1.
Baker rifle
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The Baker rifle was a flintlock rifle used by the Rifle regiments of the British Army during the Napoleonic Wars. It was the first standard-issue, British-made rifle accepted by the British armed forces, the Baker Rifle was first produced in 1800 by Ezekiel Baker, a master gunsmith from Whitechapel. The British Army was still issuing the Infantry Rifle in the 1830s, the British army had learned the value of rifles from their experience in the American Revolutionary War. However, existing rifle designs were considered too cumbersome, slow-firing, rifles had been issued on a limited basis and consisted of parts made to no precise pattern, often brought in from Prussia. The war against Revolutionary France resulted in the employment of new tactics, during the trial, of the twelve shots fired, eleven were placed in a 6-foot circular target at a distance of 300 yards. Colonel Coote Manningham, responsible for establishing the Rifle Corps, influenced the designs of the Baker. The first model resembled the British Infantry Musket, but was rejected as too heavy, Baker was provided with a German Jäger rifle as an example of what was needed. The second model he made had a.75 calibre bore and it had a 32-inch barrel, with eight rectangular rifling grooves, this model was accepted as the Infantry Rifle, but more changes were made until it was finally placed into production. The rifle had a simple folding backsight with the large lock mechanism. Like the German Jäger rifles, it had a scrolled brass trigger guard to ensure a firm grip. Like many rifles, it had a butt-trap or patchbox where greased linen patches, the lid of the patchbox was brass, and hinged at the rear so it could be flipped up. The stocks were made of walnut and held the barrel with three flat captive wedges, the rifle also had a metal locking bar to accommodate a 24-inch sword bayonet, similar to that of the Jäger rifle. The Baker was 45 inches from muzzle to butt,12 inches shorter than the Infantry Musket, after the Baker entered service, more modifications were made to the rifle and several different variations were produced. A second pattern of Baker Rifle was fitted with a Newland lock that had a flat-faced ring neck cock, in 1806, a third pattern was produced that included a pistol grip style trigger guard and a smaller patchbox with a plain rounded front. The lock plate was smaller, flat, and had a tail, a raised semi-waterproof pan, a flat ring neck cock. With the introduction of a new pattern Short Land Pattern Flintlock Musket in 1810, with its lock and ring-necked cock. It also featured a slit stock—the stock had a cut in its underpart just over a quarter-inch wide. This was done after Ezekiel Baker had seen reports of the ramrod jamming in the stock after the build-up of residue in the channel
2.
Flintlock
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Flintlock is a general term for any firearm that uses a flint striking ignition mechanism. The true flintlock continued to be in use for over two centuries, replaced by percussion cap and, later, the cartridge-based systems in the early-to-mid 19th century. Although long superseded by modern firearms, flintlock weapons enjoy continuing popularity with black-powder shooting enthusiasts, french court gunsmith Marin le Bourgeoys made a firearm incorporating a flintlock mechanism for King Louis XIII shortly after his accession to the throne in 1610. However, firearms using some form of flint ignition mechanism had already been in use for half a century. Le Bourgeoys fitted these various features together to create what became known as the flintlock or true flintlock, the new flintlock system quickly became popular, and was known and used in various forms throughout Europe by 1630, although older flintlock systems continued to be used for some time. Examples of early flintlock muskets can be seen in the painting Marie de Medici as Bellona by Rubens, various breech-loading flintlocks were developed starting around 1650. The most popular action has a barrel which was unscrewed from the rest of the gun, obviously this is more practical on pistols because of the shorter barrel length. This type is known as a Queen Anne pistol because it was during her reign that it became popular, another type has a removable screw plug set into the side or top or bottom of the barrel. A large number of sporting rifles were made with this system, as it allowed easier loading compared with muzzle loading with a tight fitting bullet, one of the more successful was the system built by Isaac de la Chaumette starting in 1704. The barrel could be opened by 3 revolutions of the triggerguard, the plug stayed attached to the barrel and the ball and powder were loaded from the top. This system was improved in the 1770s by Colonel Patrick Ferguson and 100 experimental rifles used in the American Revolutionary War, the only two flintlock breechloaders to be produced in quantity were the Hall and the Crespi. The first was invented by John Hall and patented c and it was issued to the U. S. Army as the Model 1819 Hall Breech Loading Rifle. The Hall rifles and carbines were loaded using a paper cartridge inserted into the upward tilting breechblock. Hall rifles leaked gas from the often poorly fitted action, the same problem affected the muskets produced by Giuseppe Crespi and adopted by the Austrian Army in 1771. Nonetheless, the Crespi System was experimented with by the British during the Napoleonic Wars, Flintlock weapons were commonly used until the mid 19th century, when they were replaced by percussion lock systems. Even though they have long considered obsolete, flintlock weapons continue to be produced today by manufacturers such as Pedersoli, Euroarms. Flintlocks may be any type of arm, long gun or pistol, smoothbore or rifle. Flintlock pistols were used as weapons and as a military arm
3.
Pattern 1853 Enfield
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The Enfield Pattern 1853 rifle-musket was a. The term “rifle-musket” originally referred to muskets with the smooth-bored barrels replaced with rifled barrels, the weapon would also be sufficiently long when fitted with a bayonet to be effective against cavalry. Such guns manufactured with rifled barrels, muzzle loading, single shot, the 39 in barrel had three grooves, with a 1,78 rifling twist, and was fastened to the stock with three metal bands, so that the rifle was often called a three band model. The rifles cartridges contained 68 grains of powder, and the ball was typically a 530-grain Pritchett or a Burton-Minié. It was developed by William Pritchett in the 1850s, the Enfield’s adjustable ladder rear sight had steps for 100 yards – the default or “battle sight” range –200 yards,300 yards, and 400 yards. For distances beyond that, an adjustable flip-up blade sight was graduated from 900 yards to 1,250 yards, British soldiers were trained to hit a target 6 feet by 2 feet – with a 2 feet diameter bulls eye, counting 2 points – out to 600 yards. The target used from 650 yards to 900 yards had a 3 feet bulls eye, with war breaking out between the Russians and the Turks, Britain realized that it was only a matter of time before they would be drawn into the conflict. The British Army was in the midst of a significant weapons transformation from smoothbore muskets to rifled muskets, by the end of 1853, the Enfield rifle-musket was approved by the War Department for the army and was put into production. The Enfield saw extensive action in the Crimean War, 1854–1856, the Enfield P53 was introduced to Indian troops under British colonization in 1856. The Enfield rifle-musket was a cause of the Indian rebellion of 1857. This seemed to prove that the cartridges were, in fact. As a consequence of British fears, the native infantrys long arms were modified by reaming out the rifling of the Pattern 1853 as a smooth bore bullet does not require greasing. This greatly reduced the effectiveness, as did replacing the variable distance rear sight to a fixed sight. However, due to the new walls, the barrel would bulge. Furthermore, with the bayonet fitted excessive flexing became an issue, to remedy this, new barrels were made with thicker walls. The first Enfield rifles were issued to the 58th and 65th Regiments, stationed in the country, the Enfield was not the ideal weapon for use in the dense bush covered hills of New Zealand because of its long length and weight.36 and Beaumont–Adams.44 revolvers. The special units kept a handful of 1853 Enfields for long range sniping, the Enfields continued to be used by the many British line regiments in the more open fern and tussock covered country of the Waikato interior. The Confederates imported more Enfields during the course of the war than any other arm, buying from private contractors
4.
Caplock
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Forsyth patented his ignition system in 1807. However, it was not until after Forsyths patents expired that the percussion cap system was developed. The caplock offered many improvements over the flintlock, the caplock was easier to load, more resistant to weather, and was much more reliable than the flintlock. Many older flintlock weapons were converted into caplocks so that they could take advantage of this increased reliability. The caplock mechanism consists of a hammer, similar to the used in a flintlock, and a nipple. The nipple contains a tube which goes into the barrel, the percussion cap contains a chemical compound called mercuric fulminate or fulminate of mercury, whose chemical formula is Hg2. It is made from mercury, nitric acid and alcohol, when the trigger releases the hammer, it strikes the cap, causing the mercuric fulminate to explode. The flames from this explosion travel down the tube in the nipple and enter the barrel, where they ignite the main powder charge
5.
Rifled musket
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A rifled musket or rifle musket is a type of firearm made in the mid-19th century. Originally the term referred only to muskets that had produced as a smoothbore weapon. The term was extended to include rifles that directly replaced, and were of the same design overall as. In the early 19th century, there were rifles, and there were muskets, muskets were smoothbore muzzle-loading weapons, firing round balls or buck and ball ammunition, that were also designed to accept a bayonet. Rifles have the advantage of long range accuracy, because spinning bullets have far flatter, muskets had the advantage of a faster rate of fire. A muzzle-loaded weapon required the bullet to fit snugly into the barrel, for a smooth-bore weapon this can be a somewhat loose fit, but in the case of a rifle, the helical lands in the barrel have to cut into the bullet to make it spin. The fit needs to be sufficiently tight for the bullet to engage the rifling lands in order to spin, otherwise the bullet will wobble as it goes down the barrel. The greater accuracy and range made rifles ideal for hunting, the main disadvantage of rifled muskets is that the fouling caused by normal firing made them steadily more difficult to load. Although outwardly similar, the way they were used in battle was quite different, as firearms they delivered volleys of close range fire in close ranks. With fixed bayonets they acted much as the pikes that they replaced, using formidable line, bayonets were so effective on the battlefield that often the threat of bayonets was enough to cause an enemy to turn and run. Since they were used as pikes, muskets tended to be fairly long and they tended to be about four to six feet in length, with a weight of around 10 to 12 pounds, as longer and heavier weapons were found to be too unwieldy. Muskets six feet in length could be fired in three ranks without fear of accidents, rifles were not even used by some armies, such as Napoleon’s. When they were used, they were issued to small units of riflemen trained not to fight in close ranks. The problem of slow loading caused by barrel fouling was solved by the Minié ball, despite its name, the Minié ball was not a round ball at all. It was long and conical, with an expanding skirt, the skirt allowed the minié ball to be smaller than the barrels bore, so it would slip in as easily as the ball of a smoothbore. In the 1840s and 1850s, many smooth bore muskets had their barrels rifled so that they could fire the new Minié ball, yet the Minié-type rifled muskets were much more accurate than smooth bore muskets. The loose fitting ball in a smooth bore musket was accurate to ranges of 50 to 75 yards, rifled muskets increased the effective range to about 200 to 300 yards, and a rifled musket could often hit a man-sized target up to 500 yards away. The term was used for weapons that directly replaced smooth bore muskets
6.
