1.
Teamsters
–
The International Brotherhood of Teamsters is a labor union in the United States and Canada. The union had approximately 1.3 million members in 2013, formerly known as the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America, the IBT is a member of the Change to Win Federation and Canadian Labour Congress. The American Federation of Labor had helped form local unions of teamsters since 1887, in November 1898, the AFL organized the Team Drivers International Union. In 1901, a group of Teamsters in Chicago, Illinois, broke from the TDIU, claiming more than 28,000 members in 47 locals, its president, Albert Young, applied for membership in the AFL. Shea effectively controlled the convention because the Chicago locals—representing nearly half the IBTs membership—supported for his candidacy en bloc, Shea was opposed by John Sheridan, president of the Ice Drivers Union of Chicago. Sheridan and George Innes, president of the TDIU, accused Shea of embezzlement in an attempt to prevent his election, Shea won the election on August 8,1903, by a vote of 605 to 480. The new grouping elected Edward L. Turley of Chicago as secretary-treasurer and it also meant that Teamsters leaders were able to demand bribes in order to avoid strikes, and control of a Teamsters local could bring organized crime significant revenues. During Sheas presidency, the entire Teamsters union was notoriously corrupt, noted labor historian John R. Commons famously concluded that during this time, the Teamsters were less a union and more a criminal organization. Several major strikes occupied the union in its first three years, in November 1903, Teamsters employed by the Chicago City Railway went out on strike. Shea attempted to stop sympathy strikes by other Teamster locals, a sympathy strike in support of 18,000 striking meat cutters in Chicago in July 1904 led to riots before the extensive use of strikebreakers led Shea to force his members back to work. In the midst of the strife in 1904, the Teamsters convention in Cincinnati, under his leadership, the union had expanded to nearly 50,000 members in 821 locals in 300 cities, making the Teamsters one of the largest unions in the United States. In 190510,000 Teamsters struck in support of locked-out tailors at Montgomery Ward, despite the revelations, Shea won re-election on August 12,1905, by a vote of 129 to 121. Shea was re-elected again in 1905 and 1906, although significant challenges to his presidency occurred each time, Sheas first trial on charges stemming from the 1905 Montgomery Ward strike ended in a mistrial. However, during the 1906 re-election Shea had promised that he would resign the presidency once his trial had ended, but he did not, and most union members withdrew their support for him. Daniel J. Tobin of Boston was elected Sheas successor by a vote of 104 to 94 in August 1907, historic references to early freight transportation in the US refer to teamsters as those who drove teams of horses pulling huge wagons. Tobin was president of the Teamsters from 1907 to 1952, although he faced opposition in his re-election races in 1908,1909 and 1910, he never faced opposition again until his retirement in 1952. The Teamsters began to dramatically and mature organizationally under Tobin. He pushed for the development of joint councils to which all local unions were forced to affiliate, Tobin also actively discouraged strikes in order to bring discipline to the union and encourage employers to sign contracts, and founded and edited the union magazine, the International Teamster
Teamsters
–
Informal portrait of (left to right)
Cornelius P. Shea, John Miller,
Fred Mader, and
Tim Murphy sitting in a row in a courtroom in Chicago, Illinois, during a labor trial. Murphy was a politician, union organizer, and reputed gangster, and he was murdered in 1928.
Teamsters
–
Teamsters
Teamsters
–
A Teamsters gathering at the
YearlyKos 2007 convention
Teamsters
–
Teamsters headquarters located beside
Capitol Hill in
Washington, D.C.
2.
Pipe (material)
–
It can also be used for structural applications, hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members. In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter and a schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, Pipe is generally manufactured to one of several international and national industrial standards. While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing, tube is made to custom sizes. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe, the term tube is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i. e. square or rectangular tubing. In general, pipe is the common term in most of the world. Both pipe and tube imply a level of rigidity and permanence, Pipe assemblies are almost always constructed with the use of fittings such as elbows, tees, and so on, while tube may be formed or bent into custom configurations. For materials that are inflexible, cannot be formed, or where construction is governed by codes or standards, additionally, pipe is used for many purposes that do not involve conveying fluid. Handrails, scaffolding and support structures are constructed from structural pipe. There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture, centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one of the most prominent process. Ductile iron pipes are manufactured in such a fashion. Seamless pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a rod to create the hollow shell. As the manufacturing process does not include any welding, seamless pipes are perceived to be stronger, historically, seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure better than other types, and was often more available than welded pipe. Advances since the 1970s in materials, process control, and non-destructive testing, Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam. The weld flash can be removed from both inner and outer surfaces using a scarfing blade, the weld zone can also be heat-treated to make the seam less visible. Welded pipe often have tighter dimensional tolerances than the seamless type, there are a number of processes that may be used to produce ERW pipes. Each of these leads to coalescence or merging of steel components into pipes. Electric current is passed through the surfaces that have to be welded together, as the components being welded together resist the electric current, ERW pipes are manufactured from the longitudinal welding of steel
Pipe (material)
–
Steel pipes
Pipe (material)
–
Plastic (PVC) pipes in
USA
Pipe (material)
–
Pipe installation on a street in
Belo Horizonte,
Brazil
Pipe (material)
–
Historic
water mains from
Philadelphia included wooden pipes
3.
Riot police
–
Riot police are police who are organized, deployed, trained or equipped to confront crowds, protests or riots. Riot police may be regular police who act in the role of police in particular situations or they may be separate units organized within or in parallel to regular police forces. Riot police are used in a variety of different situations and for a variety of different purposes and they may be employed to control riots as their name suggests, to disperse or control crowds, to maintain public order or discourage criminality, or to protect people or property. In some cases, riot police may function as a tool of repression by violently breaking up protests. In recent decades, observers have noted the increasing militarization of riot and protest policing, with police deploying snipers, flashbang grenades, riot police often use special equipment termed riot gear to help protect themselves and attack others. Riot gear typically includes personal armor, batons, riot shields, many riot police teams also deploy specialized less-than-lethal weapons, such as pepper spray, tear gas, rifles that fire rubber bullets, stun grenades, and Long Range Acoustic Devices
Riot police
–
Rank of
Icelandic National Police officers in full riot gear during the
2008 Icelandic lorry driver protests
Riot police
–
A policeman in riot gear
4.
Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934
–
The Minneapolis general strike of 1934 grew out of a strike by Teamsters against most of the trucking companies operating in Minneapolis, a major distribution center for the Upper Midwest. The strike began on May 16,1934 in the Market District, the worst single day was Friday, July 20, called Bloody Friday, when police shot at strikers in a downtown truck battle, killing two and injuring 67. Ensuing violence lasted periodically throughout the summer, the strike was formally ended on August 22. The International Brotherhood of Teamsters, under the leadership of Daniel Tobin in 1933, was a conservative union averse to strikes. The Teamsters also had a number of locals, Local 574 in Minneapolis. The victory gave the union a great deal of credibility among both drivers and their employers, the union began organizing drivers wherever they could be found. The union also began preparing for the strike in a number of ways and it rented a large hall that could be used as a strike headquarters, kitchen and infirmary. It organized a womens auxiliary to staff the headquarters, finally, it entered into discussions with the sympathetic leaders of organizations of farmers and the unemployed to obtain their support for the upcoming strike. The strike began on May 16,1934, the market was to be the scene of the fiercest fighting during the earliest part of the strike. Fighting began when a loaded truck began leaving a loading dock, other unions, particularly in the building trades, began to strike in sympathy with the Teamsters. The fighting resumed on Tuesday, May 22, the picketers took the offensive and succeeded in driving both police and deputies from the market and the area around the unions headquarters. Two deputies, one a member of the board of directors of the Citizens Alliance, were killed in the fighting, the employers, the Teamsters and the building trades signed a formal truce agreement. Johannes, however, declared that the police would move once the truce expired. At this point city government appealed for Governor Floyd B. Olson to mobilize the National Guard, Olson did, but stopped short of actually deploying them, unwilling to alienate his labor supporters. The union thought that it had the agreement to include the inside workers. When the employers reneged on that agreement the strike resumed on Tuesday, Governor Olson again mobilized, but did not deploy, the National Guard. The unions leadership had chosen to use different tactics in this strike, the police, on the other hand, armed themselves with riot guns which sprayed buckshot over a wide arc. On Friday, July 20, a yellow truck drove to the central market escorted by fifty armed policemen
Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934
–
Open battle between striking teamsters armed with pipes and the police in the streets of Minneapolis
Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934
–
19th century
5.
Tear gas
–
Tear gas, formally known as a lachrymatory agent or lachrymator, is a chemical weapon that causes severe eye, respiratory, and skin irritation, pain, vomiting, and even blindness. In the eye, it stimulates the nerves of the gland to produce tears. Common lachrymators include pepper spray, CS gas, CR gas, CN gas, nonivamide, bromoacetone, xylyl bromide, syn-propanethial-S-oxide, lachrymatory agents are commonly used for riot control. Their use in warfare is prohibited by international treaties. During World War I, increasingly toxic lachrymatory agents were used, tear gas works by irritating mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs, and causes crying, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing, pain in the eyes, and temporary blindness. With CS gas, symptoms of irritation typically appear after 20–60 seconds of exposure, with pepper spray, the onset of symptoms, including loss of motor control, is almost immediate. There can be variation in tolerance and response, according to the National Research Council Committee on Toxicology. The California Poison Control System analyzed 3,671 reports of pepper spray injuries between 2002 and 2011, severe symptoms requiring medical evaluation were found in 6. 8% of people, with the most severe injuries to the eyes, respiratory system and skin. The most severe occurred in law enforcement training, intentionally incapacitating people. Lachrymators are thought to act by attacking sulfhydryl functional groups in enzymes, one of the most probable protein targets is the TRPA1 ion channel that is expressed in sensory nerves of the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs. As with all non-lethal, or less-lethal weapons, there is risk of serious permanent injury or death when tear gas is used. This includes risks from being hit by tear gas cartridges, which include severe bruising, loss of eyesight, skull fracture, skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed. Police and private use is not banned in the same manner. Armed forces can legally use tear gas for drills and for riot control, first used in 1914, xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily prepared. The US Chemical Warfare Service developed tear gas grenades for use in control in 1919. Certain lachrymatory agents are used by police to force compliance. In some countries, another common substance is mace, the self-defense weapon form of mace is based on pepper spray, and comes in small spray cans, and versions including CS are manufactured for police use
Tear gas
–
Tear gas in use in France in 2007
Tear gas
–
Exploded tear gas canister on the fly
Tear gas
–
Tear gas shells used in Istanbul in
2013
Tear gas
–
Tear gas grenade returned to soldiers using sling during weekly protest in
Ni'lin, July 2014
6.
Property
–
In the abstract, property is that which belongs to or with something, whether as an attribute or as a component of said thing. In economics and political economy, there are three forms of property, private property, public property, and collective property. Property that jointly belongs to more than one party may be possessed or controlled thereby in very similar or very distinct ways, whether simply or complexly, whether equally or unequally. However, there is an expectation that each partys will with regard to the property be clearly defined and unconditional, so as to distinguish ownership and this mediating relationship between individual, property and state is called a property regime. The distinction between property and private property is regarded as a confusion since different individuals often hold differing rights over a single object. An article of property may have physical and incorporeal parts, a title, or a right of ownership, establishes the relation between the property and other persons, assuring the owner the right to dispose of the property as the owner sees fit. Often property is defined by the code of the sovereignty, and protected wholly or more usually partially by such entity. The standards of proof concerning proofs of ownerships are also addressed by the code of the local sovereignty, some philosophers assert that property rights arise from social convention, while others find justifications for them in morality or in natural law. Property, in the first instance, is a thing-in-itself, when a person finds a thing and takes that thing into that persons possession and control, then that thing becomes a thing-for-you for that person. Generally, the ground and any buildings which are attached are considered real property, while movable goods. Also, property cannot be considered a concept, because in the first instance. Various scholarly disciplines may treat the concept more systematically, but definitions vary, positive law defines such rights, and the judiciary can adjudicate and enforce property rights. According to Adam Smith, the expectation of profit from improving ones stock of capital rests on private property rights, Capitalism has as a central assumption that property rights encourage their holders to develop the property, generate wealth, and efficiently allocate resources based on the operation of markets. From this has evolved the modern conception of property as a right enforced by law, in the expectation that this will produce more wealth. In his text The Common Law, Oliver Wendell Holmes describes property as having two fundamental aspects, the first, possession, can be defined as control over a resource based on the practical inability of another to contradict the ends of the possessor. The second, title, is the expectation that others will recognize rights to control resource and he elaborates the differences between these two concepts, and proposes a history of how they came to be attached to persons, as opposed to families or to entities such as the church. Classical liberalism subscribes to the theory of property. They hold that each own their own life, it follows that one must own the products of that life
Property
–
Art
Property
–
Fields
7.
People
–
The PEOPLE Party was a political party in the United Kingdom. This article inspired Whittaker and her husband Tony to form a group of professional and business people Club of Thirteen. This included surveyors and property agents Freda Sanders and Michael Benfield, who had ideas to the Whittakers. Its policy concerns published in 1973 included economics, employment, defense, energy supplies, land tenure, pollution and social security, the editor of The Ecologist, Edward Teddy Goldsmith, merged his Italian Movement for Survival with PEOPLE. Goldsmith became one of the members of the new party during the 1970s. The party stood five candidates in the February 1974 General Election who received 4,576 votes spread across six seats, the party lost all its deposits by failing to win an unreformed 12. 5% of the votes cast, namely £900. Following the election, an influx of left-wing activists took PEOPLE in a more left-wing direction, lesley Whittaker and Edward Goldsmith were two of the five which stood in the election. Membership rose and the Party stood five candidates eight months later in the October General Election which cost the party £450 and this affected preparations that election, when PEOPLEs average vote fell to just 0. 7%. After much debate, the partys 1975 conference adopted a proposal to change its name to the Ecology Party to gain recognition as the party of environmental concern. Party co-founder Tony Whittaker noted in an interview with Derek Wall … voters did not connect PEOPLE with ecology. What I wanted was something that the media could look up in their files so that and it was as brutal and basic as that. PEOPLE didnt communicate what we had hoped it would communicate, furthermore, the effect of the revolution of values during the 1960s would come later. Nonetheless, PEOPLE invested much of its resources in engaging with the indifferent environmental movement, which Wall calls a tactical mistake
People
8.
