Mabel Tainter Center for the Arts Box Office & Gallery Store, although the historic elegance and beauty remain intact at the Mabel Tainter Memorial Building, construction was recently completed to update the buildings accessibility and safety features. A new entrance, public elevator, new wiring, a sprinkler system, the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, is a charter member of the League of Historic American Theatres and a designated Wisconsin Historical Marker Site. Today, the Mabel Tainter Center for the Arts—a tax-exempt,5013 nonprofit organization—owns, the organization offers a performing arts and comedy series, an annual fine arts and crafts fair, and other arts and cultural programming. The Menomonie Theater Guild also presents much of its season at the Mabel Tainter Center for the Arts, more likely Edgar E. Joralemon, who replaced Ellis in Buffingtons office, did
25.
Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow Jr.
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Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow Jr. was an American architect and nephew of poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow Jr. was the son of Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow Sr. a U. S. Coast Survey topographer, and of Elisabeth Porter. After Richardsons death in 1886, Longfellow teamed up with Frank Ellis Alden and Alfred Branch Harlow to found the firm of Longfellow, Alden & Harlow, with offices in Boston, the firm designed the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, the City Hall in Cambridge, Massachusetts. They also designed the Arnold Arboretum headquarters, the Hunnewell Building, Longfellow later moved to Boston, where he worked in association with his cousin, William Pitt Preble Longfellow. Longfellow was one of the founders of The Society of Arts and Crafts of Boston, active in the Boston Marine Museum, and a trustee of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Boston Athenæum. Margaret Henderson Floyd, Architecture after Richardson, Regionalism before Modernism--Longfellow, Alden, ISBN 0-226-25410-0 Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow Jr. at the archINFORM database. Alden & Harlow Collection, at Carnegie Mellon University Longfellow Family Architects, at the Longfellow House–Washingtons Headquarters National Historic Site
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Longfellow, Alden & Harlow
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Longfellow, Alden & Harlow, of Boston, Massachusetts, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was the architectural firm of Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow, Jr. Frank Ellis Alden, and Alfred Branch Harlow. The firm, successors to H. H. Richardson, continued to provide structures in the Romanesque revival style established by Richardson that is referred to as Richardsonian Romanesque. Officially, the firm was Longfellow & Harlow from 1886 until March 1887, then, it was Longfellow, Alden & Harlow, until 1896, when it became Alden & Harlow. After Alden died, Harlow practiced with different partners in Pittsburgh until his death, Longfellow continued to practice in Boston until his death. The architects Frederick G. Scheibler, Jr. William L. Steele, howard K. Jones was the chief draftsman for the Alden & Harlow office. According to Floyd, other young draftsmen in the office played roles that are still for the most part unknown, the best documented picture is for the firms largest commission, the major Carnegie Institute expansion of 1899-1907. Here Jones played a key role, assisted by Steele, Richard Hooker, and John Henry Craner. A
27.
Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge
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The firm grew out of Richardsons architectural practice. Two of the principals had been educated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Shepley, Shepley married Richardsons daughter, and Coolidge later married Shepleys sister. In 1888, the firm was commissioned by Senator and Mrs. Leland Stanford to join landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted in planning the campus for Stanford University, von Holst who was head draughtsman. A St. Louis branch office began the career of John Mauran, a Pittsburgh branch office developed into several firms, including Rutan & Russell formed by Frank Rutan, other Pittsburgh firms developed by branch office employees include Longfellow, Alden & Harlow and Frank I. Cooper, Pasadena architect Myron Hunt spent three years with them in Boston as draftsman, stylistically, the firm continued to work mainly in the architectural vocabulary of Richardsonian Romanesque, although with less imagination—for instance, Richardsons asymmetry disappears. Completion of the Franklin MacVeagh Residence, Chicago, razed 192223 stations for the Boston & Albany Railroad Bell Telephone Building, the City Observed, Boston, A Guide to the Architecture of the Hub. Vintage Books Pridmore, Jay, and Kiar, Peter, The University of Chicago, Ochsner, Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, H. H. Richardson, Complete Architectural Works photos of 1890 Bell Telephone Building, St. Louis
28.
