1.
Riot Act (album)
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Riot Act is the seventh studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam, released on November 12,2002 through Epic Records. Following a full-scale tour in support of its previous album, Binaural, the band then reconvened in the beginning of 2002 and commenced work on a new album. The music on the featured a diverse sound, including songs influenced by folk, art rock. The band supported the album with a politically charged concert tour in 2003, Riot Act was the bands last album of all-new material for Epic. The album received positive reviews, and has been certified gold by the RIAA in the United States. Producer Adam Kasper was brought in to work with the band on its seventh album, Riot Act was recorded in two sessions in February 2002 and April 2002 at Studio X in Seattle. The album was mixed by Brendan OBrien at Studio X, similar to the process for Yield and Binaural, band members worked on material individually before starting the recording sessions together. According to Cameron, everyone in the band had four or five ideas coming into the sessions, and there was a lot to just kind of weed through and work on. The band often recorded material intended to be demo recordings, but lead vocalist Eddie Vedder would come along and record his vocals afterwards, stating, I just sang it, thats the take. Regarding the creative process, guitarist Stone Gossard said that while playing alone the anal-retentive side of you goes, but when reuniting the entire band goes No, its great as it is, then you just get in the mood and embrace it. Riot Act was the first Pearl Jam album to feature Kenneth Boom Gaspar on Keyboards, according to Gaspar, the song initially developed out of a jam session he had with Vedder in Hawaii shortly after the two first met. When they were done, Vedder asked Gaspar if he was ready to go to Seattle, according to Gossard, bringing in Gaspar was about being open to new things, while Vedder stated Gaspar was able to find his place and fit in easily with the band dynamics. Guitarist Mike McCready said that he had wanted the band to feature keyboards. McCready described the environment as a pretty positive one and very intense. Cameron said that producer Adam Kasper created a relaxed atmosphere. Vedder set up his typewriter in a corner of the studio, most of the album was recorded live, with Cameron describing the album as our anti-Pro Tools record. Gossard said that the band fed off Camerons playing as well as Vedders excitement about the recording process, Riot Act features a diverse sound, including folk-based and experimental songs. Gossard said Riot Act really seems to all of our thing
2.
Crackdown
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Crackdown is an open world action-adventure video game developed by Realtime Worlds and distributed by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360. It was released in North America on February 20,2007, Crackdown was conceived by Realtime Worlds founder, David Jones, who also created Grand Theft Auto and Lemmings. Set in the fictional Pacific City, the controls a biologically enhanced Agent. The Agents abilities improve by defeating both crime lords and their supporters, as well as by completing activities, such as street races. The gameplay is nonlinear, instead of following a rigid mission sequence, players are free to select the approach to completing their missions, the game features a two-player cooperative play mode via Xbox Live. Crackdown, initially planned for release on the original Xbox console, was envisioned as a vast world in which players could experiment, Microsoft Game Studios bundled specifically marked copies of Crackdown with an access code to the multiplayer test version of the much-anticipated Halo 3 Beta. The game sold 1.5 million copies in its first six months of release and it received critical acclaim and has garnered several awards for its innovative gameplay. A sequel, Crackdown 2, was released in July 2010 by Ruffian Games without Jones input, Crackdown takes place in the fictional metropolis of Pacific City, whose several districts and areas are divided among four islands. The city is controlled by three organizations, Los Muertos, of Central American origin, an Eastern European gang, the Volk. Normally, an organization called the Peacekeepers kept the city under control, their forces. The Agency is based out of a hotel in the very centre of the city. The player takes on the role of one of their Agents, the Agents actions are continuously monitored by the Agency, and its Director provides continuous reports to him of his progress. Throughout the game, the player roams Pacific City, systematically eliminating the leaders, upon defeating the gangs Kingpins and generals, the Agent must put down a final riot by the remaining gang members in the area which after completion will cause that city to be almost crime free. The Agency Directors comments suggest that the Agency will replicate this plan in other cities across the globe to create a New World Order, Crackdown is a third-person shooter set in a sandbox environment, akin to Mercenaries, Playground of Destruction. It is at the discretion whether to kill the Generals or skip them entirely before facing the Kingpin. However, the gangs cannot be eradicated from the city without tracking down and killing all Generals. Crackdown features a series of character-based skills that can be upgraded to increase specific traits that can be used in combat, driving, crackdowns skills make few concessions to realism, character abilities are similar to those of comic book superheroes or cartoon characters. This concept is further highlighted by the ink-like outlines drawn around in-game characters, skills are usually improved by gaining experience orbs, which are released from defeated enemies
3.
Act of Parliament
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Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
4.
Parliament of Great Britain
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The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801. Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, Acts of Union ratifying the Treaty were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new parliament, referred to as the Parliament of Great Britain and it was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation was thereafter to be enacted by the new parliament, after the Hanoverian King George I ascended the British throne in 1714 through the Act of Settlement of 1701, real power continued to shift away from the monarchy. George was a German ruler, spoke poor English, and remained interested in governing his dominions in continental Europe rather than in Britain. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the French Revolutionary Wars developed the British government became repressive against dissent and progress towards reform was stalled. During the first half of George IIIs reign, the still had considerable influence over Parliament. Most candidates for the House of Commons were identified as Whigs or Tories, reformers like William Beckford and Radicals beginning with John Wilkes called for reform of the system. In 1780 a draft programme of reform was drawn up by Charles James Fox and Thomas Brand Hollis and this included calls for the six points later adopted by the Chartists. Pitt had previously called for Parliament to begin to reform itself, proposals Pitt made in April 1785 to redistribute seats from the rotten boroughs to London and the counties were defeated in the House of Commons by 248 votes to 174
5.
England and Wales
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The devolved National Assembly for Wales was created in 1999 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act 1998 and provides a degree of self-government in Wales. The powers of the Assembly were expanded by the Government of Wales Act 2006, which allows it to pass its own laws, there is no equivalent body for England, which is directly governed by the Parliament and the government of the United Kingdom. During the Roman occupation of Britain, the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit, at that time, most of the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages, and were all regarded as Britons, divided into numerous tribes. After the conquest, the Romans administered this region as a single unit and this aimed to replace Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 then consolidated the administration of all the Welsh territories and incorporated them fully into the legal system of the Kingdom of England. Prior to 1746 it was not clear whether a reference to England in legislation included Wales and this specified that in all prior and future laws, references to England would by default include Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in 1967, although the definition of England it created is preserved for acts passed prior to its repeal. Since the Acts repeal what was referred to as England is now England and Wales, while references to England, England and Wales are treated as a single unit, for most purposes, because the two form the constitutional successor to the former Kingdom of England. The continuance of Scots law was guaranteed under the 1706 Treaty of Union that led to the Acts of Union 1707, thus, most laws applicable to England also applied to Wales. However, Parliament now passes laws applicable to Wales and not to England, examples are the Welsh Language Acts 1967 and 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998. Measures and Acts of the National Assembly for Wales passed since the Government of Wales Act 2006 also apply in Wales, following the Government of Wales Act, effective since May 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can legislate on matters devolved to it. Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers and this was the first time in almost 500 years that Wales had its own powers to legislate. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, outside of the legal system the position is mixed. Some organisations combine as England and Wales, others are separate, some religious denominations organise on the basis of England and Wales, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, but also small denominations, e. g. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Prior to the disestablishment of the Church in Wales in 1920, the Electoral Commission maintains a register of political parties, organised according to where the party operates. The order of precedence in England and Wales is distinct from those of Northern Ireland and Scotland, the national parks of England and Wales have a distinctive legislative framework and history. Courts of England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Geography of Wales Geography of England British Isles
6.