Dreyse needle gun
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The name Zündnadelgewehr/needle-gun comes from its needle-like firing pin, which passed through the paper cartridge case to strike a percussion cap at the bullet base. The Dreyse rifle was also the first breech-loading rifle to use the action to open and close the chamber. It has a rate of fire of about 10–12 rounds per minute, the rifle was the invention of the gunsmith Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse who, beginning in 1824, had conducted multiple experiments and in 1836 produced the complete needle-gun. It was his adoption of the bolt-action breechloading principle combined with this system which gave the rifle its military potential. Although being accepted for service in 1841 it wasnt introduced into service in Prussia until 1848, then later into the forces of many other German states. The employment of the radically changed military tactics in the 19th century. The needle-gun first made its appearance in street fighting during the May Uprising in Dresden in 1849 and it also played an important role in the Second war of Schleswig in 1864. The rifle saw its heaviest use in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, one observer proclaimed, the needle-gun is the king. The success of the Dreyse needle gun spurred subsequent developments in technology and, before the start of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. Although the Prussians won the war the Chassepot proved superior in all respects compared to the needle-gun. With the subsequent unification of Germany the Dreyse needle-gun was replaced by the Mauser Model 1871 rifle in German service, in 1877, Romania purchased 20,000 rifles &11,000 carbines from the Prussian government. Though considered long obsolete, these were used to effect in the Romanian War of Independence. Sometime in the late 1860s, Japan acquired a number of Model 1862 rifles. These were marked with the imperial chrysanthemum stamp, the cartridge used with this rifle consisted of the paper case, the bullet, the percussion cap and the black powder charge. The 15.4 mm bullet was shaped like an acorn, with the end forming a point. The bullet was held in a case known as a sabot - which separated from the bullet as it exited the muzzle. Between this inner lining and the case was the powder charge. The upper end of the case is rolled up and tied
7.
Breechloading
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A breech-loading gun is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the rear portion of a barrel. Modern mass production firearms are breech-loading, early firearms, on the other hand, were almost entirely muzzle-loading. In field artillery, breech loading allows the crew to reload the gun without exposing themselves to fire or repositioning the piece. The main challenge for developers of breech-loading firearms was sealing the breech and this was eventually solved for smaller firearms by the development of the self-contained metallic cartridge. For firearms too large to use cartridges, the problem was solved by the development of the interrupted screw, breech-loading swivel guns were invented in the 14th century. The breech-loading swivel gun had a rate of fire, and was especially effective in anti-personnel roles. Breech-loading firearms are known from the 16th century, Henry VIII possessed one, which he apparently used as a hunting gun to shoot birds. More breech-loading firearms were made in the early 18th century, one such gun known to have belonged to Philip V of Spain, and was manufactured circa 1715, probably in Madrid. It came with a ready-to load reusable cartridge, patrick Ferguson, a British Army officer, developed in 1772 the Ferguson rifle, a breech-loading flintlock firearm. Later on into the century there were attempts in Europe at an effective breech-loader. There were concentrated attempts at improved cartridges and methods of ignition, the cartridge was loaded through the breech and fired with a needle. The needle-activated central-fire breech-loading gun would become a feature of firearms thereafter. The corresponding firearm was also developed by Pauly, Pauly made an improved version, which was protected by a patent on 29 September 1812. In 1846 another Paris Frenchman, Benjamin Houllier, patented the first fully metallic cartridge containing powder in a metallic shell, Houllier commercialised his weapons in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard or Charles Robert. In English-speaking countries the Flobert cartridge corresponds to the.22 BB, the first centrefire cartridge was introduced in 1855 by Pottet, with both Berdan and Boxer priming. The Dreyse Zündnadelgewehr or Dreyse needle gun, was a single-shot breech-loading rifle using a rotating bolt to seal the breech and it was so called because of its. 5-inch needle-like firing pin, which passed through a paper cartridge case to impact a percussion cap at the bullet base. It began development in the 1830s under von Dreyse and eventually a version of it was adopted by Prussia in the late 1840s. The paper cartridge and the gun had numerous deficiencies, specifically, however, the rifle was used to great success in the Prussian army in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866
8.
Henry rifle
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Designed by Benjamin Tyler Henry in 1860, the Henry was introduced in the early 1860s and produced through 1866 in the United States by the New Haven Arms Company. It was adopted in small quantities by the Union in the Civil War, many later found their way West, notably in the hands of the Sioux and Cheyenne in their obliteration of Custers U. S. Cavalry troops in June 1876. Modern versions of the weapon are produced by A. Uberti Firearms, most replicas are chambered in. 44-40 Winchester or.45 Long Colt. The original Henry rifle was a sixteen shot.44 caliber rimfire, lever-action, the Henry was an improved version of the earlier Volition Repeating Rifle, and later Volcanic Repeating Rifle. The Henry used copper rimfire cartridges with a 216 grain bullet over 25 grains of gunpowder, production was very small until the middle of 1864. Nine hundred were manufactured between summer and October 1862, by 1864, production had peaked at 290 per month, by the time production ended in 1866, approximately 14,000 units had been manufactured. For a Civil War soldier, owning a Henry rifle was a point of pride, letters home would call them Sixteen or Seventeen Shooters, depending whether a round was loaded in the chamber. Just 1,731 of the rifles were purchased by the government during the Civil War. The Commonwealth of Kentucky purchased a further 50, however 6 to 7 thousand saw use by the union on the field through private puchases by soldiers who could afford it. The relative fragility of Henrys compared to Spencer repeating rifles hampered their official acceptance, more Henrys were purchased by soldiers than by the government. Many infantry soldiers purchased Henrys with their reenlistment bounties of 1864, most of these units were associated with Shermans Western Troops. When used correctly, the brass framed rifles had a high rate of fire compared to any other weapon on the battlefield. Soldiers who saved their pay to buy one believed it would save their lives. To the amazed muzzleloader-armed Confederates who had to face this deadly sixteen shooter, it was called a rifle that you could load on Sunday, the Henry rifle used a.44 caliber cartridge with 26 to 28 grains of black powder. This gave it significantly less muzzle velocity and energy than other repeaters of the era, the lever action, on the down-stroke, ejected the spent cartridge from the chamber and cocked the hammer. A spring in the magazine forced the next round into the follower, locking the back into position pushed the new cartridge into the chamber. As designed, the Henry lacked any form of safety, when not in use its hammer rested on the cartridge rim, any impact on the back of the exposed hammer could cause a chambered round to fire. If left cocked, it was in the position without a safety
9.
Lever action
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Lever action is a type of firearm action which uses a lever located around the trigger guard area to load fresh cartridges into the chamber of the barrel when the lever is worked. This contrasts to bolt-action, semi-automatic, or selective-fire weapons, most lever-action firearms are rifles, but some lever-action shotguns and a few pistols have also been made. One of the most famous lever-action firearms is the Winchester Model 1873 rifle, even Colts Mfg. Co. produced 1883 until 18856403 lever-action Colt-Burgess rifles. Mossberg produces the 464 in centerfire. 30-30 and rimfire.22, probably the first lever-action rifles on the market were Colts 1st and 2nd Model Ring Lever rifles, both Cap and ball rifles, produced by the Patent Arms Mfg. Co. Paterson, N. J. -Colts Patent between 1837 and 1841, the ring-lever was located in front of the trigger. This loading-lever, when pulled, would index the cylinder to the next position, the first significant lever-action design was the Spencer repeating rifle, a magazine-fed lever-operated breech-loading rifle designed by Christopher Spencer in 1860. It was fed from a removable seven-round tube magazine, enabling the rounds to be fired one after another, and which, the Henry also placed the magazine under the barrel, rather than in the butt-stock, a trend followed by most tubular magazines since. The Martini–Henry rifle was the rifle of British and Empire forces from the early 1870s to the turn of the 20th century. It was used in areas, either by civilians or by the local military. Variants copying the Martini–Henry mechanism but using more modern cartridges were also produced, john Marlin, founder of Marlin Firearms Company, New Haven, Connecticut, introduced Marlins first lever-action repeating rifle as the Model 1881. This was chambered in rounds such as the 45/70 and 38/55 and its successor was the 1895 solid top design, which we know as the model 336 today. It also gave rise to the Marlin Model 1894, which is still in production today, by the 1890s, lever-actions had evolved into a form that would last for over a century. Both Marlin and Winchester released new model lever-action rifles in 1894, the Marlin rifle is still in production, whereas production of the Winchester 94 ceased in 2006. While externally similar, the Marlin and Winchester rifles are quite different internally, the fledgling Savage Arms Company became well known after the development of its popular hammerless Models 1895 and 1899 lever-action sporting rifles. Unlike most Winchester and the Marlin lever-action rifles, which used a tubular magazine requiring round-nose or flat-nose bullets and this allowed the 99 to use cartridges with spitzer pointed bullets for increased ballistic performance. The 99 was produced in different cartridges and several different model variations. The final models eliminated the very expensive-to-produce rotary magazine, using a box magazine instead. But the 99 was still expensive to produce when compared to the other lever-action rifles
10.
Repeating rifle
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A repeating rifle is a single barreled rifle containing multiple rounds of ammunition. These rounds are loaded from a magazine by means of a manual or automatic mechanism, Repeating rifles were a significant advance over the preceding breech loaded single-shot rifles when used for military combat, as they allowed a much greater rate of fire. Repeating rifles saw use in the American Civil War during the early 1860s, while some early long guns were made using the revolver mechanism popular in hand guns, these did not have longevity in the marketplace. The bolt closes the end of the barrel and contains the firing pin. The bolt is held in place with a lever that fits into a notch, moving this lever out of the notch will release the restraint on the bolt, allowing it to be drawn back. An extractor removes the spent cartridge, which is ejected through the lever slot. A spring at the bottom of the magazine pushes up the reserve rounds, pushing the bolt lever forward chambers this round and pushing the lever into the notch locks the bolt and enables the trigger mechanism. The complete cycle action also resets the firing pin, the Russian Mosin–Nagant rifle, the British Lee–Enfield, and the Norwegian Krag–Jørgensen are examples of alternate bolt-action designs. In a classic lever-action firearm of the Henry-Winchester type, rounds are loaded into a tubular magazine parallel to. A short bolt is held in place with an over center toggle action, once closed, the over center action prevents opening solely by the force on the bolt when the weapon is fired. This toggle action is operated by a grip that forms part of the trigger guard. When operated, a spring in the magazine pushes a fresh round into position. Returning the operating lever to the home position chambers the round, an interlock prevents firing unless the toggle is fully closed. The famous Model 1873 Winchester is exemplary of this type, later lever-action designs, such as Marlin leverguns and those designed for Winchester by John Browning, use one or two vertical locking blocks instead of a toggle-link. There also exist lever-action rifles that feed from a box magazine, a one-off example of Lever action reloading on automatic firearms is the M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun. This weapon had a lever beneath its barrel that was actuated by a gas bleed in the barrel. This unique operation gave the nickname potato digger as the lever swung each time the weapon fired, with a pump-action firearm, the action is operated by a movable fore-end that goes backwards and forwards to eject, extract, and chamber a round of ammunition. Pump-actions are usually associated with shotguns, but one example of a rifle is the Remington Model 7600 series
11.