E. J. Lennox
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Edward James Lennox was a Toronto-based architect who designed several of the citys most notable landmarks in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries including Old City Hall and Casa Loma. He designed over 70 buildings in the city of Toronto, the son of Irish immigrants, he studied at the Mechanics Institute where he finished first in his class. Upon graduation in 1874 he apprenticed for architect William Irving for five years and he then formed a partnership with fellow architect William Frederick McCaw, before forming his own firm in 1881. He quickly became one of the most successful architects in Toronto and he rose to the top of the profession when he won the contract for Toronto City Hall in 1886. His caricature can be carved in stone on the facade of the Old City Hall—hes the one with the handlebar moustache. Many of his buildings were designed in the Richardson Romanesque style and this style of house is indigenous to Toronto and blends elements of Romanesque with that of Queen Anne style architecture. Later in his career he served as commissioner of the Toronto Transit Commission from 1923-1929, a small residential street called E. J. Lennox Way is named for him in Unionville, Ontario behind the former Unionville Congregational Church, litvak, Marilyn M. Edward James Lennox, Builder of Toronto
29.
John Wellborn Root
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John Wellborn Root was an American architect who was based in Chicago with Daniel Burnham. He was one of the founders of the Chicago School style, two of his buildings have been designated a National Historic Landmark, others have been designated Chicago landmarks and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1958, he received the AIA Gold Medal, John Wellborn Root was born in 1850 in Lumpkin, Georgia, the son of Sidney Root, a planter, and his wife, Mary Harvey Clark. He was named after an uncle, Marshall Johnson Wellborn. Root was raised in Atlanta, where he was first educated at home and his mother and sister went to Cuthbert, Georgia. While in Liverpool, Root studied at Clare Mount School, after Root returned to the U. S. he earned an undergraduate degree from New York University in 1869. After graduation, he took a job with the architect James Renwick, Jr. of Renwick, later he took a position with John Butler Snook in New York. While working for Snook, Root was a supervisor on the original Grand Central Depot, predecessor to Warren. Root was greatly influenced by the architecture of Henry Hobson Richardson, in 1871, Root moved to Chicago, where he was employed as a draftsman in an architectural firm. He met Daniel Burnham and two later in 1873, the young men formed the firm of Burnham and Root. During the economic downturn in 1873, Root earned extra income on jobs with other firms, Root developed the floating raft system of interlaced steel beams, to create a foundation for tall buildings that would not sink in Chicagos marshy soil. Roots first use of this system was for the Montauk Building in 1882. He later transferred use of the frame to the vertical load-bearing walls in the Phenix Building of 1887. Root, Burnham, Dankmar Adler, and Louis Sullivan formed the Western Association of Architects because they felt slighted by East Coast architects, Root served as president in 1886. In 1887, he was elected a director of the national American Institute of Architects and his work from his prime years has been recognized for significance by being designated as National Historic Landmark, National Register of Historic Places, and Chicago landmarks. He worked on the plan for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, before it was constructed, Root died of pneumonia in 1891 at the age of 41. He was buried in Uptowns Graceland Cemetery, Root married Mary Louise Walker in 1879, but she died of tuberculosis six weeks later. In 1882, he married for a time, to Dora Louise Monroe
30.