Theft
–
In common usage, a theft is the illegal taking of another persons property or services without that persons permission or consent with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of it. The word is used as an informal shorthand term for some crimes against property, such as burglary, embezzlement, larceny, looting, robbery, shoplifting, library theft. In some jurisdictions, theft is considered to be synonymous with larceny, in others, someone who carries out an act of or makes a career of theft is known as a thief. The act of theft is known by other terms such as stealing, thieving. Theft is the name of an offence in California, Canada, England and Wales, Hong Kong, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland. But if she realises the mistake when she gets home and could return the scarf to Y, note that there may be civil liability for the torts of trespass to chattels or conversion in either eventuality. Section 322 of the Criminal Code provides the definition for theft in Canada,322. Because of this, confidential information cannot be the subject of theft and it cannot be converted, not because it is an intangible, but because, save in very exceptional far‑fetched circumstances, the owner would never be deprived of it. However, the theft of trade secrets in certain circumstances does constitute part of the offence of economic espionage, which can be prosecuted under s.19 of the Security of Information Act. Where a motor vehicle is stolen, Section 333.1 provides for a punishment of 10 years for an indictable offence. Theft is a crime with related articles in the Wetboek van Strafrecht, Article 310 prohibits theft, which is defined as taking away any object that belongs to someone else, with the intention to appropriate it illegally. Maximum imprisonment is 4 years or a fine of the fifth category, Article 311 consists of the following, Part 1. Punishable with maximum imprisonment of 6 years or a fine of the category is,1. Theft during certain occasions,3. Theft during night in a residence by someone who is there without knowledge or permission of the owner,4, Theft by 2 or more organized people,5. Theft, where the thief got access by means of violence, climbing in, when theft if committed as in 3 with the situation of 4 and 5, the punishment is a maximum imprisonment of 9 nears or a fine of the fifth category. Article 312 consists of the following, Part 1 prohibits robbery, maximum imprisonment is 9 years or a fine with the fifth category Part 2 allows maximum imprisonment of 12 years or a fine of the fifth category when,1. Robbery was committed during night, in a residence, on the road or moving train,2
Theft
–
Constant Wauters The caught thief servant, oil on panel, 50 x 39,5, 1845
Theft
–
"Hildebrands Deutscher Kakao" (Hildebrands German Cocao) and "Verbesserte Röntgenstrahlen im Jahre 2000" (Improved X-Rays in the year 2000)
Theft
–
Two young
waifs steal a fine pair of boots.
9.
Vandalism
–
Vandalism is action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. The term includes criminal damage such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner, the term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people. The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths, however, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, the term was quickly adopted across Europe. Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing war, therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Gustave Courbets attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vendôme column, Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the fight against culture, taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on May 23,1871. The criminal fight against culture is only the side of a criminal culture wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche. Private citizens commit vandalism when they damage or deface the property of others or the commons. Some vandalism may qualify as culture jamming or sniggling, it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owners permission, examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard liberation and possibly crop circles. Graffiti on public property is common in inner cities as part of a gang culture. More serious forms of vandalism that may take place during public unrest such as rioting can involve the destruction of public. In elections, opposing candidates supporters may engage in political vandalism - the act of defacing opponents political posters, bumper stickers, billboards, and other street marketing material. Also activists may use the tactic of property destruction as means of protest, e. g. by smashing the windows of banks, shops and government institutions, Vandalism is also a common tactic of black blocs. Opportunistic vandalism of this nature may also be filmed, the mentality of which can be akin to happy slapping, greed can motivate vandalism as can some political ideologies, wish to draw attention to problems, frustration, even playfulness. Youngsters, the most common vandals, frequently experience low status, Vandalism enables powerless people to attack those above them, take control and frighten others. Unpunished vandalism can provide relief which reinforces the behaviour, Vandalism by one person can lead to imitation. Criminological research into vandalism has found that it serves many purposes for those who engage in it, sociologist Stanley Cohen describes six different types of vandalism, Acquisitive vandalism
Vandalism
–
A glass cage with a
draisine that belongs to a private railway history museum in
Münster-Gremmendorf
Vandalism
–
The Vandals sacking Rome
Vandalism
–
Fireworks vandalism of a bus stop in
Rotterdam
Vandalism
–
An example of vandalism on a street sign
10.
Dissent
–
Dissent is a sentiment or philosophy of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea or an entity. The terms antonyms include agreement, consensus and consent, when one party agrees to a made by another. Individuals who do not conform or support the policies of states are known as dissidents. Several thinkers have argued that a society needs not only to protect. Civil disobedience Insubordination Dissenter Dissident Freedom of speech Organizational dissent Political dissent Sedition Schism Eccentricity Scientific dissent
Dissent
–
Sticker art arguing that dissent is necessary for
democracy.
11.
Oppression
–
Oppression, in sociology, activism, social critiques, and other forms of discourse, is a term used to describe systems, relations, or behaviors which disadvantage some groups or individuals. A variety of movements are concerned with resistance to oppression. Social oppression is the socially supported mistreatment and exploitation of a group of individuals, social oppression is based on power dynamics and an individuals social location in society. An individuals social location determines how one will be perceived by others in the whole of society and it maintains three faces of power, the power to design or manipulate the rules, to win the game through force or competition, and the ability to write history. These inequalities further perpetuate themselves because those oppressed rarely have access to resources that would allow them to escape their maltreatment and this can lead to internalized oppression, in which subordinate groups essentially give up the fight to access equality and accept their fate as a non-dominant group. Social oppression can be inflicted on both a macro and a micro level, the macro level focuses on institutionalized oppression, and how individuals within the dominant group are able to apply their resources so that they continue to remain in power. There are many institutionalized barriers that stand in the way of subjugated groups for progressive movements to overcome, examples of social oppression on the macro level are the vast differences that occur in education systems, healthcare policies, and adherence to the law. On a micro level, we look at interpersonal interactions that occur in daily lives and our perceptions of people shape these conversations as the result of stereotypes and believed social norms. From a gender perspective, women have historically seen as the less dominant of the sexes more suitable for home life. With this in mind, most advertisements for domestic products are geared towards women, with more colors on their packaging. Delving further into social oppression on both a macro and micro level, we turn to Black feminist Patricia Hill Collins to what she calls the matrix of domination. The matrix of domination discusses the nature of four domains of power, including the structural, disciplinary, hegemonic. Each of these spheres work to sustain current inequalities that are faced by minority groups, the interpersonal domain is guided by perceptions due to the spheres in the matrix of domination, and therefore plays out in everyday life. The interpersonal domain is situated within the perspective of standpoint theory, standpoint theory deals with an individuals social location in that each person will have a very different perspective based on where they are positioned in society. For instance, a White male, living in America will have a different take on an issue such as abortion than that of a Black female. Each will have different knowledge claims and experiences that will have shaped how they perceive abortion, from an oppression viewpoint, standpoint theory proves to be quite pertinent. Oftentimes certain aspects of society, and the knowledge that they hold, are kept suppressed because they are viewed as points of view. This leaves their voices unacknowledged, and their perspective from mainstream society, institutional Oppression occurs when established laws, customs, and practices systemically reflect and produce inequities based on ones membership in targeted social identity groups
Oppression
–
Oppression derives from the concept of being weighted down, and is often depicted as such. Here, a
political cartoon shows a
Jew laboring under the metaphorical oppression of the
Russian Tsar
12.