Lebel Model 1886 rifle
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The Lebel Model 1886 rifle is also known as the Fusil Mle 1886 M93, after a bolt modification was added in 1893. It is an 8 mm bolt action rifle that entered service in the French Army in 1887. It is a rifle that can hold eight rounds in its forestock tube magazine, one round in the transporter plus one round in the chamber. The Lebel rifle has the distinction of being the first military firearm to use smokeless powder ammunition, the new propellant powder, Poudre B, was nitrocellulose-based and had been invented in 1884 by French chemist Paul Vieille. Lieutenant Colonel Nicolas Lebel contributed a flat nosed 8 mm full metal jacket bullet, twelve years later, in 1898, a solid brass pointed and boat-tail bullet called Balle D was retained for all 8mm Lebel ammunition. Each case was protected against accidental percussion inside the magazine by a primer cover. Featuring an oversized bolt with front locking lugs and a massive receiver, in spite of early obsolete features, such as its tube magazine and the shape of 8mm Lebel rimmed ammunition, the Lebel rifle remained the basic weapon of French line infantry during World War I. Altogether,3.45 million Lebel rifles were produced by the three French state factories between 1887 and 1916, in operation, the bolt is turned up to the vertical position until the two opposed front locking lugs are released from the receiver. At the end of the opening phase, a ramp on the receiver bridge forces the bolt to the rear thus providing leveraged extraction of the fired case. The rifle is fitted with a wood stock, and features a spring-loaded tubular magazine in the fore-end. Taking aim at intermediate distances is done with a ramp sight graduated between 400 and 800 meters, the ladder rear sight is adjustable from 850 to 2,400 meters. Flipping forward that ladder sight reveals the commonly used fixed combat sight up to 400 meters, the Mle 1886 rifle has a 10-round capacity. The Lebel rifle features a magazine cutoff on the side of the receiver. When activated it prevents feeding cartridges from the magazine, the Mle 1886 Lebel rifle was issued with a long needle-like quadrangular épée bayonet, the Épée-Baïonnette Modèle 1886, with a length of 52 cm. With its X-shaped cross section, the bayonet was optimized for thrusting, designed to readily penetrate thick clothing. The bayonet was dubbed Rosalie by French soldiers who were issued it during World War I, historically, the Mle 1886 Lebel rifle was the first military firearm to use smokeless powder ammunition. This new propellant powder, made of stabilized nitrocellulose, was called Poudre B and had just been invented in 1884 by Paul Vieille, Poudre B was three times as powerful as black powder, for the same weight, and left virtually no residues of combustion. At about the time, in 1882, a captain Eduard Rubin had invented the first full-metal-jacket rifle bullets
12.
Bolt action
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Bolt-action firearms are most often rifles, but there are some bolt-action shotguns and a few handguns as well. Examples of this date as far back as the early 19th century. From the late 19th century, all the way through both World Wars, the rifle was the standard infantry firearm for most of the worlds militaries. Bolt-action firearms are still popular for hunting and target shooting. The first bolt-action rifle was produced in 1824 by Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse, von Dreyse would perfect his Nadelgewehr by 1836, and it was adopted by the Prussian Army in 1841. It however was not the first bolt-action weapon to see combat as it was not fielded until 1864, during the American Civil War, the bolt-action Palmer carbine was patented in 1863, and by 1865,1000 were purchased for use as cavalry weapons. The French Army adopted its first bolt-action rifle, the Chassepot rifle, in 1866, ultimately the military turned to bolt-action rifles using a box magazine, the first of its kind was the M1885 Remington–Lee, but the first to be generally adopted was the British 1888 Lee–Metford. World War I marked the height of the bolt-action rifles use, there are, however, many semi-automatic sniper rifle designs, especially in the designated marksman role. Today, bolt-action rifles are used as hunting rifles. These rifles can be used to hunt anything from vermin, to deer, to game, especially big game caught on a safari. Bolt-action shotguns are considered a rarity among modern firearms, but were formerly a commonly used action for.410 entry-level shotguns, as well as for low-cost 12 gauge shotguns. The M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System is the most advanced and recent example of a bolt-action shotgun, some pistols utilize a bolt action, although this is uncommon, and such examples are typically specialized target handguns. Most of the bolt-action designs involve the shooters doing a turn + pull handle movement to open the bolt, cock the firing pin, there are three major turning bolt-action system designs, the Mauser system, the Lee–Enfield system, and the Mosin–Nagant system. The vast majority of bolt-action rifles utilize one of three systems, with other designs seeing only limited use. The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee–Enfield due to two locking lugs just behind the head which make it better able to handle higher pressure cartridges. The 8×68mm S and 9. 3×64mm Brenneke magnum rifle cartridge families were designed for the Mauser M98 bolt action. A novel safety feature was the introduction of a locking lug present at the rear of the bolt that normally did not lock the bolt. The Mauser system features cock on opening, meaning the upward rotation of the bolt when the rifle is opened cocks the action, a drawback of the Mauser M98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily
13.
Smokeless powder
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Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of propellants used in firearms and artillery that produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the black powder they replaced. The basis of the term smokeless is that the products are mainly gaseous. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke, while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, since the 14th century gunpowder was not actually a physical powder, and smokeless powder can be produced only as a pelletized or extruded granular material. Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches, burnt black powder leaves a thick, heavy fouling that is hygroscopic and causes rusting of the barrel. The fouling left by smokeless powder exhibits none of these properties and this makes an autoloading firearm with many moving parts feasible. However, they are used as propellants, in normal use. Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of black powder caused many problems on the battlefield, Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Verbal commands could not be heard above the noise of the guns, unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using black powder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke. Snipers or other concealed shooters were given away by a cloud of smoke over the firing position, black powder is also corrosive, making cleaning mandatory after every use. Likewise, black powders tendency to produce severe fouling caused actions to jam, nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. Nitroglycerine is also sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward was the discovery of guncotton, a nitrocellulose-based material and he promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton, and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham, English interest languished after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton, Abel patented this process in 1865 when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo, in 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellent of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a version of Schultze powder called Collodin
14.
M1 Garand
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The M1 Garand is a.30 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U. S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U. S. forces, the Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also used by civilians for hunting, target shooting. The M1 rifle was named after its Canadian-American designer, John Garand and it was the first standard-issue semi-automatic military rifle. By all accounts the M1 rifle served with distinction, General George S. Patton called it the greatest battle implement ever devised. The M1 replaced the bolt action M1903 Springfield as the standard U. S. service rifle in the mid 1930s, although the name Garand is frequently pronounced /ɡəˈrænd/, the preferred pronunciation is /ˈɡærənd/, according to experts and people who knew John Garand, the weapons designer. French Canadian-born Garand went to work at the United States Armys Springfield Armory, in 1924, twenty-four rifles, identified as M1922s, were built at Springfield. At Fort Benning during 1925, they were tested against models by Berthier, Hatcher-Bang, Thompson, and Pedersen and this led to a further trial of an improved M1924 Garand against the Thompson, ultimately producing an inconclusive report. As a result, the Ordnance Board ordered a. 30-06 Garand variant, in March 1927, the cavalry board reported trials among the Thompson, Garand, and 03 Springfield had not led to a clear winner. This led to a gas-operated.276 model, in early 1928, both the infantry and cavalry boards ran trials with the.276 Pedersen T1 rifle, calling it highly promising. The.30 Garand, however, was dropped in favor of the.276.30 gas-operated Garand be resumed, twenty gas-operated.276 T3E2 Garands were made and competed with T1 Pedersen rifles in early 1931. The.276 Garand was the winner of these trials. The.30 caliber Garand was also tested, in the form of a single T1E1, a 4 January 1932 meeting recommended adoption of the.276 caliber and production of approximately 125 T3E2s. Meanwhile, Garand redesigned his bolt and his improved T1E2 rifle was retested, on 25 February 1932, Adjutant General John B. On 3 August 1933, the T1E2 became the semi-automatic rifle, caliber 30, in May 1934,75 M1s went to field trials,50 were to infantry,25 to cavalry units. The first production model was successfully proof-fired, function-fired, and fired for accuracy on July 21,1937, production difficulties delayed deliveries to the army until September 1937. Machine production began at Springfield Armory that month at a rate of ten rifles per day, despite going into production status, design issues were not at an end. The barrel, gas cylinder, and front sight assembly were redesigned and entered production in early 1940, production of the Garand increased in 1940 despite these difficulties, reaching 600 a day by 10 January 1941, and the army was fully equipped by the end of 1941
15.