Harvey Ellis
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Harvey Ellis was an architect, perspective renderer and painter. He worked in Rochester, New York, Utica, New York, St. Paul, Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, St. Joseph, Missouri, St. Louis, Missouri and Syracuse, New York. Ellis was born in Rochester on October 17,1852, the oldest of four sons of Dewitt, childhood drawings suggest an unusual artistic aptitude. During the next five years Ellis moved about between Albany, Rochester and New York, documentation of this phase of his life is scarce. Family correspondence reveals that in New York in 1875 he supported himself by working part-time as a draftsman in an engineering firm and he is thought to have studied painting with Edwin White and architecture with Arthur Gilman, although plausible, these claims have resisted verification. It also has said that he worked for Henry Hobson Richardson, however. Ellis made no assertion, and there is no record of him in Richardsons archives. In 1877, Ellis, by then an artist with maturing skills, in 1879 while simultaneously functioning as an artist, art teacher and active club member, he and his brother Charles established the architectural firm of H. and C. S. Ellis. Charles was adept at soliciting business, some of it through family connections and he was briefly assisted by a well paid non-family employee, Havelock E. Hand. During the next six years, the firm produced many Queen Anne residential, commercial, most of them disappeared as Rochester expanded, and today little is known about them except their names and original locations. A popular but erroneous belief is that Harvey also designed the United States Court House and Post Office in Rochester, there are biographical gaps for parts of 1885 and 1886. It won first prize and publication in the nationally circulated American Architect, several plein air watercolor sketches, identified in his hand as sites in France and dated with just the year 1885, imply a European trip. Census records reveal that he married that year, speculation leads to a question, could a trip to France in 1885 have been a wedding trip with his bride as well as a sketching trip for him. His competition design is described as Richardsonian, but it likely also reflected his personal responses to certain medieval buildings that he could have seen in France. The city directory for St. Paul, Minnesota, places him there by, at the latest, mid-1886, perhaps he was the link between Rochester and the Midwest. Elliss work for Mould is unknown, decades later they were called journeymen draftsmen. Ellis did indeed move often during this phase of his life, by the time he arrived in St. Each time he moved in the Midwest there was an important design competition in the offing in the city to which he migrated, Architectural firms seemingly sought his services, paid him significantly more than other employees, and with each move he traded up in terms of professional opportunity
31.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
32.
Grays Armory
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Grays Armory is a historic building in Cleveland, Ohio. It was built by the Cleveland Grays, a military company which was founded in 1837. This is one of the oldest standing buildings in downtown Cleveland, the Cleveland Grays is a social organization devoted to the promotion of patriotism and the preservation of the military heritage of Greater Cleveland. It was founded as a private military company at a time when the common or constitutional militia languished due to disinterest. The units motto is Semper Paratus, the first organizational meeting was held on August 28,1837, and on September 18, seventy-eight men joined the active company. On November 29,1838 the Grays made one of the first of their many parade appearances fully dressed in their gray uniforms. The Grays saw military service as a unit during the Civil War, individual members have served in subsequent conflicts. The Grays made their home in different places from the time of their founding until the completion of their own building on Bolivar Road. The Grays first armory was located on the floor of the Mechanics Block, newly erected in 1838 at the southeast corner of Ontario Street. In 1870, they moved into a building which had served as a fire station on Frankfort Street. Major Otto Schade and several of his men were able to save a few items without any cost to their health or their lives, the unit was able to recover very quickly and funds were soon amassed for the purpose of building a new armory. Until construction was completed in 1893, the company found a home at the Gatling Gun Battery Armory on Sibley Street. A three-ton Berea sandstone foundation block was put in place by Colonel John Frazee, the main portion of the building is four stories high, and the most notable feature is the five-story tower on the northeast corner of the building. The tower has 3 x 5 foundation blocks, the main entrance corners, the main entry arch rests on top of polished granite columns that rise from each cornerstone. Positioned above is a black iron drop-gate, and a barrier between the front steps and the colossal oak doors. There were also pointed iron rods bolted to the brick walls that make up the window protectors on the first floor. The effect is a mix of color and texture in materials. The overall design effectively conveys that this is an urban fortress, the Cleveland Grays Armory has been long known for hosting the citys premiere social events
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Cleveland
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Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time
34.