Taxation
–
A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
Taxation
–
Pieter Brueghel the Younger, The tax collector's office, 1640
Taxation
–
Taxation
Taxation
–
Egyptian
peasants seized for
non-payment of taxes. (
Pyramid Age)
13.
Conscription
–
Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme
Conscription
–
Ottoman
janissaries
Conscription
–
Conscription of Poles to the Russian Army in 1863.
Conscription
–
Young men registering for conscription during
World War I, New York City, June 5, 1917.
Conscription
–
Soviet conscripts. Moscow, 1941.
14.
Ethnic group
–
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
Ethnic group
–
Before the 1970s, the
Korowai people of
Papua were an
uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000.
Ethnic group
–
The
Assyrians are the indigenous peoples of
Northern Iraq.
Ethnic group
–
Some European ethnic groups, such as
Basque people, do not constitute a majority in any one country.
15.
Sectarian violence
–
Religious segregation often plays a role in sectarian violence. Sectarian violence differs from the concept of race riot and it may involve the dynamics of social polarization, the balkanization of a geographic area along the lines of self-identifying groups, and protracted social conflict. Some of the possible enabling environments for sectarian violence include power struggles, political climate, social climate, cultural climate, following the onset of the Protestant Reformation, a series of wars were waged in Europe starting circa 1524 and continuing intermittently until 1648. Although sometimes unconnected, all of these wars were influenced by the religious change of the period. According to Miroslav Volf, the European wars of religion were a factor behind the emergence of secularizing modernity. In the St. Bartholomews Day massacre followers of the Roman Catholic Church killed up to 30,000 Huguenots in mob violence, the massacres were carried out on the national day celebrating Bartholomew the Apostle. The killings have been called the worst of the religious massacres. Since the 16th century there has been sectarian conflict of varying intensity between Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland and this religious sectarianism is connected to a degree with nationalism. Reactions to sectarian domination and abuse have resulted in accusations of sectarianism being levelled against the minority community, steve Bruce, a sociologist, wrote, The Northern Ireland conflict is a religious conflict. Reviewers agreed Of course the Northern Ireland conflict is at heart religious, john Hickey wrote, Politics in the North is not politics exploiting religion. In the case of Northern Ireland the relationship is more complex. It is more a question of religion inspiring politics than of politics making use of religion and it is a situation more akin to the first half of seventeenth century England than to the last quarter of twentieth‑century Britain. The period from 1969 to 2002 is known as The Troubles, about one in eight females and one in five males in Northern Ireland identified themselves as belonging to no religion. However, people of no religion and non-Christian faiths are still considered as belonging to one of the two sects along with churchgoers, in each case, the percentage in the Northern Irish Life & Times Survey in 2015 was 57%. Roman Catholics are more likely to reject the label British than Protestants are to reject the label Irish, there is an equal level of support for the more neutral Northern Irish identity, with 25% of people from each religion likely to choose that label as the best description. Over a third of people with no religion prefer to be described as Northern Irish, there are organizations dedicated to the reduction of sectarianism in Northern Ireland. The Corrymeela Community of Ballycastle operates a retreat centre on the northern coast of Northern Ireland to bring Catholics, the Ulster Project works with teenagers from Northern Ireland and the United States to provide safe, non-denominational environments to discuss sectarianism in Northern Ireland. These organizations are attempting to bridge the gap of historical prejudice between the two religious communities, the Society of Friends have long been an advocate of co-education in terms of religion, operating the Friends School in Lisburn
Sectarian violence
–
Sectarian battle between
Sunnis and
Shias at the
Battle of Siffin.
Sectarian violence
–
The
Battle of the White Mountain in
Bohemia (1620)—one of the decisive battles of the
Thirty Years War
16.
Pogrom
–
A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire, similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. First recorded in 1882, the Russian word pogrom is a derived from the verb gromit meaning to destroy, to wreak havoc. Its literal translation is to harm, the noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed via Yiddish. Its widespread circulation in todays world began with the excesses in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883. Anti-Jewish riots took place in Europe already in the Middle Ages, some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed in this period, extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. The first atrocities against Jewish civilians, on a scale of destruction, were committed during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, although it is estimated that about 20 percent of Jews of the region were killed. Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytskys Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. In conquered territories, a new entity called Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jewish people from the former Commonwealth were only allowed to reside within the Pale, including families expelled by decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia, Jewish self-governing Kehilla was abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. The first, in the 20th century Russia, was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 47 Jews were killed and it was followed by the Kiev pogrom of October 1905, resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. However, at about the time, the Jewish Labour Bund began organizing armed self-defence units ready to shoot. According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920, there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless. Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War and the Revolution of 1917. Professor Zvi Gitelman estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine thus amounting to a greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648
Pogrom
–
Plundering the
Judengasse, a Jewish ghetto in
Frankfurt am Main, on 22 August 1614.
Pogrom
–
The
Hep-Hep riots in Frankfurt, 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with pitchfork and broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails, and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher," holds another Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. The houses are being looted. A contemporary engraving by
Johann Michael Voltz.
Pogrom
–
Jewish Cemetery, Samuel Hirszenberg (1892) -
Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme
17.