Semi-automatic rifle
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A semi-automatic rifle is a self-loading rifle that fires a single round each time the trigger is pulled. In contrast, an automatic rifle continuously fires rounds as long as the trigger is pressed. The ability to load the next round allowed for an increase in the rounds per minute the operator could fire. These rifles are known as self-loading rifles or auto-loading rifles and are often mistaken for automatic rifles or machine guns. Self-loading rifles were one of the most revolutionary designs in the history of warfare and they can be efficiently fed by en-bloc clip and internal magazine, detachable magazine or a combination of stripper clip and internal magazine. The first successful design for a rifle is attributed to German-born gunsmith Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher. The Model 85 was followed by the equally innovative Mannlicher Models 91,93 and 95 semi-automatic rifles.5 mm ammunition that were fed into the M1894 by a stripper clip. The Auto-5 relied on long recoil operation, this remained the dominant form in semi-automatic shotguns for approximately 50 years. Production of the Auto-5 was finally ended in 1999, in 1903 and 1905, the Winchester Repeating Arms Company introduced the first semi-automatic rimfire and centerfire rifles designed especially for the civilian market. The Winchester Model 1903 and Winchester Model 1905 operated on the principle of blowback in order to function semi-automatically, johnson, the Model 1903 achieved commercial success and continued to be manufactured until 1932 when the Winchester Model 63 replaced it. Winchester introduced a medium caliber semi-automatic rifle, the Model 1907 as an upgrade to the Model 1905, utilizing a system of operation. Both the Models of 1905 and 1907 saw limited military and police use, in 1906, Remington Arms introduced the Remington Auto-loading Repeating Rifle. Remington advertised this rifle, renamed the Model 8 in 1911 and this is a locked-breech, long recoil action designed by John Browning. The Model 81 superseded the Model 8 in 1936 and was offered in.300 Savage as well as the original Remington calibers, the first semi-automatic rifle adopted and widely issued by a major military power was the Fusil Automatique Modele 1917. This is a breech, gas-operated action which is very similar in its mechanical principles to the future M1 Garand in the United States. The M1917 was fielded during the stages of WWI but it did not receive a favorable reception. However its shortened and improved version, the Model 1918, gave complete satisfaction during the Moroccan Rif War from 1920 to 1926, the Lebel bolt-action rifle remained the standard French infantry rifle until replaced in 1936 by the MAS-36 despite the various semi-automatic rifles designed between 1918 and 1935. In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nations bolt-action rifle as the infantry weapon
16.
AK-47
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The AK-47, or AK as it is officially known is a selective-fire, gas-operated 7. 62×39 mm assault rifle, developed in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Kalashnikov. It is officially known in the Soviet documentation as Avtomat Kalashnikova, Design work on the AK-47 began in the last year of World War II. In 1946, the AK-47 was presented for military trials, and in 1948. An early development of the design was the AKS, which was equipped with a metal shoulder stock. In the spring of 1949, the AK-47 was officially accepted by the Soviet Armed Forces, as of 2004, Of the estimated 500 million firearms worldwide, approximately 100 million belong to the Kalashnikov family, three-quarters of which are AK-47s. During World War II, the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle used by German forces made an impression on their Soviet counterparts. The select-fire rifle was chambered for a new cartridge, the 7. 92×33mm Kurz. On 15 July 1943, a model of the Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the Peoples Commissariat of Arms of the USSR. The Soviets soon developed the 7. 62×39mm M43 cartridge, the semi-automatic SKS carbine, shortly after World War II, the Soviets developed the AK-47 assault rifle, which would quickly replace the SKS in Soviet service. Mikhail Kalashnikov began his career as a designer in 1941, while recuperating from a shoulder wound. I was a soldier, and I created a gun for a soldier. It was called an Avtomat Kalashnikova, the weapon of Kalashnikov—AK—and it carried the date of its first manufacture,1947. The AK-47 is best described as a hybrid of previous rifle technology innovations, Kalashnikov decided to design an automatic rifle combining the best features of the American M1 and the German StG44. Kalashnikovs team had access to weapons and had no need to reinvent the wheel. Kalashnikov himself observed, A lot of Russian Army soldiers ask me how one can become a constructor, each designer seems to have his own paths, his own successes and failures. But one thing is clear, before attempting to create something new, I myself have had many experiences confirming this to be so. There are claims about Kalashnikov copying other designs, like Bulkins TKB-415 or Simonovs AVS-31, Kalashnikov started work on a submachine gun design in 1942 and with a light machine gun in 1943. Early in 1944, Kalashnikov was given some M19437. 62×39mm cartridges and it was suggested to him that this new weapon might well lead to greater things, and he undertook work on the new rifle
17.
Gas-operated reloading
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Gas-operation is a system of operation used to provide energy to operate autoloading firearms. In gas operation, a portion of high-pressure gas from the cartridge being fired is used to power a mechanism to extract the spent case, energy from the gas is harnessed through either a port in the barrel or a trap at the muzzle. Most current gas systems employ some type of piston, the face of the piston is acted upon by combustion gas from a port in the barrel or a trap at the muzzle. Early guns such as Brownings flapper prototype, the Bang rifle and this, combined with more massive operating parts, reduced the strain on the mechanism. To simplify and lighten the firearm, gas from nearer the chamber needed to be used and this high pressure and has sufficient force to destroy a firearm unless it is regulated somehow. Most gas-operated firearms rely on tuning the gas port size, mass of operating parts, several other methods are employed to regulate the energy. The M1 carbine incorporates a short piston, or tappet. This movement is restricted by a shoulder recess. Excess gas is then vented back into the bore, the M14 rifle and M60 GPMG use the White expansion and cutoff system to stop gas from entering the cylinder once the piston has traveled a short distance. Most systems, however, vent excess gas into the atmosphere through slots, holes, a gas trap system involves trapping combustion gas as it leaves the muzzle. This gas impinges on a surface that converts the energy to motion that, hiram Maxim patented a muzzle-cup system in 1884 described in U. S. Patent 319,596 though it is if this firearm was ever prototyped. John Browning used gas trapped at the muzzle to operate a flapper in the earliest prototype gas-operated firearm described in U. S, the Danish Bang rifle used a muzzle cup blown forward by muzzle gas to operate the action through transfer bars and leverage. Other gas-trap rifles were early production US gas-trap M1 Garands, German Gewehr 41 and these systems are longer, heavier, dirtier and more complex than later gas-operated firearms. Despite these disadvantages, they used relatively low gas and did not require a hole in the barrel. The American and German governments both had requirements that their guns operated without a hole being drilled in the barrel, both governments would first adopt weapons and later abandon the concept. All US M1 Garand rifles were retrofitted with long-stroke gas pistons, with a long-stroke system, the piston is mechanically fixed to the bolt group and moves through the entire operating cycle. This system is used in such as the Bren light machine gun, AK-47, Tavor, FN Minimi, M249 Squad Automatic Weapon, FN MAG, FN FNC
18.
Magazine (firearms)
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A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating firearm. Magazines can be removable or integral to the firearm, the magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded into the chamber by the action of the firearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although this is technically inaccurate, magazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those of bolt-action express rifles that hold only a few rounds to drum magazines for self-loading rifles that can hold one hundred rounds or more. Various jurisdictions ban what they define as high-capacity magazines, with the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911 pistol, the magazine was settled on by the military and firearms experts. The defining difference between clips and magazines is the presence of a mechanism in a magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower. Use of the clip to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement. The first mass-produced repeater was the Volcanic Rifle which used a bullet with the base filled with powder and primer fed into the chamber from a spring-loaded tube called a magazine. It was named after a building or room used to store ammunition, the anemic power of the Rocket Ball ammunition used in the Volcanic doomed it to limited popularity. The Henry repeating rifle is a lever-action, breech-loading, tubular magazine fed rifle, designed by Benjamin Tyler Henry in 1860, it was one of the first firearms to use self-contained metallic cartridges. The Henry was introduced in the early 1860s and produced through 1866 in the United States by the New Haven Arms Company and it was adopted in small quantities by the Union in the Civil War and favored for its greater firepower than the standard issue carbine. Many later found their way West and was famed both for its use at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and being the basis for the iconic Winchester rifle which are made to this day. The Henry and Winchester rifles would go on to see service with a number of militaries including Turkey, switzerland and Italy adopted similar designs. The first magazine-fed firearm to achieve success was the Spencer repeating rifle. The Spencer used a magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel. The Spencer was successful, but the rimfire ammunition did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and it could also injure the user. The new bolt-action rifles began to favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally a single-shot action that added a magazine in its 1884 update
19.
Automatic rifle
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Automatic rifles are distinguished from semi-automatic rifles in their ability to fire more than one shot in succession once the trigger is pulled. Many automatic rifles are select-fire weapons which are capable of firing in fully automatic and semi-automatic modes, or in some cases, most are further subcategorized as battle rifles or assault rifles. The worlds first automatic rifle was the Italian Cei-Rigotti, introduced in 1900, these 6. 5mm Carcano or 7. 65×53mm gas-operated, selective-fire, carbines attracted considerable attention at the time. They used 10-, 20- and 50-round detachable box magazines, unfortunately, they had several failings, including frequent jams and erratic shooting. In the end, no Army took an interest in the design, the Fedorov Avtomat was an automatic rifle, designed by Vladimir Grigoryevich Fyodorov in 1915 and produced in the Russian Empire and later in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. A total of 43,200 Fedorov rifles were manufactured between 1915 and 1924 in the city of Kovrov, the vast majority of them were made after 1920. The weapon saw combat in World War I, but was used more substantially in the Russian Civil War, initially Fedorov wanted to call the class of weapons to which his new gun belonged ручное ружьё-пулемет, which reflected his tactical thinking behind the development of the weapon. The Browning Automatic Rifle was one of the first practical automatic rifles, the BAR made its successful combat debut in World War I and approximately 50,000 were made before the war came to an end. The BAR arose from the concept of Walking Fire, an idea urged upon the Americans by the French who used the Chauchat light machine gun to fulfill that role, the BAR never entirely lived up to the designers hopes, being neither a rifle nor a machinegun. For its day, though, it was a brilliant design produced in time by John Browning. It was the standard squad light automatic of the U. S. infantry during World War II, the US forces abandoned the BAR in the middle 1950s, though it was retained in reserve stocks for several years, it survived in smaller countries until the late 1970s. The FG42 was a selective fire automatic rifle or battle rifle produced in Germany during World War II, the weapon was developed specifically for the use of the Fallschirmjäger airborne infantry in 1942 and was used in limited numbers until the end of the war. It served as an automatic rifle in much the same role as the Browning BAR. The Germans sought to develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a gun with the accuracy. This was done by shortening the standard 7. 92×57mm cartridge to 7. 92×33mm and giving it a lighter 125-grain bullet, the result was the Sturmgewehr 44. The Soviets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that after World War II and it was finalized, adopted and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the early 1950s. Its firepower, ease of use, low costs. The AK-47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with the USSR, however, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing
20.