Chicago school (architecture)
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Chicagos architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is referred to as the Chicago School. The style is known as Commercial style. In the history of architecture, the Chicago School was a school of architects active in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century, a Second Chicago School later emerged in the 1940s and 1970s which pioneered new building technologies and structural systems such as the tube-frame structure. Contemporary publications used the phrase Commercial Style to describe the innovative tall buildings of the era rather than proposing any sort of unified school, sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture are used in Chicago School skyscrapers. Many Chicago School skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column, the Chicago window originated in this school. It is a window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, the Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation, a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows were often deployed in bays, known as oriel windows, frank Lloyd Wright started in the firm of Adler and Sullivan but created his own Prairie Style of architecture. The Home Insurance Building, which some regarded as the first skyscraper in the world, was built in Chicago in 1885 and was demolished in 1931 and its first and purest expression was the 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments and their technological achievements. This was supported and enlarged in the 1960s due to the ideas of structural engineer Fazlur Khan and he introduced a new structural system of framed tubes in skyscraper design and construction. Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube, horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the frame must be interrupted. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building which Khan designed and was completed in Chicago by 1963. Today, there are different styles of architecture all throughout the city, such as the Chicago School, neo-classical, art deco, modern, architecture of Chicago Chicago Landmarks Early Commercial architecture Chicago Seven Palazzo style architecture Condit, Carl W. The Chicago school of architecture, a history of commercial and public building in the Chicago area, 1875-1925
35.
Louis Sullivan
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Louis Henry Sullivan was an American architect, and has been called the father of skyscrapers and father of modernism. Along with Wright and Henry Hobson Richardson, Sullivan is one of the trinity of American architecture. Form follows function is attributed to him although he credited the origin of the concept to an ancient Roman architect, in 1944, he was the second architect in history to posthumously receive the AIA Gold Medal. Louis Henry Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born mother, née Andrienne List, and he learned that he could both graduate from high school a year early and bypass the first two years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by passing a series of examinations. Entering MIT at the age of sixteen, he studied architecture there briefly, after one year of study, he moved to Philadelphia and took a job with architect Frank Furness. The Depression of 1873 dried up much of Furnesss work, at that point Sullivan moved on to Chicago in 1873 to take part in the building boom following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. He worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect credited with erecting the first steel frame building. After less than a year with Jenney, Sullivan moved to Paris and he returned to Chicago and began work for the firm of Joseph S. Johnston & John Edelman as a draftsman. Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the design of the Moody Tabernacle, in 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan. A year later, Sullivan became a partner in the firm and this marked the beginning of Sullivans most productive years. Adler and Sullivan initially achieved fame as theater architects, while most of their theaters were in Chicago, their fame won commissions as far west as Pueblo, Colorado, and Seattle, Washington. After 1889 the firm known for their office buildings, particularly the 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Louis. Prior to the century, the weight of a multistory building had to be supported principally by the strength of its walls. The development of cheap, versatile steel in the half of the nineteenth century changed those rules. America was in the midst of social and economic growth that made for great opportunities in architectural design. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called out for new, the mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s. By assembling a framework of steel girders, architects and builders suddenly could create tall, slender buildings with a strong, the rest of the building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, and windows—were suspended from the skeleton, which carried the weight. This new way of constructing buildings, so-called column-frame construction, pushed them up rather than out, the steel weight-bearing frame allowed not just taller buildings, but permitted much larger windows, which meant more daylight reaching interior spaces
36.
Frank Lloyd Wright
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Frank Lloyd Wright was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures,532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment and this philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater, which has been called the best all-time work of American architecture. Wright was a leader of the Prairie School movement of architecture and developed the concept of the Usonian home and his creative period spanned more than 70 years. In addition to his houses, Wright designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums and he often designed interior elements for these buildings as well, including furniture and stained glass. Wright wrote 20 books and many articles and was a lecturer in the United States. His colorful personal life made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as the greatest American architect of all time, Frank Lloyd Wright was born Frank Lincoln Wright in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. His father, William Carey Wright, was an orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer, William Wright met and married Anna Lloyd Jones, a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Annas brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States, both of Wrights parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. According to his biography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings and she decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infants ambition. In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation, in 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum, Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which young Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions, the Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society, although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children. Soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated, Anna had been unhappy for some time with Williams inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection, William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time he changed his name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mothers family
37.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
38.