Criminal Law Act 1967
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The Criminal Law Act 1967 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. However, with minor exceptions, it generally applies to only England. It made some changes to English criminal law. Most of it is still in force, several of the Acts provisions were adopted, word for word, for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Law Act 1967 and the Criminal Justice Act 1968. They were adopted for the Republic of Ireland by the Criminal Law Act 1997, Part I abolished the distinction between felony and misdemeanour and makes consequential provisions. Part II abolished a number of obsolete crimes and this Part implements the recommendations made by the Criminal Law Revision Committee in their seventh report. Section 1 abolished the distinction between felonies and misdemeanours, originally, all crimes in English law were categorised in a hierarchy of treason, felony, and misdemeanour, each with their own rules of procedure and evidence. This also had the effect of abolishing the offences of misprision of felony, although all offences were now misdemeanours, the maximum penalties were not affected. Section 2 created a new category of offences, since powers of arrest had depended on whether an offence was a felony or a misdemeanour. Arrestable offences were defined as crimes for which the sentence for an adult was five years or more. The section set out the circumstances in which a citizen or a constable could arrest somebody without a court warrant. Section 2 was repealed and replaced with section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, Section 24 was supplemented by a section 25 which created new powers to arrest those suspected of non-arrestable offences in certain circumstances. Citizens arrest was confined to indictable offences and this change took effect from 1 January 2006. Section 3 replaces the common law rules on self-defence, such as the duty to retreat and it simply requires that any force used must be reasonable in the circumstances. It is still in force today and states,3, subsection above shall replace the rules of the common law on the question when force used for a purpose mentioned in the subsection is justified by that purpose. Section 4 created a new offence of assisting anyone who had committed an arrestable offence and this replaced the rules on accessories after the fact in felony cases. The penalty for this offence is linked to the penalty for whatever offence the original offender has committed, Section 5 created a new offence which replaced misprision and compounding of felony. This significantly reduced the scope of these offences from the wider 1984 definition, a person may not be prosecuted for these offences without the permission of the Director of Public Prosecutions or a Crown prosecutor
7.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
8.
Sacheverell riots
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The Sacheverell and Rebellion riots are regarded as the most serious instances of public disorder of the eighteenth century, until, perhaps, the anti-Catholic protests of 1780. The riots were a response to the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell, Sacheverell was a High Church Tory Anglican who had preached two sermons that described what he saw as threats to the Church. His target was the Whig party and his sermons brought to the fore the tensions that existed between Whig and Tory across the country at that time. Sacheverell was tried by the House of Lords at Whig instigation, the House found that his sermons should be publicly burned and he should be banned from preaching for three years. This made him a martyr in the eyes of many Tory supporters, on the evening of March 1, protestors attacked an elegant Presbyterian meeting-house in Lincolns Inn Fields, built only five years before. They smashed the windows, stripped the tiles from the roof and ripped out its interior wooden fittings, the crowd then marauded through much of the West End of London chanting High Church and Sacheverell. It spread across the country, notably in Wrexham, Barnstaple and Gainsborough, the Sacheverell riots and further disturbances in 1714 and 1715, led to the passing of the Riot Act. London, being a history and description of the British metropolis
9.
Coronation riots
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The coronation riots of October 1714 were a series of riots in southern and western England in protest against the coronation of the first Hanoverian king of Britain, George I. After his arrival in Britain in September, George promptly dismissed the Tories from office, on 20 October George was crowned at Westminster Abbey but when loyalists celebrated the coronation they were disrupted by rioters in over twenty towns in the south and west of England. The rioters were supporters of High Church and Sacheverellite notions, the Tory aristocrats and gentry absented themselves from the coronation and in some towns they arrived with their supporters to disrupt the Hanoverian proceedings. The celebrations of the coronation—balls, bonfires and drinking in taverns—were attacked by rioters who sacked their properties, henry Sacheverell—who was on a progress in the West Country—was mentioned by most of the rioters. At Bristol the crowd shouted “Sacheverell and Ormond, and damn all foreigners. ”, in Taunton they cried “Church, in Dorchester and Nuneaton, Sacheverells health was drunk. The High Church inspiration behind the rioters was also expressed in their attacks on Dissenters, in Bristol a Dissenting meeting place was looted, with the murder of a Quaker who tried to persuade the mob to stop. Along with these expressions of disaffection to the Hanoverian king, there were also expressions of Jacobite sentiments, in Tewkesbury the bargemen wished to drink to Sacheverell and the King but they were criticised for putting Sacheverell first. They replied “it should be the King if they would have it so” but when asked which king—James or George. —they attacked them shouting “Sacheverell for ever, in Bedford the Maypole was put in mourning. The maypole was a Jacobite symbol as it symbolised the vegetation god motif of the Stuart monarchy and was associated with the connection between May day and Restoration day. In Frome, Somerset the rioters dressed up an Idiot, called George, in a Fools Coat, saying, Heres our George, wheres —. The Anglican clergy mainly kept a low profile but at Newton Abbot the minister removed the bell-clappers so that the bells could not be rung in celebration of the coronation, the government did not trust local courts to prosecute the rioters so tried to bring the rioters to London. Five rioters were brought to London from Taunton but were released on bail after a while, seven Bristol rioters were to be tried by a Special Commission but this failed also, prolonging the riot and accompanied by an attack upon the Duke of Richmond at Chichester. The rioters shouted at the judges, “No Jeffrey, no Western Assizes” and later, “A Cheverel, A Cheverel, a Tory merchant called William Hart was accused of being a ringleader of the rioters but he escaped indictment. Other rioters were whipped, fined or imprisoned for three months, the general election of 1715, which was also accompanied by riots, produced a Whig majority in the House of Commons. In response to riots, the new Whig majority passed the Riot Act to put down disturbances like these. they make Use of as the Shibboleth of the Party. Paul Kleber Monod, Jacobitism and the English People, an Account of the Riots, Tumults, and other Treasonable Practices, since His Majestys Accession to the Throne
10.
1715 England riots
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In the spring and summer of 1715 a series of riots occurred in England, protesting against the first Hanoverian king of Britain, George I and his new Whig government. The rioters often attacked Dissenting chapels, the riots occurred on symbolic days,28 May was George Is birthday,29 May was the anniversary of Charles IIs Restoration and 10 June was James Francis Edward Stuarts birthday. After his arrival in Britain in September, George promptly dismissed the Tories from office and his coronation in October led to rioting in over twenty towns in England. On 8 March, the anniversary Queen Annes accession day and William IIIs death, was met in London with bell-ringing, flag-waving and they were persuaded not to do so, however. The 29 April was the birthday of the Tory peer the Duke of Ormonde and it was celebrated in Drury Lane. On George Is birthday,28 May, there occurred large demonstrations in Smithfield, Cheapside and Highgate, in Smithfield according to Abel Boyer a large mob burnt Cromwell in effigy. In Cheapside the rioters shouted “No Hanoverian, No Presbiterian government”, the next day was Restoration day and the mob shouted, “A Restoration, a Stewart, High Church and Ormonde”, “A Stewart, a second Restoration” and “No King George, King James the third”. When a coachman called for King James he was hollowed through the Mob, in Queen Street a battle occurred between the rioters and trained bands. At the London Stock Exchange the crowd shouted “High Church and the Duke of Ormonde”, Stock jobbing was seen as the parasitical and immoral growth from Whig principles. When one passer-by shouted “Long live King George” he was beaten up by the mob, in Oxford on 28 May a rumour spread that Queen Anne, Lord Bolingbroke, Ormonde and Sacheverell were to be burnt in effigy. The mob chanted “An Ormond, an Ormond, a Bolingbroke, down with the Roundheads, no Constitutioners, no Hanover, the next day a Quaker and Baptist meeting place were also attacked. Similar disturbances on Jamess birthday happened at Cambridge, Leeds and several Somersetshire villages, at Frome the mob was reluctantly persuaded not to destroy the local Dissenting chapel. At Marlborough, Wiltshire the mob broke into the church and rang the bells, in the Midlands in late June and early August, similar riots against Dissenters took place, starting in Wolverhampton during St. Peters fair and ending at Kingswinford in Worcestershire on 1 August. In Wolverhampton a buckle maker was heard shouting “God damn King George, and the Duke of Marlborough”, similar expressions of loyalty to James were heard in Walsall and Leek. In Warrington on 10 June bells were rung and the mob shouted “Down with the Rump”, however they were prevented from attacking a Dissenting meeting house. In Leeds a bonfire was made and a man was indicted for threatening a Dissenting meeting place. In Manchester in early May James Stuart had been proclaimed James III, between 28 May and 23 June there was a spate of rioting, with the Dissenting chapel in Cross Street ransacked and destroyed. In the West Midlands and Lancashire over thirty Dissenting chapels were attacked, given under our Hands and Seals the 11th Day of July 1715
11.