Football hooliganism
–
Football hooliganism is unruly, violent, and destructive behaviour by football supporters. Football hooliganism normally involves conflict between gangs, often known as football firms, formed for the purpose of intimidating and physically attacking supporters of other teams, other terms commonly used in connection with hooligan firms include army, boys, casuals, and crew. Certain clubs have long-standing rivalries with other clubs and hooliganism associated with matches between them is likely to be more severe, conflict may take place before, during or after matches. Participants often select locations away from stadia to avoid arrest by the police, in extreme cases, hooligans, police, and bystanders have been killed, and body-armoured riot police have intervened with tear gas, police dogs, armoured vehicles and water cannons. Hooligan-led violence has been called aggro and bovver, to run opposing hooligans is to make them flee. Hooligans who can afford the time and money follow national teams to away matches and they may also become involved in disorder involving the general public. While national-level firms do not exist in the form of club-level firms, fighting with weapons including sports bats, glass bottles, rocks, rebar, knives, machetes and firearms. Disorderly crowd behaviour such as pushing, which may cause stadium fixtures such as fences, similar effects can occur when law-abiding crowds try to flee disorder caused by hooligans. The first instance of violence is unknown, but the phenomenon can be traced back to 14th-century England. In 1314, Edward II banned football because he believed the disorder surrounding matches might lead to social unrest and this same paper also identified pitch invasions as a common occurrence during the 1880s in English football. In 1885, after Preston North End beat Aston Villa 5–0 in a friendly match, one Preston player was beaten so severely that he lost consciousness and press reports at the time described the fans as howling roughs. The following year, Preston fans fought Queens Park fans in a railway station—the first alleged instance of football hooliganism outside of a match. In 1905, a number of Preston fans were tried for hooliganism, including a drunk and disorderly 70-year-old woman, the label football hooliganism first began to appear in the English media in the mid-1960s, leading to increased media interest in, and reporting of, acts of disorder. It has been argued that this in turn created a moral out of proportion with the scale of the actual problem. Football hooliganism has factors in common with juvenile delinquency and what has been called ritualized male violence, Football violence is also thought to reflect expressions of strong emotional ties to a football team, which may help to reinforce a supporter’s sense of identity. Writing for the BBC in 2013, David Bond stated that in the UK, the scale of trouble now compared to then doesnt bear comparison – either in terms of the number of people involved or the level of organisation. Football has moved on thanks to banning orders and better, more sophisticated policing, and while it is too simplistic to say that the higher cost of watching football has pushed unsavoury elements out, there has been a shift in the way people are expected to behave inside grounds. Offensive chants are still way too commonplace but actual fighting doesnt happen very often, Football hooligans often appear to be less interested in the football match than in the associated violence
Football hooliganism
–
Lokomotive Leipzig fans leave their seats before their team's encounter with
Dynamo Schwerin in the East German
FDGB-Pokal in 1990
Football hooliganism
–
Moroccan football hooligans, April 2012
Football hooliganism
–
Fans of the
FC Karpaty Lviv football club honoring the
Nazi Waffen-SS Galizien division, in
Lviv, Ukraine, 2013
Football hooliganism
–
Czech police prepare for trouble after a match by suiting up in riot gear.
18.
Herd behavior
–
Herd behavior describes how individuals in a group can act collectively without centralized direction. A group of fleeing from a predator shows the nature of herd behavior. Thus the herd appears as a unit in moving together, Asymmetric aggregation of animals under panic conditions has been observed in many species, including humans, mice, and ants. Theoretical models have demonstrated symmetry-breaking similar to observations in empirical studies, for example, when panicked individuals are confined to a room with two equal and equidistant exits, a majority will favor one exit while the minority will favor the other. Possible mechanisms for this behavior include Hamilton’s selfish herd theory, neighbor copying, characteristics of escape panic include, Individuals attempt to move faster than normal. Escape is slowed by fallen individuals serving as obstacles, Individuals display a tendency towards mass or copied behavior. Alternative or less used exits are overlooked, the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche were among the first to criticize what they referred to as the crowd and herd morality and the herd instinct in human society. Modern psychological and economic research has identified herd behavior in humans to explain the phenomena of large numbers of people acting in the way at the same time. The British surgeon Wilfred Trotter popularized the herd behavior phrase in his book, Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War. In The Theory of the Leisure Class, Thorstein Veblen explained economic behavior in terms of influences such as emulation. Other social scientists explored behaviors related to herding, such as Freud, Carl Jung, swarm theory observed in non-human societies is a related concept and is being explored as it occurs in human society. Large stock market trends often begin and end periods of frenzied buying or selling. Many observers cite these episodes as examples of herding behavior that is irrational and driven by emotion—greed in the bubbles. Individual investors join the crowd of others in a rush to get in or out of the market, some followers of the technical analysis school of investing see the herding behavior of investors as an example of extreme market sentiment. Hey and Morone analyzed a model of behavior in a market context. Their work is related to at least two important strands of literature, the first of these strands is that on herd behavior in a non-market context. The seminal references are Banerjee and Bikhchandani, Hirshleifer and Welch, the second of the strands of literature motivating this paper is that of information aggregation in market contexts. In this strand of the literature, the most commonly used empirical methodologies to test for herding toward the average, are the works of Christie and Huang and Chang, Cheng, overall, it was shown that it is possible to observe herd-type behavior in a market context
Herd behavior
–
Biological swarming
Herd behavior
19.
T. S. Ashton
–
Thomas Southcliffe Ashton was an English economic historian. He was professor of history at the London School of Economics at the University of London from 1944 until 1954. His best known work is the 1948 textbook The Industrial Revolution and he donated money to provide the T. S. Ashton Prize, an annual award from the Economic History Society. Following a BBC Freedom of Information request in January 2012, it was revealed that Ashton turned down a knighthood in 1957, Ashton was educated at the Ashton-under-Lyne secondary school and Manchester University. His academic career was focused on economics and public finance, Ashton was Assistant Lecturer in Economics at the Sheffield University from 1912 to 1919, and from 1919 to 1921, he was Lecturer and Tutor at Birmingham University. In 1921, he was appointed Senior Lecturer in Economics at Manchester University, eventually, he became Dean of the Faculty of Commerce and Administration and served in this capacity from 1938 to 1944. He then became professor of history at the London School of Economics where he served from 1944 to 1954. He was president of both the Manchester Statistical Society and the Economic History Society, schumpeter, edited by T. S. Ashton Economic History Society
T. S. Ashton
–
T.S. Ashton in 1950.
20.
Colliery
–
Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore, in the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine a pit, the above-ground structures the pit head. In Australia, colliery generally refers to a coal mine. In the United States colliery has been used to describe a coal mine operation, Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years, from the early days of men tunnelling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts, to large open cut and long wall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks, small-scale mining of surface deposits dates back thousands of years. For example, in Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting most of the major coalfields by the late 2nd century AD. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century and later spread to continental Europe, international trade expanded rapidly when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships. Until the late nineteenth century coal was mined using a pick and shovel. Coal-cutting machines were introduced in the 1880s, by 1912, surface mining was conducted with steam shovels designed for coal mining. The most economical method of extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground, many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two methods of mining. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft are usually deep mined, for example, some western U. S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet. Coals occurring below 300 ft are usually deep mined, However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 1000–1500 feet below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut mining methods, open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, the overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured, the coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used
Colliery
–
A painting depicting men leaving a UK colliery at the close of a shift.
Colliery
–
Surface coal mining in
Wyoming in the United States.
Colliery
–
A coal mine in
Bihar, India.