FAMAS
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The FAMAS is a bullpup-styled assault rifle designed and manufactured in France by MAS located in Saint-Étienne, which is now a member of the French government-owned Nexter group. It is the rifle of the French military. The first French bullpup rifles were developed between 1946 and 1950 at the AME and MAS, testing such as.30 US Carbine,7. 92×33mm Kurz,7. 65×38mm. Nevertheless, approximately forty different 7. 62×51mm NATO caliber prototype rifles were developed between 1952 and 1962, most notably the FA-MAS Type 62. However, the United States adoption of the M16 rifle and 5. 56×45mm cartridge caused the French to rethink their approach, and consequently the Type 62 was not adopted. In the 1960s, MAS began to manufacture under license the Heckler & Koch G3 battle rifle, at the same time, the French embraced the idea of developing a new 5.56 mm automatic rifle. However, simply adopting the German-designed HK33 rifle was considered unsatisfactory for many members of the French high command. The FAMAS project began in 1967 under the direction of General Paul Tellié, in late 1978, the French military accepted the FAMAS as their standard-issue rifle. After adoption, the FAMAS F1 replaced both the aging MAS 49/56 rifle and MAT-49 submachine gun, approximately 400,000 FAMAS F1 assault rifles were produced by MAS. While a capable rifle, the F1 had numerous problems to overcome, for instance, many plastic pieces on the rifle easily broke, including critical parts like the cheek riser on the buttstock. The FAMAS was also susceptible to malfunction on occasion because of poorly-built magazines, MAS would eventually manufacture more durable magazines for the FAMAS that reduced malfunctions. The F1 was followed by the G1 version that included minor improvements, such as redesigned grips. However, the G1 remained conceptual and was never actually produced, the G2 also included several other upgrades taken from the G1 model, such as an enlarged trigger guard and improved hand guards made from reinforced fiberglass instead of plastic. The French Navy purchased the FAMAS G2 in 1995 and issued it to their Fusiliers Marins, however, the French army refused to purchase the G2, preferring to rely on the FAMAS F1 as their primary rifle. The FAMAS Infanterie is an improvement of the FAMAS F1, obtained by retrofiting an accessory rail onto the top of the handguard and this allows mounting combat optics, most notably reflex sights or the 4× magnification SCROME J4 scope. During the late 1980s, Century Arms imported a small number of semi-automatic FAMAS rifles into the United States. However, due to sales, production and importation ceased. The FAMAS assault rifle is a configuration, with the ammunition feed behind the trigger
21.
Selective fire
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Selective fire means the capability of a weapon to be adjusted to fire in semi-automatic, multi-short burst, and/or automatic firing mode. The modes are chosen by means of a selector which varies depending on the weapons design, some selective-fire weapons have burst fire mechanisms to limit the maximum number of shots fired automatically in this mode. The most common limits are two or three rounds per trigger pull, fully automatic fire refers to the ability for a weapon to fire continuously until either the feeding mechanism is emptied or the trigger is released. Semi-automatic refers to the ability to fire one round per trigger pull and this capability is most commonly found on assault rifles and military weapons of the 20th and 21st centuries. Early attempts at this technology were hindered by one or both of two obstacles, over-powerful ammunition and mechanical complexity, the latter led to excessive weight and unreliability in the firearm. Another is the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle developed during the first World War, the BAR and its subsequent designs incorporated a variety of selective-fire functions. The selector lever is located on the side of the receiver and is simultaneously the manual safety. The next version had a unique rate-of-fire reducer mechanism purchased from FN Herstal with two rates of automatic fire and this reducer mechanism was later changed to one designed by the Springfield Armory. The final version provided two selectable rates of automatic fire only. During World War II the Germans began development of the function which resulted in the FG42 battle rifle developed in 1942 at the request of the German Air Force in 1941. Another German design that used selective fire was the StG44 that was the first of its kind to see major deployment and is considered by historians to be the first modern assault rifle. The selective-fire function was seen in the Russian AK-47, the British EM-2. This allows for rapid and aimed fire, in some weapons, the selection is between different rates of automatic fire and/or varying burst limiters. The selection is often by a small rotating switch often integrated with the safety catch or a separate from the safety. This is useful for situations where a rapid volley of rounds is more effective for suppressing a close enemy rather than a single-round burst. The current U. S. standard assault rifle, the M16A4, in this design, it retains the count of previously fired rounds and may fire fewer than three rounds. Other designs reset the count with each pull, allowing a uniform three-round burst as long as rounds remain. A common version of the Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun fires single shots, three-round-bursts, a special variant uses a two-round-burst to minimize the chances of missing with a third round
22.
Bullpup
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A bullpup is a firearm with its action behind its trigger group. This configuration permits a shorter overall weapon for a barrel length. This maintains the advantages of a barrel in muzzle velocity and accuracy, while improving maneuverability. The origin of the term bullpup for this configuration is unclear, in 1957, the word was reported to denote a target pistol, particularly one with a fancy stock. The bullpup design places the action behind the trigger, usually in front of a short buttstock. The configuration decreases the overall length while retaining the same barrel length which allows for better maneuverability in confined spaces. An often cited shortcoming of the configuration is spent casings being ejected into the face of a left-handed shooter. This is solved on some designs with ejection downward or forward, being held closer to the body, a bullpup causes less arm fatigue and allows faster reaction time from a lowered position. However, its rear-weighted design lacks balance, inducing muzzle rise, in addition, shorter weapon length results in a shorter sight radius, further impairing accuracy at distance, as well as reducing bayonet effectiveness in close combat. Also, due to the assembly and the necessary trigger linkage. It is known to have applied to semi-automatic firearms in 1918. After World War II, Western engineers drew inspiration from the German Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle, among them, Kazimierz Januszewski, a Polish engineer who had worked at the Polish national arsenal during the 1930s. After being mobilized during World War II he escaped German and Russian forces and made his way to England, the factory was run by lieutenant colonel Edward Kent-Lemon. As Januszewski was developing a new rifle, the Ideal Calibre Board was searching for a replacement for the.303 cartridge, the Board decided on an optimal 7 mm cartridge on which Januszewski and the two teams working at Enfield had to base their designs. One design team led by Stanley Thorpe produced a rifle with a locking system based on the Sturmgewehr. The design used steel pressings which were difficult to obtain, the result of the Polish design teams efforts was the EM-2, which broke significant new ground. The EM-2 contained some similarities to the Soviet AK-47, although Januszewski had never seen the Soviet rifle, the first significant bullpup assault rifle came from the British program to replace the service pistols, sub-machine guns, and rifles. In the two forms of the EM-1 and the EM-2, the new concept was born as a result of the experience with small arms that was gained during the Second World War
23.
Assault rifle
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An assault rifle is a selective-fire rifle that uses an intermediate cartridge and a detachable magazine. Assault rifles were first used during World War II, examples include the StG44, AK-47 and the M16 rifle. However, other sources dispute that Hitler had much to do with coining the new name besides signing the production order, the StG44 is generally considered the first selective fire military rifle to popularize the assault rifle concept. Today, the assault rifle is used to define firearms sharing the same basic characteristics as the StG44. The U. S. Army defines assault rifles as short, compact, in a strict definition, a firearm must have at least the following characteristics to be considered an assault rifle, It must be capable of selective fire. It must have a cartridge, more power than a pistol. Its ammunition must be supplied from a box magazine. It must have a range of at least 300 metres. Rifles that meet most of these criteria, but not all, are not assault rifles. For example, Select-fire M2 Carbines are not assault rifles, their range is only 200 yards. Select-fire rifles such as the FN FAL battle rifle are not assault rifles, semi-automatic-only rifles like variants of the Colt AR-15 are not assault rifles, they do not have select-fire capabilities. Semi-auto rifles with fixed magazines like the SKS are not assault rifles, selective fire rifles like the Fedorov Avtomat which in hindsight could be classified as prototypical assault rifles. However,6. 5x50mm Arisaka is still very much a full-powered rifle cartridge and they would soon develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the range and accuracy of a rifle. The result was the Sturmgewehr 44, which the Germans produced in large numbers and it fired a new and revolutionary intermediate powered cartridge, the 7. 92×33mm Kurz. This new cartridge was developed by shortening the standard 7. 92×57mm Mauser round and giving it a lighter 125-grain bullet, a smaller lighter cartridge also allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition to support the higher consumption rate of automatic fire. The Sturmgewehr 44 features an inexpensive, easy-to-make, stamped steel design and this weapon was the prototype of all successful automatic rifles. The barrel and overall length were shorter than a traditional rifle, on July 15,1943, a Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the Peoples Commissariat of Arms of the USSR. The Soviets soon developed the 7. 62×39mm M43 cartridge, the semi-automatic SKS carbine, shortly after World War II, the Soviets developed the AK-47 assault rifle, which would quickly replace the SKS in Soviet service
24.
Small arms
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In international arms control, small arms include revolvers and pistols, rifles and carbines, assault rifles, submachine guns and light machine guns. Together with light weapons, they comprise the Small Arms and Light Weapons protocol, in the U. S. military, small arms are man portable, individual, and crew-served weapon systems used mainly against personnel and lightly armored or unarmored equipment. However, in regard to management, the U. S. Army says small arms/light weapons are, Handguns, shoulder-fired weapons, light automatic weapons up to. Much of the work to address the illegal arms trade is raised in the United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms. In 2013, the Small Arms Survey said that of the 875 million small arms distributed globally,650 million — almost 75 percent — are in civilian hands, about 200 million are controlled by armed forces and about 26 million by law enforcement agencies. Gang members hold between 2 and 10 million small arms and armed, non-state actors hold about 1.4 million, together, the small-arms arsenals of non-state actors and gangs account for 0.4 to 1.3 percent of the global total. Arms trafficking Firearms Gun control Small arms trade SALW Dikshif, P. Proliferation of Small Arms and Minor Weapons, Strategic Analysis, Vol.17 May 1994. Gould, C. and Lamb, G. Hide & Seek, Taking Account of Small Arms in Southern Africa, Institute for Security Studies, federation of American Scientists Small Arms Monitoring page Small Arms Survey How Small Arms Work - Training Film on YouTube
25.
Long gun
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A long gun is a category of firearms and cannons with longer barrels than other classes. Canada has a limit of 18.5 inches for either, in addition, Canada puts a minimum fireable length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks of 26 inches. In the United States, the length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks is 26 inches with the stock in the extended position. Almost all long-arms have front grips and shoulder stocks, which provides the user the ability to hold the firearm more steadily than a handgun. In addition, the barrel of a long gun usually provides a longer distance between the front and rear sights, providing the user with more precision when aiming. The presence of a stock makes the use of a sight or red dot sight easier than with a hand gun. The mass of a gun is usually greater than that of a short gun, making the long gun more expensive to transport. The increased moment of inertia makes the long gun slower and more difficult to traverse and elevate, however, this also results in greater stability in aiming. The greater amount of material in a long gun tends to make it expensive to manufacture. The greater size makes it difficult to conceal, and more inconvenient to use in confined quarters. As long guns include a stock which is braced against the shoulder and this allows better control of aim than handguns, which do not include a stock and thus all their recoil must be transferred to the arms of the user. This is one of the reasons for the use of long guns over handguns - faster or heavier projectiles help with penetration. Shotguns are long guns that are designed to fire small projectiles at once. This makes them effective at close ranges, but with diminished usefulness at long range. In historical navy usage, a gun was the standard type of cannon mounted by a sailing vessel. In informal usage, the length was combined with the weight of shot, yielding terms like long 9s, rail-gun, any of several guns utilizing one or more rails for mobilizing, stability/shot consistency, or accelerating a projectile Supergun, an extraordinarily large artillery piece
26.