Felony
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The term felony, in some common law countries, means a serious crime. The word originates from English common law, where felonies were originally crimes that involved confiscation of a persons land. Many common law countries have now abolished the distinction and replaced it with other distinctions. A felony is generally considered a crime of high seriousness, while a misdemeanor is not, a person who has committed a felony is a felon, and upon conviction of a felony in a court of law is known as a convicted felon or a convict. In the United States, where the distinction is still widely applied. If punishable by one year or less, it is classified as a misdemeanor. Note that the prison sentence handed out has no effect on this. For example, if a person is sentenced to six months, individual states may differ in this definition, using other categories as seriousness or context. Similar to felonies in some civil law countries are delicts, whereas in others crimes and delicts, larceny or theft above a certain statutorily established value or quantity of goods Vandalism on federal property. Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances, for example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor. Additionally, driving while intoxicated in some states may be a misdemeanor if a first offense, in the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories. Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez,549 U. S.183, a felony may be punishable with imprisonment for two or more years or death in the case of the most serious felonies, such as murder. Indeed, at law when the British and American legal systems divorced in 1776. Standards for measurement of an offenses seriousness include attempts to quantitatively estimate, in some states, all or most felonies are placed into one of various classes according to their seriousness and their potential punishment upon conviction. The number of classifications and the corresponding crimes vary by state and are determined by the legislature, usually, the legislature also determines the maximum punishment allowable for each felony class, doing so avoids the necessity of defining specific sentences for every possible crime. For example, Virginia classifies most felonies by number, ranging from Class 6 through Class 2 up to Class 1, some felonies remain outside the classification system. New York State classifies felonies by letter, with some divided into sub-classes by Roman numeral, classes range from Class E through Classes D, C, B. Massachusetts classifies felony as an offense that carries any prison time, ohio classifies felonies by degree ranging from first, second, third, fourth, to fifth degree
12.
Bailiff
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A bailiff is a manager, overseer or custodian, a legal officer to whom some degree of authority or jurisdiction is given. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their offices and duties vary greatly, another official sometimes referred to as a bailiff was the vogt, see Vogt and Vogt. In the Holy Roman Empire a similar function was performed by the Amtmann, Bailiff was the term used by the Normans for what the Saxons had called a reeve, the officer responsible for executing the decisions of a court. The duty of the bailiff would thus include serving summonses and orders, the district within which the bailiff operated was called his bailiwick, even to the present day. Bailiffs were outsiders and free men, that is, they were not usually from the bailiwick they were responsible for. Throughout Norman England, the Saxon and Norman populations gradually mixed, primarily then, bailiff referred to the officer executing the decisions of manorial courts, and the hundred courts. Likewise, in Scotland a bailie was the officer of a barony. With the introduction of Justices of the Peace, magistrates courts acquired their own bailiffs, historically, courts were not always concerned with legal matters, and often decided administrative matters for the area within their jurisdiction. A bailiff of a manor, therefore, would oversee the manors lands and buildings, collect its rents, manage its accounts. In the 19th century, the functions of courts were mostly replaced by the creation of elected local authorities. Nevertheless, the bailiff is retained as a title by the chief officers of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, such as the High Bailiff of Westminster. In Scotland, bailie now refers to an officer corresponding to an English alderman. The high court acquired the sheriffs, the county court the bailiffs, to avoid confusion with their underlings, the County Courts Act 1888 renamed bailifs as High Bailiffs. This act also formally acknowledged the High Bailiffs right to appoint under-bailiffs as he wished, the High Bailiff gradually became a purely ceremonial role, the courts clerk liaising with under-bailiffs directly. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 enacts that no person may act as an under-bailiff to levy any distress for rent, unless he is authorized by a county court judge to act as an under-bailiff. The County Courts Act 1888 restricted the hours an under-bailiff could execute a possession warrant and it also limited the ability to bring a legal complaint against a bailiff, six days notice now had to be given. In the Channel Islands the bailiff is the first civil officer in each of the two bailiwicks and he is appointed by the Crown, and holds office until retirement. He presides as a judge in the court, and takes the opinions of the jurats, he also presides over the states
13.
Justice of the peace
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A justice of the peace is a judicial officer, of a lower or puisne court, elected or appointed by means of a commission to keep the peace. In past centuries the term commissioner of the peace was used with the same meaning. Depending on the jurisdiction, such justices dispense summary justice or merely deal with local administrative applications in common law jurisdictions, some jurisdictions have varying forms of training for JPs. In 1195, Richard I of England and his Minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas and they were responsible to the King for ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the Kings peace. Therefore, they were known as keepers of the peace, the title justice of the peace derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III. The peace to be guarded is the sovereigns, the maintenance of which is the duty of the Crown under the royal prerogative, Justices of the peace still use the power conferred or re-conferred on them since 1361 to bind over unruly persons to be of good behaviour. The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, the justices alternative title of magistrate dates from the 16th century, although the word had been in use centuries earlier to describe some legal officials of Roman times. Being an unpaid office, undertaken voluntarily and sometimes more for the sake of renown or to confirm the justices standing within the community, the justices of the peace conducted arraignments in all criminal cases, and tried misdemeanours and infractions of local ordinances and bylaws. The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 stripped the power to appoint normal JPs from those municipal corporations that had it and this was replaced by the present system, where the Lord Chancellor nominates candidates with local advice, for appointment by the Crown. Until the introduction of elected county councils in the 19th century, JPs, in quarter sessions, also administered the county at a local level. Women were not allowed to become JPs in the United Kingdom until 1919, the first woman being Ada Summers, the Mayor of Stalybridge, emily Murphy of Edmonton, Canada, preceded her by some three and a half years. Now in the UK, 50% of JPs are women, in special circumstances, a justice of the peace can be the highest governmental representative, so in fact gubernatorial, in a colonial entity. This was the case in the Tati Concessions Land, a concession in the Matabele kingdom. Criteria for appointment vary widely, depending on the state, for example, in Queensland, a justice of the peace must complete an exam prior to being eligible for appointment, whereas in Victoria, a person need only prove good character by way of references. Generally speaking, a justice of the peace cannot act in relation to a document which is to be used in a foreign country. One exception to this, however, is that countries in the Commonwealth frequently accept documents so certified, documents which are to be used in a foreign country that does not provide for a foreign JP to witness them should be dealt with by a notary public. This is the same for all countries where the office of justice of the peace exists, notaries public are often solicitors or barristers, and the best way to locate one is to contact your local law society. Some justices are appointed as justice of the peace, usually in remote aboriginal communities, in Queensland, a lawyer may be appointed as a Justice of the Peace without further education or qualification and has the full powers of a JP
14.