Eliel Saarinen
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Gottlieb Eliel Saarinen was a Finnish architect known for his work with art nouveau buildings in the early years of the 20th century. He was the father of Eero Saarinen, Saarinen was educated in Helsinki at the Helsinki University of Technology. From 1896 to 1905 he worked as a partner with Herman Gesellius and Armas Lindgren at the firm Gesellius, Lindgren, saarinens early manner was later christened the Finnish National Romanticism and culminated in the Helsinki Central railway station. Between 1902 and 1912, he was also co-author of the design for the Fennia series, from 1910 to 1915 he worked on the extensive city-planning project of Munksnäs-Haga and later published a book on the subject. In January 1911 he became a consultant in city planning for Reval, in 1912, a brochure written by Saarinen about the planning problems of Budapest was published. In April 1913 he received the first place award in a competition for his plan of Reval. From 1917 to 1918 Saarinen worked on the city-plan for greater Helsinki and he also designed a series of postage stamps issued 1917 and the Finnish markka banknotes introduced in 1922. After the divorce from his first wife, Mathilde, on March 6,1904 Saarinen married his wife, Louise Gesellius, a sculptor in Helsinki. They had a daughter Eva-Lisa on March 31,1905 and a son Eero on August 20,1910, Saarinen first settled in Evanston, Illinois, where he worked on his scheme for the development of the Chicago lake front. In 1924 he became a professor at the University of Michigan. In 1925 George Gough Booth asked him to design the campus of Cranbrook Educational Community, Saarinen taught there and became president of the Cranbrook Academy of Art in 1932. Among his student-collaborators were Ray Eames and Charles Eames, Saarinen influenced their subsequent furniture design,1934, Eliel Saarinen was involved in product design for the Wilcox Silver Plate Co. / International Silver Company in Meriden, CT. His iconic tea urn was first exhibited in 1934-35 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, in 1951-52, the tea urn was featured in the Eliel Saarinen Memorial Exhibition which travelled to multiple venues across the United States. In addition to Cranbrook, the Dallas Museum and the St Louis Museum, The British Museum in London, Eliel Saarinen became a professor in the University of Michigans Architecture Department. When she was appointed dean of Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Michigan and his son, Eero, became one of the most important American architects of the mid-20th century, as one of the leaders of the International style. Saarinens student Edmund N. Bacon achieved national prominence as Executive Director of the Philadelphia City Planning Commission from 1949 to 1970, Eliel received the AIA Gold Medal in 1947. The search for form in art and architecture, the City, Its Growth, its decay, its future. Eliel Saarinen, 1873-1950 - Works in Finland, a&E with Richard Guy Wilson, Ph. D
39.
Italians
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Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
40.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
41.
Copley Square
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Copley Square, named for painter John Singleton Copley, is a public square in Bostons Back Bay neighborhood, bounded by Boylston Street, Clarendon Street, St. James Avenue, and Dartmouth Street. It is a pending Boston Landmark, the Square has a number and variety of important architectural works that have been built there, many of them official landmarks. Prominent structures still standing include, Old South Church, by Charles Amos Cummings, sears in the Venetian Gothic Revival style. Trinity Church, considered H. H. Richardsons tour de force, Boston Public Library, by Charles Follen McKim in a revival of Italian Renaissance style, incorporates artworks by John Singer Sargent, Edwin Austin Abbey, Daniel Chester French, and others. The Fairmont Copley Plaza Hotel by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh in the Beaux-Arts style, the John Hancock Tower by Henry N. Cobb, at 790 feet New Englands tallest building. The Bostix Kiosk, at the corner of Dartmouth and Boylston streets, S. S. Pierce Building, by S. Edwin Tobey, no masterpiece of architecture, great urban design. A heap of dark Romanesque masonry, Hotel Westminster, Trinity Place, by Henry E. Cregier of Chicago in 1897. Now the northeast corner of the new John Hancock Building, in 1991, after further changes including a new fountain, the new Copley Square Park was dedicated. The nonprofit Friends of Copley Square raises funds for care of the plantings, fountain. The Boston Marathon has finished at Copley Square since 1986, a memorial celebrating the races 100th running is located in the park, near the corner of Boylston and Dartmouth streets. On April 15,2013, around 2,50 p. m. two bombs exploded—one near the line near the Boston Public Library, the other some seconds later. Three people were killed and at least 183 injured, at least 14 of whom lost limbs
42.