Firearm
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A firearm is a portable gun - a barreled weapon that launches one or more projectiles, often driven by the action of an explosive force. The first primitive firearms originated in 13th-century China when the fire lance was combined with projectiles. The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability, modern firearms can be described by their caliber or in the case of shotguns their gauge, by the type of action employed together with the usual means of deportment. The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms, shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye co-ordination, using either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed 100 yards, while most rifles are accurate to 550 yards using iron sights, some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,200 yards. The smallest of all firearms is the handgun, there are three common types of handguns, single-shot pistols, revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or charge holes in a revolving cylinder, semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to double-action revolvers which accomplish the end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, virtually all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders, with the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owners intention. A long gun is any firearm that is larger than a handgun and is designed to be held. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns, both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting machined into the surface of its barrel. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot, shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds
27.
Gun barrel
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A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, a gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas. Modern small arms barrels are made of known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength, early firearms were muzzle-loading, with powder, and then shot loaded from the muzzle, capable of only a low rate of fire. During the 19th century effective mechanical locks were invented that sealed a breech-loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases, the early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings. The Chinese were the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Bore evacuator Bore snake Cannon Muzzle Polygonal rifling Rifling Slug barrel Smoothbore
28.
Rifling
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In firearms, rifling consists of helical grooves in the internal surface of a guns barrel, which impart a spin to a projectile around its long axis. This spin serves to stabilize the projectile, improving its aerodynamic stability. Rifling is often described by its twist rate, which indicates the distance the rifling takes to complete one revolution, such as 1 turn in 10 inches. A shorter distance indicates a faster twist, meaning that for a given velocity the projectile will be rotating at a spin rate. Barrels intended for long, small-diameter bullets, such as the ultra-low-drag, 80-grain 0.223 inch bullets, extremely long projectiles such as flechettes may require high twist rates, these projectiles must be inherently stable, and are often fired from a smoothbore barrel. Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle. Consequently, on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired, barrel rifling was invented in Augsburg, Germany in 1498. In 1520 August Kotter, an armourer of Nuremberg, Germany improved upon this work, though true rifling dates from the mid-16th century, it did not become commonplace until the nineteenth century. The most successful weapons using rifling with black powder were breech loaders such as the Queen Anne pistol, the grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling, a throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has become popular, polygonal barrels tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land reduces erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities and greater accuracy, polygonal rifling is currently seen on pistols from CZ, Heckler & Koch, Glock, Tanfoglio, and Kahr Arms, as well as the Desert Eagle. Such guns have achieved significant increases in velocity and range. Examples include the South African G5 and the German PzH2000, gain-twist rifling begins with very little change in the projectiles angular momentum during the first few inches of bullet travel after ignition during the transition from chamber to throat. This enables the bullet to remain undisturbed and trued to the case mouth. After engaging the rifling the bullet is progressively subjected to accelerated angular momentum as burning powder propels it down the barrel. By only gradually increasing the rate, torque is spread along a much longer section of barrel. Gain-twist rifling was used as early as the American Civil War, colt Army and Navy revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling
29.
Machining
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Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. Exactly what the part of the definition implies can vary. Machining is a part of the manufacture of metal products, but it can also be used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic. A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist, a room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or both, much of modern-day machining is carried out by computer numerical control, in which computers are used to control the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines. The precise meaning of the term machining has evolved over the past one, in the 18th century, the word machinist simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This persons work was mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of engines, such as James Watt or John Wilkinson, the noun machine tool and the verb to machine did not yet exist. Around the middle of the 19th century, the words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, machining referred to the machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming. In current usage, the term machining without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes, the three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing, turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the machine tool used in turning. Milling operations are operations in which the tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines are the machine tool used in milling. Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with the workpiece, drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills. Burnishing is an example of a miscellaneous operation, burnishing produces no swarf but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or drill press. An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to create a finished product, a finished product would be a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints
30.
Air gun
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Both the rifle and handgun forms typically propel metallic projectiles, either the non-spherical pellets, or the spherical BBs. Certain types of air guns may also propel arrows or darts, the first air guns were developed in the 1500s. The guns have used in hunting, sporting and warfare. Air guns use three types of power, depending on the design, spring-piston, pneumatic and compressed carbon dioxide, Air guns represent the oldest pneumatic technology. The oldest existing mechanical air gun, an air gun dating back to about 1580, is in the Livrustkammaren Museum in Stockholm. This is the time most historians recognize as the beginning of the air gun. In the 17th century, air guns, in calibers. 30–.51, were used to hunt big game deer and these air rifles were charged using a pump to fill an air reservoir and gave velocities from 650 to 1,000 feet per second. They were also used in warfare, the most recognized example being the Girandoni air rifle, at that time, they had compelling advantages over the primitive firearms of the day. For example, air guns could be discharged in wet weather and rain, moreover, they were quieter than a firearm of similar caliber, had no muzzle flash, and were smokeless. Thus, they did not disclose the shooters position or obscure the shooters view, in the hands of skilled soldiers, they gave the military a distinct advantage. France, Austria and other nations had special sniper detachments using air rifles, the Austrian 1770 model was named Windbüchse. The air reservoir was a removable, club-shaped, butt, the Windbüchse carried twenty-two.51 caliber lead balls in a tubular magazine. A skilled shooter could fire off one magazine in about thirty seconds, a shot from this air gun could penetrate an inch thick wooden board at a hundred paces, an effect roughly equal to that of a modern 9×19mm or.45 ACP caliber pistol. The celebrated Lewis and Clark Expedition carried an air gun. It held 22.46 caliber round balls in a tubular magazine mounted on the side of the barrel, the butt served as the air reservoir and had a working pressure of 800 psi. The rifle was said to be capable of 22 aimed shots per minute and had a bore of 0.452 in. One of the first commercially successful and mass-produced air guns was manufactured by the W. F and their first model air gun was called the Challenger and marketed in 1888. Their next model was the Chicago followed by the King, the Chicago model was sold by Sears, Roebuck for 73 cents in its catalog
31.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
32.
Hunting
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Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping animals, or pursuing or tracking them with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to predators that are dangerous to humans or domestic animals. Lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals, Hunting can also be a means of pest control. However, hunting has also contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals. The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of fish is called fishing, the practice of foraging or gathering materials from plants and mushrooms is also considered separate from hunting. The word hunt serves as both a noun and a verb, the noun has been dated to the early 12th century, act of chasing game, from the verb hunt. The meaning of a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds is first recorded in the 1570s, meaning the act of searching for someone or something is from about 1600. The verb, Old English huntian to chase game, perhaps developed from hunta hunter, is related to hentan to seize, from Proto-Germanic huntojan, the general sense of search diligently is first recorded c. Hunting has a history and may well pre-date the rise of the species Homo sapiens. Evidence from western Kenya suggests that hunting has been occurring for more two million years. Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, however, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. The closest surviving relatives of the species are the two species of Pan, the common chimpanzee and bonobos. Common chimpanzees have a diet that includes troop hunting behaviour based on beta males being led by an alpha male. Bonobos have also observed to occasionally engage in group hunting. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as such as dance. Hunting was a component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock
33.
Shooting sports
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A shooting sport is a competitive sport involving tests of proficiency using various types of guns, such as firearms and airguns. Shooting sports are categorized by the type of firearm, target, for similar reasons, concerned over poor marksmanship during the American Civil War, veteran Union officers Col. William C. Church and Gen. George Wingate formed the National Rifle Association of America in 1871 for the purpose of promoting and encouraging rifle shooting on a scientific basis. In 1872, with help from New York state, a site on Long Island. Named Creedmoor, the range opened in 1872, and became the site of the first National Matches until New York politics forced the NRA to move the matches to Sea Girt, New Jersey. The popularity of the National Matches soon forced the event to be moved to its present, much larger location, Camp Perry. In 1903, the U. S. Congress created the National Board for the Promotion of Rifle Practice, the NBPRP also participates in the National Matches at Camp Perry. In 1903, the NRA began to establish rifle clubs at all colleges, universities. By 1906, youth programs were in full swing with more than 200 boys competing in the National Matches, french pistol champion and founder of the modern Olympics, Pierre de Coubertin, participated in many of these early competitions. This fact certainly contributed to the inclusion of five shooting events in the 1896 Olympics, over the years, the events have been changed a number of times in order to keep up with technology and social standards. The targets that formerly resembled humans or animals in their shape, at the same time, some events have been dropped and new ones have been added. The 2004 Olympics featured three shooting disciplines where athletes competed for 51 medals in 10 mens and 7 womens events—slightly fewer than the previous Olympic schedule, the Olympic Games continue to provide the shooting sports with its greatest public relations opportunity. The sport has always enjoyed the distinction of awarding the first medals of the Games, internationally, the International Shooting Sport Federation has oversight of all Olympic shooting events worldwide, while National Governing Bodies administer the sport within each country. Having originally established shooting as a sport in the USA. The NRA dutifully managed and financially supported international and conventional shooting sports for over 100 years until the formation of USA Shooting, modern competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. A person who participates in archery is called an archer or a bowman—and a person who is fond of or an expert at archery is sometimes called a toxophilite. The most popular competitions worldwide are called target archery, another form, particularly popular in Europe and America, is field archery, which generally is shot at targets set at various distances in a wooded setting. There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms, as well as archery novelty games, note that the tournament rules vary from organization to organization
34.