Peterloo Massacre
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The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 had resulted in periods of famine and chronic unemployment, exacerbated by the introduction of the first of the Corn Laws. By the beginning of 1819, the pressure generated by economic conditions. In response, the Manchester Patriotic Union, a group agitating for parliamentary reform, shortly after the meeting began local magistrates called on the military authorities to arrest Hunt and several others on the hustings with him, and to disperse the crowd. Cavalry charged into the crowd with sabres drawn, and in the confusion,15 people were killed. The massacre was given the name Peterloo in a comparison to the Battle of Waterloo. Historian Robert Poole has called the Peterloo Massacre one of the moments of its age. It also led directly to the foundation of The Manchester Guardian, in a survey conducted by The Guardian in 2006, Peterloo came second to the Putney Debates as the event from radical British history that most deserved a proper monument or a memorial. Peterloo is commemorated by a close to the site, a replacement for an earlier one that was criticised as being inadequate as it did not reflect the scale of the massacre. In 1819, Lancashire was represented by two Members of Parliament, by comparison, more than half of all MPs were returned by a total of just 154 owners of rotten or closed boroughs. These inequalities in political representation led to calls for reform, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, a brief boom in textile manufacture was followed by periods of chronic economic depression, particularly among textile weavers and spinners. Weavers who could have expected to earn 15 shillings for a week in 1803. The industrialists, who were cutting wages without offering relief, blamed market forces generated by the aftershocks of the Napoleonic Wars. Exacerbating matters were the Corn Laws, the first of which was passed in 1815, economic conditions in 1817 led to a group who became known as Blanketeers to organise a march from Manchester to London so they could petition the Prince Regent for parliamentary reform. A crowd of 25,000 including 5,000 men who intended to march gathered in St Peters Fields, after the magistrates read the Riot Act, the crowd was dispersed by the Kings Dragoon Guards. The ringleaders were arrested and subsequently released when charges against them were not forthcoming. By the beginning of 1819 pressure generated by economic conditions was at its peak and had enhanced the appeal of political radicalism among the cotton loom weavers of south Lancashire. In January 1819, a crowd of about 10,000 gathered at St Peters Fields to hear the radical orator Henry Hunt, the meeting, conducted in the presence of the cavalry, passed off without incident. Possessing no power to prevent the meetings the magistrates admitted they were at a loss as to how to stem the doctrines being disseminated, against this background, a great assembly was organised by the Manchester Patriotic Union formed by radicals from the Manchester Observer
15.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
16.
Hundred (county division)
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It is still used in other places, including South Australia. Other terms for the hundred in English and other languages include wapentake, herred, herad, hérað, härad or hundare, Harde, Satakunta or kihlakunta, kihelkond and cantref. In Ireland, a subdivision of counties is referred to as a barony. The name hundred may be derived from the number 100, it may once have referred to an area liable to provide 100 men under arms and it was a traditional Germanic system described as early as AD98 by Tacitus. Similar systems were used in the traditional administrative regimes of China, the term hundred is first recorded in the laws of Edmund I as a measure of land and the area served by a hundred court. The Hundred Ordinance, which dates to the middle of the century, provides that the court is to meet monthly, the name of the hundred was normally that of its meeting-place. During Norman times, the hundred would pay geld based on the number of hides. To assess how much everyone had to pay, a clerk and a knight were sent by the king to each county, they sat with the shire-reeve, of the county, there would be two knights from each hundred. After it was determined what geld had to be paid, the bailiff and knights of the hundred were responsible for getting the money to the sheriff, above the hundred was the shire, under the control of a sheriff. Hundred boundaries were independent of both parish and county boundaries, although often aligned, meaning that a hundred could be split between counties, or a parish could be split between hundreds. Exceptionally, in the counties of Kent and Sussex, there was a sub-division between that of the hundred and the shire, several hundreds were grouped together to form lathes in Kent and rapes in Sussex. At the time of the Norman conquest of England, Kent was divided into seven lathes, the system of hundreds was not as stable as the system of counties being established at the time, and lists frequently differ on how many hundreds a county had. In many parts of the country, the Domesday Book contained a different set of hundreds from that which later became established. The numbers of hundreds in each county varied wildly, Leicestershire had six, whereas Devon, nearly three times the size, had 32. Over time, the functions of the hundred became the administration of law. By the 12th century, the court was held twelve times a year. This was later increased to fortnightly, although an ordinance of 1234 reduced the frequency to every three weeks. In some hundreds, courts were held at a place, while in others
17.
Massacre of St George's Fields
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The Massacre of St Georges Fields occurred on 10 May 1768 when government soldiers opened fire on demonstrators that had gathered at St Georges Fields, Southwark in south London. The protest was against the imprisonment of the radical Member of Parliament John Wilkes for writing an article that severely criticised King George III. After the reading of the Riot Act telling the crowds to disperse within the hour, in June 1762 John Wilkes started the newspaper The North Briton. After one article was published on 23 April 1763 severely attacking George III, however Lord Chief Justice Lord Mansfield ruled at his trial that as an MP, Wilkes was protected by parliamentary privilege so he was released without conviction. Wilkes then proceeded to more material that was deemed offensive. In absentia, he was guilty of obscene libel and seditious libel and was declared an outlaw on 19 January 1764. Wilkes hoped for a change in power to remove the charges, as his French creditors began to pressure him in 1768, he had little choice but to return to England. Wilkes returned intending to stand as an MP on an anti-government ticket, in April he surrendered himself to the Kings Bench after waiving his parliamentary privilege to immunity. He was sentenced by Judge Joseph Yates to an imprisonment and fined £500. The Lords sentence of outlawry was overturned, Wilkes was taken to Kings Bench Prison in Southwark, south London. With news of his conviction and imprisonment, crowds began assembling on an open space between Southwark and Lambeth called St. Georges Field. Over the next two weeks numbers increased daily, on 10 May as many as 15,000 people had gathered near the prison. They began chanting Wilkes and Liberty, No Liberty, No King, concerned about the intent of the crowd, four Justices of the peace from Surrey asked for military protection. A detachment of the Horse Grenadier Guards was sent to the prison, when the troops arrived, people shouted insults at the soldiers. A particularly obnoxious man wearing a red coat repeatedly goaded the troops, after a unit of soldiers was sent to apprehend him, he was chased to a barn. One of the shot a person inside wearing a red coat. However the victim turned out to be an innocent young man named William Allen who worked at the farm and he was buried in the churchyard at Newington where a monument was erected to his memory. The news of the death only inflamed the crowd, made worse when the JPs addressed the restless mob ordering it to disperse
18.
John Wilkes
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John Wilkes was an English radical, journalist, and politician. He was first elected Member of Parliament in 1757, in the Middlesex election dispute, he fought for the right of his voters—rather than the House of Commons—to determine their representatives. In 1768 angry protests of his supporters were suppressed in the St Georges Fields Massacre, in 1771, he was instrumental in obliging the government to concede the right of printers to publish verbatim accounts of parliamentary debates. In 1776, he introduced the first bill for reform in the British Parliament. During the American War of Independence, he was a supporter of the American rebels, in 1780, however, he commanded militia forces which helped put down the Gordon Riots, damaging his popularity with many radicals. This marked a point, leading him to embrace increasingly conservative policies which caused dissatisfaction among the progressive-radical low-to-middle income landowners. This was instrumental in the loss of his Middlesex parliamentary seat in the 1790 general election, at the age of 65, Wilkes retired from politics and took part in progressive social reforms such as Catholic Emancipation in the 1790s following the French Revolution. During his life, he earned a reputation as a libertine, born in Clerkenwell in London, Wilkes was the second son of the distiller Israel Wilkes and his wife Sarah, who had six children. John Wilkes was educated initially at an academy in Hertford, this was followed by private tutoring, there he met Andrew Baxter, a Presbyterian clergyman who greatly influenced Wilkes views on religion. Although Wilkes remained in the Church of England throughout his life, Wilkes was also beginning to develop a deep patriotism for his country. During the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, he rushed home to London to join a Loyal Association, once the rebellion had ended after the Battle of Culloden, Wilkes returned to the Netherlands to complete his studies. In 1747, he married Mary Meade and came into possession of an estate and they had one child, Mary, to whom John was utterly devoted for the rest of his life. Wilkes and Mary, however, separated in 1756, a separation that became permanent, Wilkes never married again, but he gained a reputation as a rake. He was known to have fathered at least five other children, Wilkes was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1749 and appointed High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire in 1754. He was a candidate for Berwick in the 1754 parliamentary elections but was elected for Aylesbury in 1757. Elections took place at the church of St. Mary the Virgin and he lived at the Prebendal House, Parsons Fee, Aylesbury. He was a member of the Knights of St. Francis of Wycombe, also known as the Hellfire Club or the Medmenham Monks, the Club had many distinguished members, including the Earl of Sandwich and Sir Francis Dashwood. Wilkes reportedly brought a baboon dressed in a cape and horns into the rituals performed at the club, Wilkes was notoriously ugly, being called the ugliest man in England at the time
19.