Osage County, Oklahoma
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Osage County is the largest county by area in the state of Oklahoma in the United States. Created in 1907 when Oklahoma was admitted as a state, the county is named for and is home to the federally recognized Osage Nation, the county is contiguous with the Osage Nation Reservation, established by treaty in the 19th century when the Osage relocated here from Kansas. The county seat is in Pawhuska, Oklahoma, one of the first three towns established in the county, the total population of the county is 47,987. By the 19th century, the Osage and other Siouan tribes had been forced to move west from the Ohio Valley across the Mississippi River. The Osage became established as a nation in the areas of present-day Missouri. By 1760, they had increased their range to include the present Osage County, historically one of the most powerful Great Plains tribes, their numbers were reduced by infectious disease and warfare after encounter with Europeans. This treaty was to accomplish Cherokee removal to the Indian Territory, generally the Five Civilized Tribes were allied with the Confederacy. In 1870, the Osage finally prepared for removal from Kansas and they purchased 1.57 million acres of their former territory in present-day Oklahoma from the Cherokee. By owning it by title, they had a position in relation to the US government than did other tribes. The Osage Agency was established in 1872 at Deep Ford, later renamed as Pawhuska and it was designated as the county seat when Oklahoma was admitted as a state. The other chief settlements in the 1870s were Hominy and Fairfax, in 1875 the US designated their land as the Osage Reservation. Because the tribe owned the land directly, they retained control over their affairs than did tribes whose land was held in trust by the United States government. This reservation became part of the Oklahoma Territory under the Oklahoma Organic Act of 1890 and it became a semi-autonomous district by the Oklahoma Enabling Act of 1906, and Osage County at the time of Oklahoma Statehood in 1907. At that time, there were 2,229 registered Osage members, as owners, the Osage negotiated the retention of the communal mineral rights to their reservation lands. In October 1897, the Phoenix Oil Company drilled the first successful oil well on the Osage reservation and it was located along Butler Creek. In 1901, Phoenix Oil and Osage Oil companies combined their assets to form the Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Company and it arranged with the Bureau of Indian Affairs to sub-lease the eastern part of the Osage reservation until 1916. When ITIOs lease expired, the United States government supervised the public auctioning of leases for 160-acre tracts, all subsurface minerals, including oil, are owned by the Osage Nation and held in trust for them by the Federal Government. Each mineral lease was negotiated by the Osage National Council and approved by the U. S. Secretary of the Interior, other tribes were forced to give up such surplus and allow for sales to non-Indians
43.
Minneapolis City Hall
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The structure has served as mainly local government offices since it was built, and today the building is 60 percent occupied by the city and 40 percent occupied by the County. The building is owned by the city and county and managed by the Municipal Building Commission. The Commission consists of the chair of the County Board, the mayor of the City of Minneapolis, a member of the County Board, the County Board chair serves as the president of the Commission and the mayor serves as the vice president. The building bears a resemblance to the city hall buildings in Cincinnati. The City Hall and Courthouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, the building replaced an earlier City Hall that existed from 1873 until 1912 near the old intersection between Hennepin Avenue and Nicollet Avenue. That structure eventually was razed to make way for Gateway Park, the building also replaced an earlier courthouse and also the earlier Hennepin County Jail, which was located where U. S. The building, located at 350 South Fifth Street, is an example of Richardsonian Romanesque architecture, the design is based upon Henry Hobson Richardsons Allegheny County Courthouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Washington School, the first schoolhouse in Minneapolis west of the Mississippi River, was demolished to make way for the new building, groundbreaking took place in 1889, and the cornerstone was laid in 1891. Construction did not officially end until 1906, although the exterior was essentially complete by the end of 1895. The county began moving in to its side in November 1895, cost was about $3,554,000, which works out to 28¢ per cubic foot. When constructed, the claimed