Colliery
–
A coal mine in
Frameries, Belgium.
21.
River Tyne
–
The River Tyne /ˈtaɪn/ is a river in North East England and its length is 73 miles. It is formed by the confluence of two rivers, the North Tyne and the South Tyne and these two rivers converge at Warden Rock near Hexham in Northumberland at a place dubbed The Meeting of the Waters. The North Tyne rises on the Scottish border, north of Kielder Water and it flows through Kielder Forest, and passes through the village of Bellingham before reaching Hexham. The South Tyne rises on Alston Moor, Cumbria and flows through the towns of Haltwhistle and Haydon Bridge, hadrians Wall lies to the north of the Tyne Gap. Coincidentally the source of the South Tyne is very close to the sources of the two great rivers of the industrial north east namely the Tees and the Wear. The South Tyne Valley falls within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty - the second largest of the 40 AONBs in England, to the east of Gateshead and Newcastle, the Tyne divides Hebburn and Jarrow on the south bank from Walker and Wallsend on the north bank. Jarrow and Wallsend are linked underneath the river by the Tyne Tunnel, finally it flows between South Shields and Tynemouth into the North Sea. The Tyne Rivers Trust measure the whole Tyne catchment as 2,936 square kilometres, the River Tyne is believed to be around 30 million years old. The largest coal staithes were located at Dunston in Gateshead, Hebburn and Tyne Dock, the dramatic wooden staithes at Dunston, built in 1890, have been preserved, although they were partially destroyed by fire in 2006. And to this day in 2016 Tyne Dock, South Shields is still involved with coal, the tidal river is now managed by the Port of Tyne Authority. Nothing definite is known of the origin of the designation Tyne, nor is the known by that name until the Saxon period. There is a theory that Tīn was a word that meant river in the local Celtic language or in a language spoken in England before the Celts came, there is also a river Tyne that rises in Midlothian in Scotland and flows through East Lothian into the North Sea. The River Vedra on the Roman map of Britain may be the Tyne, the late Thomas John Taylor supposed that the main course of the river anciently flowed through what is now Team Valley, its outlet into the tidal river being by a waterfall at Bill Point. His theory is not far from the truth, as there is evidence that prior to the last Ice Age, Ice diverted the course of the Wear to its current location, flowing east the course of the Tyne) and joining the North Sea at Sunderland. Sculpted by David Wynne, the bronze figure incorporates flowing water into its design. The Environment Agency is currently working with architects and cultural consultancy xsite, in collaboration with Commissions North, the Tyne Salmon Trail will serve as a celebration of the river, its heritage and its increasingly diverse ecosystem. FINS, REFLECTION and JOURNEY were the first 3 cubes to be launched in December 2007 from a family of 10, each cube is inspired by the textures, changing colours, movement and journey of the salmon. With each offering a modern day keepsake to take away, in the form of a designed Bluetooth message, for three days, between 18–20 July 2008, a temporary bamboo artwork was installed over the Tyne close to the Gateshead Millennium Bridge
River Tyne
–
River Tyne Quayside
River Tyne
–
Abandoned drydocks on South Shields river front
River Tyne
–
The River Tyne at
Bill Quay
River Tyne
–
The Tyne Bridge across the River Tyne between
Newcastle upon Tyne and
Gateshead. Taken from the deck of the Gateshead Millennium Bridge, looking west and upstream.
22.
Falmouth, Cornwall
–
Falmouth is a town, civil parish and port on the River Fal on the south coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It has a resident population of 27,422. See also, Miss Susan Gays Falmouth chronology The name Falmouth is of English origin and it is claimed that an earlier Celtic name for the place was Peny-cwm-cuic which is the same as the anglicised Pennycomequick district in Plymouth. Falmouth was where Henry VIII built Pendennis Castle to defend Carrick Roads in 1540, the main town of the district was then at Penryn. Sir John Killigrew created the town of Falmouth shortly after 1613, in the late 16th century, under threat from the Spanish Armada, the defences at Pendennis were strengthened by the building of angled ramparts. During the Civil War, Pendennis Castle was the second to last fort to surrender to the Parliamentary Army. After the Civil War, Sir Peter Killigrew received royal patronage when he gave land for the building of the Church of King Charles the Martyr, dedicated to Charles I, the Martyr. The seal of Falmouth was blazoned as An eagle displayed with two heads and on each wing with a tower, the arms of the borough of Falmouth were Arg. The Falmouth Packet Service operated out of Falmouth for over 160 years between 1689 and 1851 and its purpose was to carry mail to and from Britains growing empire. As the most south-westerly good harbour in Great Britain, Falmouth was often the first port for returning Royal Navy ships, in 1805 news of Britains victory and Admiral Nelsons death at Trafalgar was landed here from the schooner Pickle and taken to London by stagecoach. On 2 October 1836 HMS Beagle anchored at Falmouth at the end of her noted survey voyage around the world and that evening, Charles Darwin left the ship and took the Mail coach to his family home at The Mount, Shrewsbury. The ship stayed a few days and Captain Robert FitzRoy visited the Fox family at nearby Penjerrick Gardens, darwins shipmate Sulivan later made his home in the nearby waterside village of Flushing, then home to many naval officers. In 1839 Falmouth was the scene of a gold dust robbery when £47,600 worth of gold dust from Brazil was stolen on arrival at the port, the Falmouth Docks were developed from 1858, and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution opened Falmouth Lifeboat Station nearby in 1867. The present building dates from 1993 and also houses Her Majestys Coastguard, the RNLI operates two lifeboats from Falmouth, Richard Cox Scott, a 17-metre Severn-class all-weather boat, and Eve Park, an Atlantic 75 inshore lifeboat. Near the town centre is Kimberley Park, the land pre-dates 1877, and is named after the Earl of Kimberley who leased the parks land to the borough of Falmouth. Today the park has exotic and ornate plants and trees, the Cornwall Railway reached Falmouth on 24 August 1863. The railway brought new prosperity to Falmouth, as it made it easy for tourists to reach the town and it also allowed the swift transport of the goods recently disembarked from the ships in the port. The town now has three railway stations, Falmouth Docks railway station is the original terminus and is close to Pendennis Castle and Gyllyngvase beach
Falmouth, Cornwall
–
Falmouth Harbour
Falmouth, Cornwall
–
Falmouth Parish Church, Church Street, dedicated to
"King Charles the Martyr"
Falmouth, Cornwall
–
The
Falmouth Lifeboat moored by the docks with the old town and The Penryn River in the background
Falmouth, Cornwall
–
Falmouth Harbour,
National Maritime Museum, Cornwall and
Pendennis Castle.
23.