Projectile
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A projectile is any object thrown into space by the exertion of a force. Although any object in motion through space may be called a projectile, mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory. Blowguns and pneumatic rifles use compressed gases, while most other guns and cannons utilize expanding gases liberated by sudden chemical reactions, light-gas guns use a combination of these mechanisms. Railguns utilize electromagnetic fields to provide a constant acceleration along the length of the device. Some projectiles provide propulsion during flight by means of an engine or jet engine. In military terminology, a rocket is unguided, while a missile is guided, note the two meanings of rocket, an ICBM is a guided missile with a rocket engine. An explosion, whether or not by a weapon, causes the debris to act as high velocity projectiles. An explosive weapon, or device may also be designed to produce high velocity projectiles by the break-up of its casing. Many projectiles, e. g. shells, may carry a charge or another chemical or biological substance. Aside from explosive payload, a projectile can be designed to cause damage, e. g. fire. Typical kinetic energy weapons are blunt projectiles such as rocks and round shots, pointed ones such as arrows, among projectiles that do not contain explosives are those launched from railguns, coilguns, and mass drivers, as well as kinetic energy penetrators. Other types of weapons are accelerated over time by a rocket engine. In either case, it is the energy of the projectile that destroys its target. Some kinetic weapons for targeting objects in spaceflight are anti-satellite weapons, since in order to reach an object in orbit it is necessary to attain an extremely high velocity, their released kinetic energy alone is enough to destroy their target, explosives are not necessary. For example, the energy of TNT is 4.6 MJ/kg, and this saves costly weight and there is no detonation to be precisely timed. This method, however, requires direct contact with the target, some hit-to-kill warheads are additionally equipped with an explosive directional warhead to enhance the kill probability. With regard to weapons, the Arrow missile and MIM-104 Patriot PAC-2 have explosives, while the Kinetic Energy Interceptor, Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile. A kinetic projectile can also be dropped from aircraft and this is applied by replacing the explosives of a regular bomb with a non-explosive material, for a precision hit with less collateral damage
35.
Bullet
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The word bullet is a firearm term. A bullet is a projectile expelled from the barrel of a firearm, the term is from Middle French and originated as the diminutive of the word boulle which means small ball. Bullets are made of a variety of materials and they are available singly as they would be used in muzzle loading and cap and ball firearms, as part of a paper cartridge, and much more commonly as a component of metallic cartridges. Bullets are made in a numbers of styles and constructions depending on how they will be used. Many bullets have specialized functions, such as hunting, target shooting, training, defense, a bullet is not a cartridge. In paper and metallic cartridges a bullet is one component of the cartridge, bullet sizes are expressed by their weight and diameter in both English and Metric measurement systems. For example.22 caliber 55 grain bullets or 5. 56mm 55 grain bullets are the same caliber, the word bullet is often used colloquially to refer to a cartridge, which is a combination of the bullet, paper or metallic case/shell, powder, and primer. This use of bullet, when cartridge is intended, leads to confusion when the components of a cartridge are discussed or intended, the bullets used in many cartridges are fired at a muzzle velocity faster than the speed of sound. Meaning they are supersonic and thus can travel a substantial distance, bullet speed through air depends on a number of factors such as barometric pressure, humidity, air temperature, and wind speed. Subsonic cartridges fire bullets slower than the speed of sound and so there is no sonic crack and this means that a subsonic cartridge such as.45 ACP can be effectively suppressed to be substantially quieter than a supersonic cartridge such as the.223 Remington. Bullets do not normally contain explosives, but damage the target by impact. The first use of gunpowder in Europe was recorded in 1247 and it had been used in China for hundreds of years. Later in 1364 hand cannon appeared, early projectiles were made of stone. Stone was used in cannon and hand cannon, in cannon it was eventually found that stone would not penetrate stone fortifications which gave rise to the use of heavier metals for the round projectiles. Hand cannon projectiles developed in a similar following the failure of stone from siege cannon. The first recorded instance of a ball from a hand cannon penetrating armor occurred in 1425. In this photograph of shot retrieved from the wreck of the Mary Rose which was sunk in 1545, the round shot are clearly of different sizes and some are stone while others are cast iron. The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought about the use of cast lead balls as projectiles, bullet is derived from the French word boulette, which roughly means little ball
36.
Deflagration
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Deflagration is a term describing subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer, hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it. Most fires found in life, from flames to explosions, are deflagrations. Deflagration is different from detonation, which propagates supersonically through shock waves and this means that when a substance deflagrates, it burns extremely quickly instead of detonating. Black powder is an example of a substance deflagrates, when it is ignited. In engineering applications, deflagrations are easier to control than detonations, consequently, they are better suited when the goal is to move an object with the force of the expanding gas. Deflagration systems and products can also be used in mining, demolition, adding water to a burning hydrocarbon such as oil or wax produces a deflagration. The water boils rapidly and ejects the burning material as a spray of droplets. A deflagration then occurs as the fine mist of oil ignites and these are particularly common in chip pan fires, which are responsible for one in five household fires in Britain. The burning region is referred to as the flame or flame front. In equilibrium, thermal diffusion across the front is balanced by the heat supplied by burning. There are two characteristic timescales which are important here, the first is the thermal diffusion timescale τ d, which is approximately equal to τ d ≃ δ2 / κ, where κ is the thermal diffusivity. For a stationary moving deflagration front, these two timescales must be equal, the heat generated by burning is equal to the heat carried away by heat transfer. This makes it possible to calculate the characteristic width δ of the front, τ b = τ d. Now, the flame front propagates at a characteristic speed S l. This simplified model neglects the change of temperature and thus the burning rate across the deflagration front and this model also neglects the possible influence of turbulence. As a result, this gives only the laminar flame speed -- hence the designation S l. Damage to buildings, equipment and people can result from a large-scale, in free-air deflagrations, there is a continuous variation in deflagration effects relative to the maximum flame velocity. When flame velocities are low, the effect of a deflagration is to release heat, some authors use the term flash fire to describe these low-speed deflagrations
37.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
38.
Cordite
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Cordite is a family of smokeless propellants developed and produced in the United Kingdom since 1889 to replace gunpowder as a military propellant. Like gunpowder, cordite is classified as a low explosive because of its slow burning rates and these produce a subsonic deflagration wave rather than the supersonic detonation wave produced by brisants, or high explosives. The hot gases produced by burning gunpowder or cordite generate sufficient pressure to propel a bullet or shell to its target, Cordite was used initially in the. Cordite was also used for weapons, such as tank guns, artillery. It has been used mainly for this purpose since the late 19th century by the UK and its use was further developed before World War II, and as 2-and-3-inch-diameter Unrotated Projectiles for launching anti-aircraft weapons. Small cordite rocket charges were developed for ejector seats made by the Martin-Baker Company. Cordite was also used in the system of the Little Boy atomic bomb dropped over Hiroshima in August 1945. The term cordite generally disappeared from official publications between the wars, during World War II double based propellants were very widely used and there was some use of triple based propellants by artillery. For small arms it has replaced by other propellants, such as the Improved Military Rifle line of extruded powder or the WC844 ball propellant currently in use in the 5. 56×45mm NATO. Production ceased in the United Kingdom, around the end of the 20th century, with the closure of the last of the World War II cordite factories, triple base propellant for UK service is now manufactured in Germany. Gunpowder, a mixture of sulfur, charcoal and potassium nitrate, was the original propellant employed in firearms. It was used from about 10th or 11th century onwards, but it had disadvantages, the first smokeless powder was developed in 1865 by Major Johann F. E. Schultze of the Prussian artillery. His formulation was composed of nitrolignose impregnated with saltpetre or barium nitrate, in 1882 the Explosive Company of Stowmarket introduced EC Powder, which contained nitro-cotton and nitrates of potassium and barium in a grain gelatinesed by ether alcohol. It had coarser grains than other nitrocellulose powders and it proved unsuitable for rifles, but it remained in long use for shotguns and was later used for grenades and fragmentation bombs. In 1884, the French chemist Paul Vieille produced a smokeless propellant that had some success and it was made out of collodion, resulting in a plastic colloidal substance which was rolled into very thin sheets, then dried and cut up into small flakes. It was immediately adopted by the French military for their Mle 1886 infantry rifle, the rifle and the cartridge developed to use this powder were known generically as the 8mm Lebel, after the officer who developed its 8 mm full metal jacket bullet. The following year,1887, Alfred Nobel invented and patented a smokeless propellant he called Ballistite and it was composed of 10% camphor, 45% nitroglycerine and 45% collodion. Over time the camphor tended to evaporate, leaving an unstable explosive, using acetone as a solvent, it was extruded as spaghetti-like rods initially called cord powder or the Committees modification of Ballistite, but this was swiftly abbreviated to Cordite
39.
Nitrocellulose
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Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a propellant or low-order explosive, it was known as guncotton. Partially nitrated cellulose has found uses as a film and in inks. In 1862 the first man-made plastic, nitrocellulose, was created by Alexander Parkes from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. Celluloid was used by Kodak, and other suppliers, from the late 1880s as a base in photography, X-ray films, and motion picture films. After numerous fires caused by unstable nitrate films, safety film started to be used from the 1930s in the case of X-ray stock and from 1948 for motion picture film. Henri Braconnot discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible explosive material, a few years later in 1838, another French chemist, Théophile-Jules Pelouze, treated paper and cardboard in the same way. Jean-Baptiste Dumas obtained a material, which he called nitramidine. These substances were highly unstable and were not practical explosives, however, around 1846 Christian Friedrich Schönbein, a German-Swiss chemist, discovered a more practical solution. As he was working in the kitchen of his home in Basel and he reached for the nearest cloth, a cotton apron, and wiped it up. He hung the apron on the door to dry, and, as soon as it was dry. His preparation method was the first to be widely imitated—one part of cotton wool to be immersed in 15 parts of an equal blend of sulfuric and nitric acids. After two minutes, the cotton was removed and washed in water to set the esterification level. It was then dried at a temperature below 40 °C. Schönbein collaborated with the Frankfurt professor Rudolf Christian Böttger, who had discovered the process independently in the same year. By coincidence, a third chemist, the Brunswick professor F. J. Otto had also produced guncotton in 1846 and was the first to publish the process, much to the disappointment of Schönbein and Böttger. The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water, 3HNO3+ C6H10O5 → C6H73O5 + 3H2O The sulfuric acid is present as a catalyst to produce the nitronium ion, the reaction is first order and proceeds by electrophilic substitution at the C-OH centers of the cellulose. The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting, as a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating
40.