Gordon Riots
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The Gordon Riots of 1780 began as an anti-Catholic protest in London against the Papists Act of 1778, which was intended to reduce official discrimination against British Catholics. The protest evolved into riots and looting, the Popery Act 1698 had imposed a number of penalties and disabilities on Roman Catholics in England, the 1778 Act eliminated some of these. An initial peaceful protest led on to widespread rioting and looting and was the most destructive in the history of London, painted on the wall of Newgate prison was the proclamation that the inmates had been freed by the authority of His Majesty, King Mob. The term King Mob afterwards denoted an unruly and fearsome proletariat, the Riots came at the height of the American War of Independence, when Britain was fighting American rebels, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic. They led to unfounded fears that the riots had been an attempt by France. The stated intention of the Papists Act of 1778 was, as its preamble notes and it absolved Catholics from taking the religious oath when joining the British Armed Forces as well as granting a few and limited liberties. There were strong expedient reasons for this change, British military forces at the time were stretched very thinly in what had become a global American War of Independence, with conflicts ongoing with France, Spain, and the new United States. The recruitment of Catholic people would be a significant help to address this shortfall of manpower, the 1698 anti-Catholic laws had largely been ignored for many years and were rarely enforced. Because of this, many leading Catholics were opposed to the repeal of the Act and it was also pointed out that large numbers of Catholics, recruited in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, were already serving in the military. In spite of this, the government decided to press ahead with the Bill, the Protestant Association of London had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon. Lord George Gordon became its President in 1779, in an effort to force the repeal of the Papists Act, an articulate propagandist, though eccentric, Gordon inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule. He implied that Catholics in the military would, given a chance, join forces with their co-religionists on the Continent, the success in obstructing the law in Scotland led Gordon to believe he could enjoy similar success in the rest of Britain. Early in 1780 Gordon had several audiences with King George III but was unable to convince him of what he saw as the dangers of the Act, George III initially humoured Gordon, but grew increasingly irritated with him and eventually refused any future audiences. On 29 May 1780, Gordon called a meeting of the Protestant Association, after the first march to Parliament, further riots occurred involving groups whose grievances were nationalistic, economic, or political, rather than religious. As Rudé noted, there was no attack on the Catholic community. Voting in parliamentary elections was restricted by a property threshold, so most Londoners were unable to vote, another suggested cause was Britains weakened international position, which had arisen from the countrys isolation in Europe and the disappointing news coming from the ongoing war. Some rioters were against the continuation of the war, and many strongly supported American independence, in many cases a mix of issues blended together and drove people to take part in the rioting. On 2 June 1780 a huge crowd, estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 strong, many carried flags and banners proclaiming No Popery, and most wore blue cockades which had become the symbol of their movement
20.
Bristol riots
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The Bristol riots refer to a number of significant riots in the city of Bristol in England. In 1794 the populace of Bristol were said to be apt to collect in mobs on the slightest occasions,11 people were killed and 45 injured, making it one of the worst massacres of the 18th century in England. Bristol had been represented in the House of Commons since 1295, local magistrate Sir Charles Wetherell, a strong opponent of the Bill, visited Bristol to open the new Assize Courts, on 29 October. He threatened to imprison participants in a disturbance going on outside, the magistrate escaped in disguise but the mayor and officials were besieged in the Mansion-house. Work on the Clifton Suspension Bridge was halted and Isambard Kingdom Brunel was sworn in as a special constable, Brereton did not wish to incite the crowd and even ordered the squadron from the 14th out of the city after they had successfully dispersed a crowd. Four rioters were killed and 86 wounded, although more are believed to have perished in the fires set by the rioters. Along with the commander of the 3rd Dragoons troop, Captain Warrington, Brereton was later court-martialled for leniency, approximately 100 of those involved were tried in January 1832 by Chief Justice Tindal. Four men were hanged despite a petition of 10,000 Bristolian signatures, the mayor, Pinney, was tried for negligence but exonerated. On 23 February 1932 some 3,000 unemployed engaged in running battles with the police as they tried to march down to the city centre, Police baton-charged protesters outside Trinity police station and along Old Market. It is unclear why the riot started either due to the police ripping a customers trousers and refusing to pay, the riot continued for many hours and caused large amounts of damage including a Lloyds Bank and post office. Several fire engines and twelve cars were damaged along with the shops. The next day the Daily Telegraph headlined with,19 Police Hurt in Black Riot, 7–9 May 1987, Beginning of three days of clashes with the cops in St Pauls, Bristol. On the 9 May,2 cops are injured when their car is attacked by stones. On 16 July 1992 there was a riot in Hartcliffe estate after two men who had stolen a police motorbike were killed in a chase with a police patrol car. The disturbance lasted for 3 days, Police were stoned and many shops in the Symes Avenue shopping centre were attacked and destroyed. On the evening of 21 April 2011, immediately before the Easter Bank Holiday weekend, the nights operation cost around £465,000 and involved 160 officers from 12 different forces, including Avon & Somerset. The riot followed a raid by police on a squat named Telepathic Heights, a protest ensued, and the police withdrew, however at 9 pm that evening, riot police blockaded the area and entered the squat. A crowd quickly gathered, with approximately 300 people defending the squat, the reason for the operation given by the police was that they held intelligence that petrol bombs were on the premises designated for the Tesco development opposite
21.
Unreformed House of Commons
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The unreformed House of Commons is a name given to the House of Commons of Great Britain and the House of Commons of the United Kingdom before it was reformed by the Reform Act 1832. From 1707 to 1801 the term refers to the House of Commons of Great Britain, until the Act of Union of 1801 joining the Kingdom of Ireland to Great Britain, Ireland also had its own Parliament. From 1801 to 1832, therefore, the term refers to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, in medieval political theory it was believed that sovereignty flowed from God, not from the people, and that monarchy was the form of government ordained by God. The King was the Lords anointed, and it was the duty of the people to obey the King as Gods representative, to this idea was added the practical consideration that it was easier for the King to collect the taxes he needed if the people consented to pay them. The House of Commons consisted entirely of men, mostly of substantial property, women could neither vote nor stand for election. Members of Parliament were not paid, which meant that men of wealth could serve. Candidates had to be electors, which meant that in most places they had to have substantial property, virtually all members representing county seats were landed gentry. Many were relatives or dependents of peers, while others were independent squires and these independent country gentlemen were often the only source of opposition to the government of the day, since they had no need to gain government favour through their votes in the House. Members for borough seats were also local squires, but were more frequently merchants or urban professionals such as lawyers. Some borough members were men of means, sometimes in debt or insolvent. All 18th century governments depended on this element to maintain their majorities. Some boroughs were under the control of particular ministers or government departments, the members representing the Cinque Ports, for example, were traditionally dependants of the Admiralty and spoke for the interests of the Royal Navy. Even after 1778, eligibility for election to the House of Commons was restricted by the fact that members had to take an Anglican oath to take their seats and this excluded Catholics, non-Anglican Protestants, Jews and atheists from the House. It is a widely held view that the quality of members of the House of Commons declined over the 250 years before its reform in 1832, in the boroughs, he wrote, competition tended to eliminate the less vigorous, less intelligent and unambitious. What did not change was the dominance of country gentlemen in the House. In 1584 they comprised 240 members in a House of 460, two hundred years later this proportion had hardly changed, even though the social composition of Britain had changed radically over that time. But the proportion of independent members had declined, the proportion of these members who were sons or close relatives of peers rose considerably over this period. In 1584 only 24 members were sons of peers, by the end of the 18th century this number had risen to about 130, in the 18th century about 50 members of the House held ministerial or similar government offices
22.