Video camera
–
A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed for the television industry but now common in other applications as well. The earliest video cameras were those of John Logie Baird, based on the mechanical Nipkow disk, all-electronic designs based on the video camera tube, such as Vladimir Zworykins Iconoscope and Philo Farnsworths image dissector, supplanted the Baird system by the 1930. The transition to digital TV gave a boost to digital cameras and by the 2010s. With the advent of video capture, the distinction between professional video cameras and movie cameras has disappeared as the intermittent mechanism has become the same. Nowadays, mid-range cameras exclusively used for television and other work are termed professional video cameras, video cameras are used primarily in two modes. The first, characteristic of early broadcasting, is live television. A few cameras still serve live television production, but most live connections are for security, military/tactical, recorded video is used in television production, and more often surveillance and monitoring tasks in which unattended recording of a situation is required for later analysis. Modern video cameras have numerous designs and uses, professional video cameras, such as those used in television production, may be television studio-based or mobile in the case of an electronic field production. Such cameras generally offer extremely fine-grained manual control for the camera operator and they usually use three sensors to separately record red, green and blue. Since the transition to video cameras, most cameras have in-built recording media. Action cameras often have 360° recording capabilities, closed-circuit television generally uses pan tilt zoom cameras, for security, surveillance, and/or monitoring purposes. Webcams are video cameras which stream a live feed to a computer. Camera phones have video cameras that are incorporated into mobile phones, special camera systems are used for scientific research, e. g. on board a satellite or a spaceprobe, in artificial intelligence and robotics research, and in medical use. Such cameras are often tuned for non-visible radiation for infrared or X-ray
Video camera
–
Modern digital television camera with a DIGI SUPER 86II xs lens from Canon. The camera was used during a bandy match between Hammarby and GAIS in Elitserien, Zinkendamms IP (Stockholm) 2012-02-11.
24.
CS gas
–
The compound 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile, a cyanocarbon, is the defining component of a tear gas commonly referred to as CS gas, which is used as a riot control agent. CS gas is an aerosol of a solvent and 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile. CS gas is generally accepted as being non-lethal and it was first synthesized by two Americans, Ben Corson and Roger Stoughton, at Middlebury College in 1928, and the chemicals name is derived from the first letters of the scientists surnames. CS was developed and tested secretly at Porton Down in Wiltshire, England, CS was used first on animals, then subsequently on British Army servicemen volunteers. CS has less effect on animals due to under-developed tear-ducts and protection by fur, the production method has not changed since the substance was discovered by Corson and Stoughton. Other bases, solvent free methods and microwave promotion have been suggested to improve the production of the substance, the physiological properties had been discovered already by the chemists first synthesising the compound in 1928, Physiological Properties. Certain of these dinitriles have the effect of sneeze and tear gases and they are harmless when wet but to handle the dry powder is disastrous. As 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile is a solid at room temperature, not a gas, CS from thermal grenades by generation of hot gases. In the Waco Siege, CS was dissolved in the organic solvent dichloromethane, the solution was dispersed as an aerosol via explosive force and when the highly volatile dichloromethane evaporated, CS crystals precipitated and formed a fine dispersion in the air. Many types of gas and other riot control agents have been produced with effects ranging from mild tearing of the eyes to immediate vomiting. CN and CS are the most widely used and known, but around 15 different types of gas have been developed worldwide e. g. adamsite or bromoacetone, CNB. CS has become the most popular due to its strong effect, the effect of CS on a person will depend on whether it is packaged as a solution or used as an aerosol. The size of droplets and the size of the CS particulates after evaporation are factors determining its effect on the human body. The chemical reacts with moisture on the skin and in the eyes, causing a burning sensation and it will also burn the skin where sweaty and/or sunburned. In highly concentrated doses it can induce severe coughing and vomiting. Almost all of the effects wear off within an hour, although the feeling of burning. Affected clothing will need to be washed several times or thrown away, people or objects contaminated with CS gas can cause secondary exposure to others, including healthcare professionals and police. In addition, repeated exposure may cause sensitisation, although described as a non-lethal weapon for crowd control, studies have raised doubts about this classification
CS gas
–
CS Gas used on 1 May 2013 in Istanbul
CS gas
–
CS gas
CS gas
–
Tear gas shells used in Istanbul in 2013
CS gas
–
CS gas shells used in Taksim Gezi Park, Istanbul, May 2013
25.
Less-than-lethal
–
It is often understood that unintended or incidental casualties are risked wherever force is applied, but non-lethal weapons try to minimise the risk as much as possible. Non-lethal weapons may be used by military in a range of missions across the force continuum. They may also be used by police, by United Nations forces. Non-lethal weapons may also be used to channelize a battlefield, control the movement of civilian populations, in the past, military and police faced with undesirable escalation of conflict had few acceptable options. Military personnel guarding embassies often found themselves restricted to carrying unloaded weapons, national guards or policing forces charged with quelling riots were able to use only batons or similar club-like weapons, or bayonet or saber charges, or fire live ammunition at crowds. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Non-lethality Policy Review Group at U. S, the U. S. Congress and other governments agreed and began an organized development of non-lethal weapons to provide a range of options between talking and shooting. Some non-lethal weapons may provide more effective riot control than firearms, the skin temperature of a person subjected to this weapon can jump to approximately 130 °F in as little as 2 seconds depending on the skins starting temperature. In 2011, the Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Directorate Non-Lethal Weapons Reference Book was created, the weapons in this book are currently in development. Until the development of weapons, police officers around the world had few if any non-lethal options for riot control. Other reasonably successful approaches included shotguns with lower-powered cartridges, salt shells, using bean-bag rounds, in the mid-20th century, with the integration of fire-control systems into major cities, police found that high-pressure fire hoses could be effective in dispersing a crowd. Trained police dogs were also used to scare and disperse rioters. In the 1980s the development of the high-tensile plastics Kevlar and Lexan revolutionized personal armor and shields, officers could now stand up against violent rioters throwing dangerous projectiles without having to resort to lethal methods to quickly disperse the danger. Police officers on patrol were traditionally armed with a baton or pistol or both, and non-lethal methods of subduing an attacker centered on hand-fighting techniques such as jujutsu, however, these weapons were developed for non-lethal resolution of a one-on-one conflict. During the 1990s and early 2000s interest in other forms of less-than-lethal weapons for military. Amongst other factors, the use of weapons may be legal under international law. Less-than-lethal weapons are useful in keeping the peace in the aftermath of violent conflict. In the late 1990s and early 2000s police began to adopt a new pepper spray delivery system based on the equipment used in paintballs, the impact of the capsule is immediately painful, and it breaks open on impact, dispersing the capsaicin with similar effect to aerosol-delivered pepper spray. However, to be most effective, pepper spray must contact the eyes, nose, or mouth of the target, non-lethal weapons ability to incapacitate with minimal lasting effects has made them the weapon of choice for use in civilian populations
Less-than-lethal
–
An instruction on Oleoresin Capsicum spray at a
Marine Corps Base Camp
Less-than-lethal
–
Demonstration of the use of Taser gun on US military personnel. The device was originally developed for use by civilian police.
Less-than-lethal
–
Humvee with
Active Denial System mounted
Less-than-lethal
–
Long Range Acoustic device mounted on police vehicle, 2004 Republican National Convention, New York City
26.