Compressed air
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Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. It serves many domestic and industrial purposes, in Europe,10 percent of all industrial electricity consumption is to produce compressed air—amounting to 80 terawatt hours consumption per year. In industry, compressed air is so used that it is often regarded as the fourth utility, after electricity, natural gas. However, compressed air is more expensive than the three utilities when evaluated on a per unit energy delivered basis. Compressed air is used for many purposes, including, Pneumatics, copper, stainless steel and other piping materials that are less corrosive are recommended. If plain carbon steel piping is installed, then rust particles can pass downstream and interfere with the operation of condensate valves, the riser piping should connect to the top of the header piping and be one pipe size larger than the compressor discharge piping and/or overhead header piping. A drip leg with a drain is needed to prevent water flowing back to the compressor. Mount valves in the highest horizontal piping, all of the header main compressed air piping should slope 1/8 to 1/4 per foot down and away from the point of origin. Gravity and airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where a drop leg should be installed to allow for removal at accessible drop legs and drain points. These drops should be installed every 50 to 70 feet in the system, the inlet piping for air dryers should connect to the bottom of the piping headers. Where multiple air compressors are to connect the piping to the top of overhead piping headers. The inlet piping for Air Dryer should connect to the bottom of the piping headers and it is recommended for the inlet pipe to be thermostatically controlled to automatically open and close based on the compressed air room’s temperature. All of the main compressed air piping should slope 1/8 per foot down from the air compressor. Gravity and airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where drop leg should be installed to allow for removal at to accessible drop legs and drain points. For larger plant, as the elevation lowers, a full size tee with a bottom drip leg preceding an elbow turned up to raise the pipe elevation. These drip legs & up turned elbows are typically 200 to 300 feet apart, i. e. the main piping slopes about 1/100 feet, Compressed air should flow through the straight ends of a tee and should never hit the back side of a tee. The air piping drops should connect from the top of the main piping and this prevents any condensate which forms in the main piping from flowing into the branch pipes. Individual shut-off valves should be installed at each drop pipe to isolate it from the rest of the system for maintenance, putting the valve above the header piping in the horizontal section, avoids trapping water on the top side of closed valves in vertical piping
41.
Pest control
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Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, and can be perceived to be detrimental to a persons health, the ecology or the economy. A practitioner of pest control is called an exterminator, Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. In order to maximize production, it is advantageous to protect crops from competing species of plants. Techniques such as rotation, companion planting, and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history. In the UK, following concern about animal welfare, humane pest control, for instance, with the urban red fox which territorial behaviour is used against the animal, usually in conjunction with non-injurious chemical repellents. In rural areas of Britain, the use of firearms for pest control is quite common, chemical pesticides date back 4,500 years, when the Sumerians used sulfur compounds as insecticides. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, in the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development. Many pests have only become a problem as a result of the actions by humans. Modifying these actions can often reduce the pest problem. In the United States, raccoons caused a nuisance by tearing open refuse sacks, many householders introduced bins with locking lids, which deterred the raccoons from visiting. House flies tend to accumulate wherever there is activity and live in close association with people all over the world especially where food or food waste is exposed. Similarly, seagulls have become pests at many seaside resorts, tourists would often feed the birds with scraps of fish and chips, and before long, the birds would rely on this food source and act aggressively towards humans. Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any form of control. Perhaps as far ago as 3000BC in Egypt, cats were being used to control pests of grain such as rodents. In 1939/40 a survey discovered that cats could keep a population of rats down to a low level. However, if the rats were cleared by trapping or poisoning, ferrets were domesticated at least by 500 AD in Europe, being used as mousers. Mongooses have been introduced into homes to control rodents and snakes, biological pest control is the control of one through the control and management of natural predators and parasites. For example, mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, the treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to drink
42.
Shooting at the Summer Olympics
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Shooting sports have been included at every Summer Olympic Games since the birth of the modern Olympic movement at the 1896 Summer Olympics except at the 1904 &1928 editions. Mens Shooting was one of the nine events at the first modern Olympic Games in Athens, in the Paris Games in 1900, live pigeons were used as moving targets. After the 1900 games, the pigeons were replaced with clay targets, in 1907, the International Shooting Sport Federation came into existence and brought some standardizations to the sport. When shooting was reintroduced in 1932, it consisted of two events. From this, the number of events have increased steadily until reaching the 2000–2004 maximum of seventeen events, the 2008 games had only fifteen. Events marked as Mens were actually open events from 1968 until 1980, two women won medals in such mixed events, Margaret Murdock, silver in Rifle 3 positions and Zhang Shan, gold in Skeet. Events on the current program are listed at the top, updated after 2016 Olympics ISSF World Shooting Championships List of Olympic venues in shooting Medals by NOC MEN 1896-2008 WOMEN 1976-2008 ISSF History - International Shooting Sport Federation
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Plinking
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Plinking refers to informal target shooting done for pleasure typically at non-standard targets such as tin cans, logs, soda bottles, or any other homemade or naturally occurring target. A person involving in the exercise is colloquially known as a plinkster. In contrast to shooting done at established target ranges, plinking is generally done at home, in a pit, open field. The term plinking is an onomatopoeia of the sharp, metallic sound that a projectile makes when hitting a metal target, the most common calibre used for plinking is the.22 Long Rifle rimfire cartridge, since these rounds are relatively inexpensive and have a low recoil. Abraham Lincoln used to practice plinking as a good and useful pastime, since target ranges generally charge a fee for the use of their facilities, and shooter usually have to buy their own paper targets, going to a target range can cost significantly. Many shooters also find the air to be a much more pleasant shooting environment than the inside of a target range. Plinking can be alone at the individual pace of the shooter, who is free to move around at will, or in a group. The targets themselves that are used are one of the reasons why plinking is popular among gun enthusiasts. A three dimensional target in a setting is much more akin to a real world hunting scenario. A plinking target will also often much more positively to a hit than a paper target will, either with an audible impact. Glossary of firearms terminology List of rifle cartridges Hunting Target shooting Power Plinker - Promoting the benefits of plinking
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American football
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The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs, or plays, or else they turn over the football to the opposing team, if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs. Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the teams end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponents goalposts for a field goal. The team with the most points at the end of a game wins, American football evolved in the United States, originating from the sports of association football and rugby football. The first game of American football was played on November 6,1869, during the latter half of the 1870s, colleges playing association football switched to the Rugby Union code, which allowed carrying the ball. American football as a whole is the most popular sport in the United States, Professional football and college football are the most popular forms of the game, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. As of 2012, nearly 1.1 million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually, almost all of them men, in the United States, American football is referred to as football. The term football was established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season. The terms gridiron or American football are favored in English-speaking countries where other codes of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, American football evolved from the sports of association football and rugby football. What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6,1869 between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams, the game was played between two teams of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or batted with the feet, hands, head or sides, Rutgers won the game 6 goals to 4. Collegiate play continued for years in which matches were played using the rules of the host school. Representatives of Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19,1873 to create a set of rules for all schools to adhere to. Teams were set at 20 players each, and fields of 400 by 250 feet were specified, Harvard abstained from the conference, as they favored a rugby-style game that allowed running with the ball. An 1875 Harvard-Yale game played under rugby-style rules was observed by two impressed Princeton athletes and these players introduced the sport to Princeton, a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to selling refrigerators to Eskimos. Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Columbia then agreed to play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system. These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, although Yale did not join until 1879, the introduction of the snap resulted in unexpected consequences. Prior to the snap, the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position, however, a group of Princeton players realized that, as the snap was uncontested, they now could hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring. In 1881, both teams in a game between Yale-Princeton used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records, each team held the ball, gaining no ground, for an entire half, resulting in a 0-0 tie
45.
Rugby football
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Rugby is a type of football developed at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, one of many versions of football played at English public schools in the 19th century. The two main types of rugby are rugby league and rugby union, although rugby league initially used rugby union rules, they are now wholly separate sports. Following the 1895 split in rugby football, the two rugby league and rugby union differed in administration only. Soon the rules of rugby league were modified, resulting in two different forms of rugby. After 100 years, in 1995 rugby union joined rugby league, the Greeks and Romans are known to have played many ball games, some of which involved the use of the feet. These games appear to have resembled rugby football, the Roman politician Cicero describes the case of a man who was killed whilst having a shave when a ball was kicked into a barbers shop. Roman ball games already knew the air-filled ball, the follis, episkyros is recognised as an early form of football by FIFA. In 1871, English clubs met to form the Rugby Football Union, in 1892, after charges of professionalism were made against some clubs for paying players for missing work, the Northern Rugby Football Union, usually called the Northern Union, was formed. The existing rugby union authorities responded by issuing sanctions against the clubs, players, after the schism, the separate clubs were named rugby league and rugby union. Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by the first tier unions, Argentina, Australia, England, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. Rugby Union is administered by World Rugby, whose headquarters are located in Dublin and it is the national sport in New Zealand, Wales, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Madagascar, and is the most popular form of rugby globally. The Olympic Games have admitted the seven-a-side version of the game, known as Rugby sevens, there was a possibility sevens would be a demonstration sport at the 2012 London Olympics but many sports including sevens were dropped. In Canada and the United States, rugby union evolved into gridiron football, during the late 1800s, the two forms of the game were very similar, but numerous rule changes have differentiated the gridiron-based game from its rugby counterpart. Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a level by the Rugby League International Federation. International Rugby League is dominated by Australia, England and New Zealand, in Papua New Guinea it is the national sport. Other nations from the South Pacific and Europe also play in the Pacific Cup, distinctive features common to both rugby codes include the oval ball and throwing the ball forward is not allowed, so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. As the sport of rugby league moved further away from its counterpart, rule changes were implemented with the aim of making a faster-paced. League players may not contest possession after making a tackle, play is continued with a play-the-ball, in league, if the team in possession fails to score before a set of six tackles, it surrenders possession
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Round shot
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A round shot is a solid projectile without explosive charge, fired from a cannon. As the name implies, a shot is spherical, its diameter is slightly less than the bore of the gun from which it is fired. Round shot was made in times from dressed stone, referred to as gunstone. However, masonry stone forts designed during the modern period were almost impervious to the effects of roundshot. Grapeshot and round shot were some of the projectiles used in smoothbores. In land battles, round shot would often plough through many ranks of troops and it could bounce when it hit the ground, striking men at each bounce. The casualties from round shot were extremely gory, when fired directly into an advancing column, even when most of its kinetic energy is expended, a round shot still has enough momentum to knock men over and cause gruesome injury. Round shot has the disadvantage of not being fitted into the bore. This causes the shot to rattle down the gun barrel and leave the barrel at an angle unless wadding or a discarding sabot is used, round shot has been totally replaced by modern shells. Round shot is used in historical recreations and historical replica weapons, in the 1860s, some round shots were equipped with winglets in order to benefit from the rifling of cannons. Such round shot would benefit from gyroscopic stability, thereby improving their trajectory, until the advent of the ogival shell
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