Reform Act 1832
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The Representation of the People Act 1832 was an Act of Parliament that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. According to its preamble, the Act was designed to take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament. Before the reform, most members nominally represented boroughs, the number of electors in a borough varied widely, from a dozen or so up to 12,000. Frequently the selection of MPs was effectively controlled by one patron, for example Charles Howard. Criteria for qualification for the franchise varied greatly among boroughs, from the requirement to own land, there had been calls for reform long before 1832, but without success. The Act that finally succeeded was proposed by the Whigs, led by Prime Minister Charles Grey and it met with significant opposition from the Pittite factions in Parliament, who had long governed the country, opposition was especially pronounced in the House of Lords. Nevertheless, the bill was passed, mainly as a result of public pressure. The Act also increased the electorate from about 500,000 to 813,000, with one in five adult males allowed to vote. The full title is An Act to amend the representation of the people in England and its formal short title and citation is Representation of the People Act 1832. The Act applied only in England and Wales, the Scottish Reform Act 1832 and Irish Reform Act 1832 brought similar changes to Scotland and Ireland, respectively. After the Act of Union 1800, sometimes referred to as the Act of Union 1801, there were two types of constituencies, counties and boroughs. County members were supposed to represent landholders, while members were supposed to represent the mercantile. Counties were historical national subdivisions established between the 8th and 16th centuries and they were not merely parliamentary constituencies, many components of government were organised along county lines. The members of Parliament chosen by the counties were known as Knights of the Shire, Parliamentary boroughs in England ranged widely in size from small hamlets to large cities, partly because they had evolved haphazardly. The earliest boroughs were chosen in the Middle Ages by county sheriffs, in later centuries the reigning monarch decided which settlements to enfranchise. The monarchs seem mostly to have done so capriciously, often with regard for the merits of the place they were enfranchising. Of the 70 English boroughs that Tudor monarchs enfranchised,31 were later disenfranchised, after Newark was enfranchised in 1661, no additional boroughs were enfranchised, and the unfair system remained unchanged until the Reform Act of 1832. Grampounds disenfranchisement in 1821 was the sole exception, most English boroughs elected two MPs, but five boroughs elected only one MP, Abingdon, Banbury, Bewdley, Higham Ferrers and Monmouth
23.
Francis Bond Head
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Sir Francis Bond Head, 1st Baronet KCH PC, known as Galloping Head, was Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada during the rebellion of 1837. Bond Head was an officer in the corps of Royal Engineers of the British Army from 1811 to 1825, afterwards he attempted to set up a mining company in Argentina. He married Julia Valenza Somerville in 1816, and they eventually had four children, Bond Head was born to parents James Roper Mendes Head and Frances Anne Burgess. He was descended from Spanish Jew Fernando Mendes, who accompanied as her personal physician Catherine of Braganza in 1662 when she came to England to marry Charles II and his grandfather Moses Mendes married Anna Gabriella Head and took on the Head name following the death of his wifes father. He appointed reformer Robert Baldwin to the Executive Council, though this appointment was opposed by the more radical Mackenzie, in the subsequent election campaign, he appealed to the United Empire Loyalists of the colony, proclaiming that the reformers were advocating American republicanism. The Conservative party, led by the wealthy landowners known as the Family Compact, in December 1837, Mackenzie led a brief and bungled rebellion in Toronto. Sir Francis Bond Head later boasted that despite the evidence that poured in from every district in the Province he allowed Mackenzie to prepare a revolt and he further claimed that he encouraged the outbreak by sending all the troops from the province, laying a trap for Mackenzie. Despite there being no troops the York Militia had been preparing for an attack, Bond Head sent the colonial militia to put down the rebellion, which they did within four days. In response to the rebellion, Britain replaced Bond Head as Lieutenant-Governor with Sir George Arthur then Lord Durham, Bond Head returned to England and settled down to write books and essays. In later life Bond Head lived at Duppas Hall, overlooking Duppas Hill in Croydon and he was appointed to the Privy Council in 1867. Three streets in the town of Oakville, Ontario named Francis, Bond, two streets in the city of St. Catharines, Ontario named Bond and Head. Though both streets are short, they intersect, the community of Frankford, on the Trent River, was named after Bond Head after he crossed the river there while travelling. Life of Bruce, a biography of Scottish traveler James Bruce Bruce, James, Travels, rough Notes Taken during some Rapid Journeys across the Pampas and among the Andes. Murray The Defenceless State of Great Britain by Sir Francis B, the Royal Engineer, by Francis Bond Head. Published by John Murray,1869. org Works by Francis Bond Head at LibriVox
24.
Upper Canada Rebellion
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The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the oligarchic government of the British colony of Upper Canada in December 1837. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the Rebellion in Lower Canada that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt soon after and they launched the Patriot War in 1838-39. Some historians argue that the rebellions in 1837 should be viewed in the context of the late 18th. The United Kingdoms Chartists sought similar democratic goals, the Upper Canada Rebellion is sometimes dismissed as a farmers revolt, an opportunistic action by misled backwoodsmen. The rebellion was, rather, the consequence of a sophisticated political movement that copied the organizational forms of the British reform movement. The British Reform movement, organized as Political Unions, had achieved the Great Reform Bill of 1832 which broadened the electoral franchise, the Upper Canada Central Political Union was organized in 1832-3 by Dr Thomas David Morrison while William Lyon Mackenzie was in England. This union collected 19,930 signatures on a petition protesting Mackenzies unjust expulsion from the House of Assembly by the Family Compact and this union was reorganized as the Canadian Alliance Society in 1835. It shared a meeting space in the market buildings with the Mechanics Institute. The Canadian Alliance Society adopted much of the platform of the Owenite National Union of the Working Classes in London, England, in pursuit of this democratic goal, the Chartists eventually staged a similar armed rebellion, the Newport Rising, in Wales in 1839. The Canadian Alliance Society was reborn as the Constitutional Reform Society in 1836, the Reformers experienced a disaster at the 1836 elections for the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada, and the Society took its final form as the Toronto Political Union in 1837. It was this group of the disenfranchised that began organizing local Vigilance Committees to elect delegates to a so-called Constitutional Convention in July 1837 and this became the organizational structure for the Rebellion, most of the rebel organizers were elected Constitutional Convention delegates. The first of those meetings to select delegates to the convention were held at Doels Brewery in Toronto on July 28 and 31. The second meeting was called to order by Samuel Hughes, a member of the Children of Peace, the meeting appointed Hughes, Samuel Lount, Nelson Gorham, Silas Fletcher, Jeremiah Graham and John McIntosh, M. P. P. as delegates to the convention. Immediately preceding the Mackenzie rebellion John Doels house and brewery were prominent gathering places for the Reformers, the large meetings were usually held in the brewery while smaller meetings of the leaders were held in the home. Mackenzie’s planned to take foundry-men and axe-makers and seize arms, ammunition, and they would then arouse the citizens of the town and country to proclaim a provincial government. Mr. Doel objected to the plan and there was a fight between Mackenzie, Doel, and Morrison, the meeting was broken up and Mackenzie left the house forever. From this point forward John Doel, his brewery, and his home were not longer part of the rebellion. The meetings in the Home District met with an amount of Orange Order violence, so that the reformers began to protect themselves
25.