Flexible baton round
–
A bean bag round, also known by its trademarked name flexible baton round, is a baton round fired as a shotgun shell used for less lethal apprehension of suspects. The bean bag round consists of a small fabric “pillow” filled with #9 lead shot weighing about 40 grams and it is fired from a normal 12-gauge shotgun. When fired, the bag is expelled at around 70 to 90 metres per second, it out in flight. It is designed to deliver a blow that will cause minimum long-term trauma and no penetration, the shotgun round is inaccurate over about 6 metres and has a maximum range of around 20 metres. The round is intended to disable the person without killing him, a bean bag round can severely injure or kill in a wide variety of ways. They have caused one death a year since their introduction in the U. S. A round can hit the chest, break the ribs and send the broken ribs into the heart, a shot to the head can break the nose, crush the larynx or even break the neck or skull of the subject. This is why many officers are taught to aim for the extremities when using a bean bag round, fatalities are occasionally the result of mistaking other shotgun rounds for bean bags. In 2013, in Park Forest, Illinois, an autopsy showed that a 95-year-old man had died from hemoperitoneum as a result of being shot by police with a bag gun. Non-lethal weapon Wooden bullet Victoria Snelgrove Rising, David
Flexible baton round
–
Two views of intact bean bag round and one view of the projectile
Flexible baton round
–
A RCMP officer in 2010 armed with a shotgun outfitted to fire beanbag rounds
27.
Tompkins Square Riot (1874)
–
The riot occurred in the midst of the Panic of 1873, a depression that began in 1873 and lasted for several years. Workers movements throughout the United States had been making demands of the government to ease the strain of the depression. Organizations rejected offers of charity and instead asked for public programs that would provide jobs for the masses of unemployed. Formed in December 1873, The Committee of Safety in New York City tried to organize a meeting with city officials but was denied any such opportunity. A separate organization, headed by Patrick Dunn, then called for a militant demonstration on January 5. The demonstrators demands were turned down by Aldermen at City Hall, over 1,000 people showed up for the January 8th demonstration in Union Square. The police also sent one precincts full reserve force, Dunn proposed for the crowd to march on City Hall again but was outnumbered by Committee of Safety supporters, who instead chose to march to Tompkins Square. Another precinct had its reserve force ready in Tompkins Square, the Committee of Safetys attempts to pacify the movement did not bring them any sympathy however. Across the city, newspapers warned of the menace that the Committee represented and it was rumored that weapons had been bought with jewels stolen in Paris by Communards. The Police Board refused to allow the demonstration to come near City Hall, when asked, Governor John A. Dix rejected the Committees pleas to intervene on their behalf in the matter. In the end, the Committee decided not to have a march at all, at the request of the Police Board, however, the Department of Parks revoked the permit the night before the meeting. The police claimed to have told the Committee of Safety organizer Peter J. McGuire about the change of decision, the Department of Parks decision certainly was not made known to the masses of protesters in time to cancel the demonstration the next morning. Over 7,000 workers gathered in Tompkins Square Park on January 13,1874 and this was the largest demonstration that New York City had ever seen. Roughly 1,600 policemen were stationed in the surrounding area, there were no notices in sight, however, to inform the crowd that the meeting’s permit had been revoked. Shortly after 10 a. m. police entered the square and dispersed most of the crowd from the park, other police on horseback cleared the surrounding streets. Men from the German Tenth Ward Workingmens Association fought back, attempting to defend the square, one policeman was hit in the head with a hammer. Christian Mayer was arrested for the incident, samuel Gompers described the events and his experiences, mounted police charged the crowd on Eighth Street, riding them down and attacking men, women, and children without discrimination. It was an orgy of brutality, I was caught in the crowd on the street and barely saved my head from being cracked by jumping down a cellarway
Tompkins Square Riot (1874)
–
Crowd driven from Tompkins Square by the mounted police
28.
Religious riot
–
Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the subject or object of violent behavior. Religious violence is, specifically, violence that is motivated by or in reaction to religious precepts, texts, or doctrines. This includes violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or when the violence is motivated to some degree by some aspect of the target or precept of the attacker. Religious violence does not refer exclusively to acts committed by religious groups, Religious violence, like all violence, is a cultural process that is context-dependent and very complex. Oversimplifications of religion and violence lead to misguided understandings and exaggerations of causes for why some people commit violence. Religious violence is primarily the domain of the violent actor, which may be distinguished between individual and collective forms of violence. Overall, religious violence is perpetrated for a variety of ideological reasons and is generally only one of the contributing social and political factors that leads to unrest. Ralph Tanner cites the definition of violence in the Oxford English Dictionary as far beyond pain, similarly, Abhijit Nayak writes, The word violence can be defined to extend far beyond pain and shedding blood. It carries the meaning of force, violent language, fury. Terence Fretheim writes, For many people, only physical violence truly qualifies as violence. But, certainly, violence is more than killing people, unless one includes all those words, the effect of limitation to a “killing fields” perspective is the widespread neglect of many other forms of violence. We must insist that violence also refers to that which is psychologically destructive, moreover, many forms of systemic violence often slip past our attention because they are so much a part of the infrastructure of life. Charles Selengut characterizes the phrase religion and violence as jarring, asserting that religion is thought to be opposed to violence and he acknowledges, however, that the history and scriptures of the worlds religions tell stories of violence and war even as they speak of peace and love. He also notes that when discussing religious violence, one should note that the overwhelming majority of religious people do not get inspired to engage in violence. While religion can be used as a means of rallying support for violence, Hector Avalos argues that religions create violence over four scarce resources, access to divine will, knowledge, primarily through scripture, sacred space, group privileging, and salvation. Not all religions have or use theses four resources and he believes that religious violence is particularly untenable as these resources are never verifiable and, unlike claims to scare resources such a water or land, cannot be adjudicated objectively. Regina Schwartz argues that all religions are inherently violent because of an exclusivism that inevitably fosters violence against those that are considered outsiders. Lawrence Wechsler asserts that Schwartz isnt just arguing that Abrahamic religions have a violent legacy, who can dispute that they did their bloody deeds by claiming to be establishing a new man and a religion-free utopia
Religious riot
–
The
Crusades were a series of a military campaigns fought mainly between
Christian Europe and
Muslims. Shown here is a battle scene from the
First Crusade.
Religious riot
–
The
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants in 1572
Religious riot
–
I Believe in the Sword and Almighty God (1914) by
Boardman Robinson.
Religious riot
–
Forward with God! (1915) by
Boardman Robinson.
29.
Religion
–
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
Religion
–
Urarina shaman, Peru, 1988
Religion
Religion
–
The
Yazılıkaya sanctuary in
Turkey, with the twelve gods of the underworld
Religion
–
Confucianism,
Taoism, and
Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century,
Song dynasty
. PMID 23119067. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048596.
Media related to Riots at Wikimedia Commons