to have the worlds largest four-faced chiming clock. At 24 feet,6 inches, the faces are 18 inches wider than those of the Great Clock in London, the tower housing the clock reaches 345 feet in height, and was the tallest structure in the city until the 1920s when the Foshay Tower was built. A 15-bell chime in the tower is played regularly, with noontime concerts provided to the public on holidays and on Fridays, the chime was originally 10 bells, and it was first played on March 10,1896. The building is built of granite quarried in Ortonville, with many stones greater than 20 tonnes in weight. The granite was originally going to be used for the foundation of the building. However, the public appreciated the appearance of the foundation so much that they lobbied for the building to be made of granite. This may be a reason for the significant cost overruns — it was expected to cost only $1.15 million. Unlike most buildings in downtown Minneapolis, there arent any skyways connecting the city hall to the rest of the city, since exterior alterations are not allowed for buildings on the National Register of Historic Places, tunnels were constructed instead
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Long and Kees
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Long and Kees was an architecture firm based in Minneapolis, Minnesota active for a twelve-year period starting in 1885 and ending in 1897. Named for its two proprietors, Franklin B, Long and Frederick Kees, the firm designed several notable churches, offices, schools and houses, including Minneapolis City Hall. Most of the buildings designed by Long and Kees reflect the Richardsonian-Romanesque style, the firm was established in 1885 when Franklin Long, having recently relocated to Minneapolis from Chicago, partnered with Maryland-born Frederick Kees. In later years, Long added his son Louis Long as a partner, after Long and Kees disbanded their firm, Kees partnered with Serenus Colburn starting in 1898 and ending in 1921. At the same time, a number of buildings designed by Long and Kees have been demolished, such as the first Minneapolis Public Library, the Minneapolis Corn Exchange, and Donaldsons Glass Block
45.
Cincinnati City Hall
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Cincinnati City Hall is a registered historic building in Cincinnati, Ohio, listed in the National Register on December 11,1972. The main building comprises four and a half stories with a nine story clock tower, an optical trick known as forced perspective makes the building appear even larger than it actually is. As it becomes taller, its windows get smaller, the building was constructed by the David Hummel company of Cincinnati using stone quarried in Wisconsin, Ohio, Missouri, and Indiana. Marble stairways and wainscoting originated in Italy and Tennessee, while granite columns were obtained from Vermont, stained glass windows were installed which depict Cincinnatus and illustrate Cincinnatis early history. A granite statue of Jesus was contributed by the Archdiocese of Cincinnati in 1864, the first city hall was built on this site in 1852 and was demolished in 1888 to make way for the current structure. Construction costs for the building totaled $1,610,000 of which $54,000 was paid to Samuel Hannaford as architect and construction superintendent. Cincinnatis City Hall represents the architectural tastes at the time of its construction. Samuel Hannaford practiced from 1858 until 1897 and made a significant contribution to the heritage of the Cincinnati area. The building bears a resemblance to the city hall buildings in Minneapolis, Toronto
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Samuel Hannaford
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Samuel Hannaford was an American architect based in Cincinnati, Ohio. Some of the best known landmarks in the city, such as Music Hall, the bulk of Hannafords work was done locally, over 300 buildings, but his residential designs appear through New England to the Midwest and the South. Born in England, Hannaford immigrated with his family to Cincinnati age nine, Hannaford attended public schools, and graduated from Farmers College, Cincinnati, where he studied architecture. Hannaford opened an office in 1857, and in 1887 formed the firm of Samuel Hannaford & Sons, at the time of his death, he was director of the Ohio Mechanics Institute. Hannaford died in his home in Cincinnati on January 7,1911 and this list includes works by Samuel Hannaford and, after 1904, works by his firm Samuel Hannaford and Sons. Parkview Manor is currently under renovation in preparation for the relocation of the Clifton Branch of the Cincinnati Public Library system. S. This led to numerous actual listings of Hamilton County properties designed by the Hannafords, the Legacy of Samuel Hannaford, an extensive guide to Hannafords career
47.