Responsible government
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Responsible government is a conception of a system of government that embodies the principle of parliamentary accountability, the foundation of the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy. Responsible government of parliamentary accountability manifests itself in several ways, ministers account to Parliament for their decisions and for the performance of their departments. When the lower house has passed a motion of no confidence in the government, lastly, the head of state is in turn required to effectuate his executive power only through these responsible ministers. They must never attempt to set up a government of executives or advisors and attempt to use them as instruments of government. The British colonies that formed the Dominion of Canada in 1867 evolved gradually into responsible government rather than achieving it through a revolution as in the United States, early Canadian governors and administrators were answerable only to British authorities. Even after the formation of elected assemblies, governors and their executive councils did not require the consent of elected legislators in order to govern. Responsible government was an element of the gradual development of Canada towards independence. It did not regain responsible government until it became a province of Canada in 1948, in the aftermath of the American Revolution in 1776, the British government became more sensitive to unrest in its remaining colonies with large populations of British colonists. In his report, one of his recommendations was that colonies which were developed enough should be granted responsible government and this term specifically meant the policy that British-appointed governors should bow to the will of elected colonial assemblies. The plaque in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly erected by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada reads, the first Executive Council chosen exclusively from the party having a majority in the representative branch of a colonial legislature was formed in Nova Scotia on 2 February 1848. Following a vote of want of confidence in the preceding Council, James Boyle Uniacke, joseph Howe, the long-time campaigner for this Peaceable Revolution, became Provincial Secretary. Other members of the Council were Hugh Bell, Wm. F. Desbarres, doyle, Herbert Huntingdon, James McNab, Michael Tobin, and George R. Young. This was a law that provided compensation to French-Canadians who suffered losses during the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in Lower-Canada, the Governor General, Lord Elgin, had serious misgivings about the bill but nonetheless assented to it despite demands from the Tories that he refuse to do so. Elgin was physically assaulted by an English-speaking mob for this, nonetheless, the Rebellion Losses Bill helped entrench responsible government into Canadian politics. In time, the granting of responsible government became the first step on the road to complete independence, initially, this took the form of appointed or partially elected Legislative Councils. Then, during the 1850s, all Australian colonies except Western Australia, along with New Zealand, the Cape Colony, in Southern Africa, was under responsible self-government from 1872 until 1910 when it became the Cape Province of the new Union of South Africa. A popular political movement for responsible government soon emerged, under local leader John Molteno, not everyone favoured responsible government though, and pro-imperial press outlets even accused the movement of constituting crafts and assaults of the devil. The ensuing period saw a recovery, a massive growth in exports
26.
Penal transportation
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The practice would become mandated for use in Scotland consequent to an act in 1785, but remained used less than in England. Transportation on a scale would resume with the departure of the First Fleet to Australia in 1787. France also transported convicts to Devils Island and New Caledonia, most of this article deals with transportation from Great Britain. Banishment or forced exile from a polity or society has used as a punishment since at least Ancient Roman times. It removed the offender from society, possibly permanently, but was seen as a more merciful or forgiving punishment than execution, by 1670, as new felonies were defined, the option of being sentenced to transportation was allowed. Forgery of a document, for example, was a crime until the 1820s. Depending on the crime, the sentence was imposed for life or for a set period of years, if imposed for a period of years, the offender was permitted to return home after serving out his time, but had to make his own way back. Many offenders thus stayed in the colony as free persons, Transportation was not used by Scotland before the Act of Union 1707, following union, the 1717 Transportation Act specifically excluded its usage in Scotland. Act 1785 the Parliament of Great Britain specifically extended the usage of transportation to Scotland and it remained little used under Scots Law until the early 19th century. In Australia, a convict who had served part of his time might apply for a ticket of leave and this enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and to contribute to the development of the colony. In the 17th and 18th centuries criminal justice was severe, later termed the Bloody Code and this was due to both the particularly large number of offences which were punishable by execution, and to the limited choice of sentences available to judges for convicted criminals in England. With the development of colonies, transportation was introduced as a punishment, although legally it was considered a condition of a pardon. Convicts who represented a menace to the community were sent away to distant lands, a secondary aim was to discourage crime for fear of being transported. Transportation continued to be described as an exhibition of the kings mercy. It was a solution to a problem in the domestic penal system. There was also the hope that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies. In 1615, in the reign of James I, a committee of the Council had already obtained the power to choose from the prisoners those that deserved pardon and, consequently and these bills failed, but it was clear that change was needed. Transportation was not a sentence in itself, but could be arranged by indirect means, the reading test, crucial for the benefit of clergy, was a fundamental feature of the penal system, but in order to prevent its abuse, this pardoning process was used more strictly
27.
Punishment of Offences Act
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The Punishment of Offences Act was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It abolished the death penalty for a number of statutory offences and it was repealed for Northern Ireland by section 15 of, and Schedule 2 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. Section 1 of the 1949 Act was replaced by section 221 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1975 and this section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1893. This section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1890 and this section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1874. This section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1874, halsburys Statutes, The Punishment of Offences Act, as amended, from the National Archives The Punishment of Offences Act, as originally enacted, from the National Archives
28.
Birkenhead
–
Birkenhead /ˌbɜːrkənˈhɛd/ is a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral in Merseyside, England. Historically in Cheshire, it is on the Wirral Peninsula, along the west bank of the River Mersey, the Birkenhead Urban Area defined as the contiguous built-up area along the eastern side of the Wirral had a total population of 325,264 in the 2011 Census. In the 2011 census, the Parliamentary constituency of Birkenhead had a population of 88,818, the Birkenhead and Tranmere electoral ward, covering a much smaller area, had a population of 15,879. The recorded history of Birkenhead began with the establishment of Birkenhead Priory, during the 19th century Birkenhead expanded greatly, becoming a town as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, with Birkenhead Park and Hamilton Square being examples of the era. Around the same time, Birkenhead gained the first street tramway in Britain, later, the Mersey Railway connected Birkenhead and Liverpool, with the worlds first tunnel beneath a tidal estuary. Birkenhead is perhaps best known for the shipbuilding of Cammell Laird, in the second half of the 20th century, the town suffered a significant period of decline, with containerisation causing a reduction in port activity. During the first half of the 21st century, the Wirral Waters development is planned to regenerate much of the dockland. The name Birkenhead probably means headland overgrown with birch, from the Old English bircen meaning birch tree, the name is not derived from the Birket, a stream which enters the Mersey between Birkenhead and Seacombe. The Birket is a name which was introduced by Ordnance Survey. The earliest records state that the Mersey ferry began operating from Birkenhead in 1150, the priory was visited in 1275 and 1277 by Edward I. In a royal charter of 13 April 1330, Edward III granted the priory further rights, distanced from the Industrial Revolution in Liverpool by the physical barrier of the River Mersey, Birkenhead retained its agricultural status until the advent of steam ferry services. In 1817 a steam ferry service started from Liverpool to Tranmere and in 1822 the paddle steamer, Royal Mail, an iron works was initially established by William Laird in 1824 and was joined by his son John Laird in 1828. The business eventually became Cammell Laird, merchant vessels were also built such as RMS Mauretania and RMS Windsor Castle. The Mersey Railway tunnel opened in 1886, providing direct access to Liverpool. In September 1932 thousands of unemployed people protested in a series of demonstrations organised by the branch of the National Unemployed Workers Movement. After three days of rioting, police were brought in from elsewhere to help quell the rioters, in addition to the ferries and the railway, the Queensway road tunnel opened in 1934 and gave rapid access to Liverpool. This opened up the Wirral Peninsula for development, and prompted further growth of Birkenhead as an industrial centre. Bolstered by migration from rural Cheshire, southern Ireland and Wales, formerly a township in Bidston Parish of the Wirral Hundred, Birkenhead was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1877, and became a county borough with the passing of the Local Government Act 1888
29.