Old City Hall (Toronto)
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The Old City Hall is a Romanesque civic building and court house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was the home of the Toronto City Council from 1899 to 1966, the building is located at the corner of Queen and Bay Streets, across Bay Street from Nathan Phillips Square and the present City Hall in the Downtown Toronto. The heritage landmark has a clock tower which heads the length of Bay Street from Front Street to Queen Street as a terminating vista. Old City Hall was designated a National Historic Site in 1984, Torontos Old City Hall was one of the largest buildings in Toronto and the largest civic building in North America upon completion in 1899. It was the citys third city hall. It housed Torontos municipal government and courts for York County and Toronto, York County offices were also located in Old City Hall from 1900 to 1953. With the establishment of Metropolitan Toronto, the county moved to Newmarket. Designed by prominent Toronto architect Edward James Lennox, the building more than a decade to build. Work on the began in 1889 and was built on the site of old York buildings including the Lennox hotel. It was constructed of sandstone from the Credit River valley, grey stone from the Orangeville, Ontario area, angry councillors, due to cost overruns and construction delays, refused E. J. Lennox a plaque proclaiming him as architect for the building in 1899. Not to be denied, Lennox had stonemasons sign his name in corbels beneath the upper floor eaves around the entire building, an annex to this building, Manning Chambers, was built by Lennox at the northwest corner of Bay and Queen Street. Completed in 1900, the 5 storey building was demolished to make way for the current Toronto City Hall. Manning Chambers was built for and named after former mayor Alexander Manning, a public square was originally planned in front of the city hall called Victoria Square. The space would be a square with diagonal walkways meeting at a central statue of Queen Victoria. The plan never came into being and a space was allocated in front of the building by Queen Street. It, too, was never built, though the City Beautiful movement did influence the design principles of nearby University Avenue. Four gargoyles were placed on the corners of the Clock Tower in 1899, in 2002, bronze casts of the gargoyles were reinstalled
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Ontario Legislative Building
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The building and the provincial government are both often referred to by the metonym Queens Park. Designed by Richard A. Waite, the Ontario Legislative Building is an asymmetrical, five storey structure built in the Richardsonian Romanesque style and this is clad inside and out in Canadian materials where possible, the 10. There can also be seen over the edifice a multitude of stone carvings, including gargoyles, grotesques, the exterior is punctuated with uncharacteristically large windows, allowed by the nature of the iron structure. The 1909 North Wing was built by noted Toronto architect George Wallace Gouinlock, lennox added two floors to the west wing. The Legislative Chamber is directly on this axis, in the centre of the building, and is lit by the three large and prominent arched windows above the main portico. This block is flanked by two domed towers, the west of which was intended to hold a clock, but was fitted with a rose window instead. The asymmetry of the face was not originally as strong as it is at present. After the fire of 1909, however, the west side of the Legislative Building was repaired and expanded, with a fourth floor that bears wall dormer windows in a long. Inside, a central hall runs between the entrance at the south and a grand staircase directly opposite, from the mid-landing of which is accessed the parliamentary library in the 1909 block. At the top landing of this stair is the lobby of the legislative chamber, to the south of the Legislative Building is an open area with extensive tree cover, which is often used for public gatherings and demonstrations. The provincial ministries are housed in the separate Ontario Government Buildings complex to the east, comprising the Hearst, Macdonald, Mowat, the building is featured on both the front and back covers of Rushs 1981 album Moving Pictures. Inside are reception rooms, a dining room, offices. The furnishings and chandeliers throughout the suite came from the last government house, Chorley Park, and paintings come from the Ontario Art Collection, portraits of each vice regal and other artwork are house in the suite, thus also functions as an art gallery. The present Ontario Legislative Building is the seventh such structure to serve as Ontarios parliament building, either Navy Hall or the Freemasons Hall in Newark, Upper Canada, served as the first legislature, where the initial meeting of the House of Assembly occurred on 17 September 1791. By June the complex, located at the intersection of Front and Parliament Streets, was completed, construction then commenced in 1886, and the Ontario Legislative Building was officially opened on 4 April 1893 by the then Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, George Airey Kirkpatrick. The final cost was tallied at approximately CAD$1,250,000, and this left the old parliament building on Front Street vacant, and it stood as such for nearly a decade before it was demolished from 1900 to 1903. The site was sold to the Grand Trunk Railway, which ignominiously used the former parliamentary land for freight sheds. The lands are now occupied by the Canadian Broadcasting Centre, a square
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Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
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