Battle of George Square
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The Battle of George Square, also known as Bloody Friday and Black Friday, was one of the most intense riots in the history of Glasgow, it took place on Friday,31 January 1919. The dispute revolved around a campaign for shorter working hours, backed by widespread strike action, before the First World War, the standard working week was 54 hours. National negotiations had established a 47-hour working week for men in the shipbuilding and engineering trades and it was, however, opposed by the Amalgamated Society of Engineers and most other unions. Many workers also resented the fact that the new 47-hour week agreement removed their traditional morning break. A strikers meeting was called for Monday,27 January, by Friday 31 January, the number had swollen to upwards of 60,000. It was Scotlands first mass picket since the Radical War of 1820, Emanuel Shinwell, the Glasgow Trades Council president was amongst those to address the crowd. The fierce fighting between the City of Glasgow Police and protesters began while a Clyde Workers Committee deputation was in the Glasgow City Chambers meeting with the Lord Provost of Glasgow. On hearing the ensuing riot that was taking place in George Square, CWC leaders David Kirkwood, sheriff MacKenzies attempts to read the Riot Act proved unsuccessful as the crowd tore his copy of the Act from him as he was in the process of reading it. Pitched battles took place between police and strikers in the streets around the square, iron palings were pulled up and used as a defence against the police truncheons, while bottles were mobilised from a passing lorry to serve as missiles. The polices efforts to disperse the crowd from the Square were unsuccessful, eventually there was a re-grouping and the workers began to move off from George Square to march towards Glasgow Green. Police were again unsuccessful in their attempts to disperse the strikers, for the rest of the day and into the night, further fighting took place throughout the city. Many people, women and children among them, were injured, more than a dozen strikers were taken to Duke Street Prison and later tried at the High Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh. The failure of the police to control the riot prompted the Coalition Government under David Lloyd George to react and they were deployed for a week, to deter any further gatherings. No Glaswegian troops were deployed, with the government fearing that fellow Glaswegians, soldiers or otherwise, under the orders of Field Marshal Sir William Robertson, Scottish regiments were transported from other parts of Scotland and stationed in Glasgow specifically to avert this possible scenario. Troops from the Highland Light Infantry were also transported from Maryhill Barracks from Maryhill Central railway station to Buchanan Street railway station but without their Glaswegian men. Other troops, including the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, Gordon Highlanders and Seaforth Highlanders arrived from Stirling Castle, Redford Barracks, Manny Shinwell, William Gallacher and David Kirkwood were jailed for several months. The striking workers returned to work with the guarantee of a 47-hour week, in the General Election of 1922, Scotland elected 29 Labour MPs, including the 40 Hour Strike organisers and Independent Labour Party members Manny Shinwell and David Kirkwood. The United Kingdom general election,1923 eventually saw the first Labour government come to power under Ramsay MacDonald, the regions socialist sympathies earned it the epithet of Red Clydeside
30.
Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
31.
Chiddingfold
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Chiddingfold is a village and civil parish in the Weald in the Waverley district of Surrey, England. It lies on the A283 road between Milford and Petworth, the parish includes the hamlets of Ansteadbrook, High Street Green and Combe Common. Chiddingfold Forest, a Site of Special Scientific Interest, lies mostly within its boundaries, the name of Chiddingfold Chadynges fold, Chiddingefoulde, is derived from the Saxon, probably meaning the fold in the hollow. Chiddingfold became famous for its glass-making – during the reign of Elizabeth I, Chiddingfold glass was used in some of the finest buildings in the land, including St Stephens Chapel, Westminster, and St Georges Chapel, Windsor. There was, from a date in the 19th century until the early 20th century, Chiddingfold has an archive which shows the history of Chiddingfold and the previous owners of Chiddingfold houses. The Crown Inn is one of the oldest inns in England, subsequently, it merged with the adjoining alehouse through common ownership. The Crown has seen many distinguished visitors down the years, in 1552, Edward VI, the boy king, attended by high officials of state, courtiers, peers and some 4000 men encamped on the village green. A church, pond, shops and houses lie on three sides of the green, with the forge on it. Almost half of the land is forested, matching its location within Anglo Saxon England, the Chiddingfold Scout Group is very active with about 100 boys and girls as Beavers, Cubs and Scouts. Chiddingfold has a doctors surgery. The village is known for its torchlit procession, bonfire and fireworks display on the Saturday evening closest to 5 November, the bonfire takes weeks to build and is generally as big as a block of flats. A village festival is held every year on the village green on a Sunday in June. There is an art festival in the hall over a weekend in September or October. At the western fringe of the centre is this common which plays host to events in the summer. The Saint Teresa of Avila Catholic Church dates from 1959, Chiddingfold is referred to in a Mr. The average level of accommodation in the composed of detached houses was 28%. The proportion of households in the parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35. 1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the average of 32. 5%
32.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
33.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
34.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
35.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
36.
Affray
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In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, affray is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror of ordinary people. The common law offence of affray was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987, Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. Where 2 or more use or threaten the unlawful violence. For the purposes of this section a threat cannot be made by the use of words alone, no person of reasonable firmness need actually be, or be likely to be, present at the scene. Affray may be committed in private as well as in public places, the term violence expression is defined by section 8. The mens rea of affray is that person is guilty of only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause trouble on airliners. In R v Childs & Price 2015, the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice Order 2008. A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years and this definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl.96. The Indian Penal Code adopts the old English common law definition of affray, in New Zealand affray has been codified as fighting in a public place by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981. Under the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of vis publica, in the United States the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states. Combat Assault battery Blackstones Police Manual Volume 4, General police duties, ISBN 0-19-928522-5 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Affray
37.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
38.
Belize
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Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
39.
2005 Belize unrest
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The 2005 protests in Belize are two separate but related incidents of civil unrest in the Central American nation, occurring in January and April. Civil unrest broke out in the city of Belmopan in Belize during mid-January 2005. The unrest was provoked by the release of a new budget with significant tax increases. It was also guided by anger at the ruling Peoples United Party for the fiscal condition of the Belizean government. On January 14,2005 Said Musas administration announced its budget for 2005-2006, the budget included major tax increases on a variety of businesses and commodities. It included an 11% increase in the estate sales tax, a five percent tax increase for financial institutions, an eight percent tax increase on tobacco. The government claims that these tax increases were comparable to increases instituted in 1998 under the United Democratic Party, the main protesters were the National Trade Union Congress of Belize and the Belize Chamber of Commerce. On January 20, the community and labor unions called for a two-day nationwide strike. Employees did not report to work, and water service for much of Belize was turned off, a major public demonstration planned by the opposition took place on January 21 in Belmopan. This was a demonstration outside the National Assembly building in Belmopan which ended in violence. Protestors threw rocks at the police, who responded with rubber bullets, the gunfire and sirens were audible at a distance of at least 1 km. At least one larger booming sound, significantly louder than gunfire, was heard, several protestors were arrested, including Yellowman, a UDP stalwart. The permission for the demonstration ended at 3pm, but the protestors were given a one-hour extension, at the end of the extension, repeated demands for dispersal were largely ignored. Some union workers laid down and refused to disperse, they were dragged from the area. This is only the time that this kind of unrest has hit Belize. The most recent occasion was in the 1980s, when a proposal was drafted to cede part of the country to Guatemala occasioned the Heads of Agreement Crisis. Reports indicate that the police were very calm throughout the day, shortages of water and electricity were also common. Taking advantage of numerous faults in communication between the representatives, Government neogtiators Carla Barnett and Assad Shoman came up with an agreement on February 11
40.
Criminal Code (Canada)
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The Criminal Code or Code criminel is a law that codifies most criminal offences and procedures in Canada. Its official long title is An Act respecting the criminal law, section 91 of the Constitution Act,1867 establishes the sole jurisdiction of Parliament over criminal law in Canada. The Criminal Code contains some defences, but most are part of the law rather than statute. This legal document has played a part in Canadas history and has also helped form other legal acts and laws, For example the Controlled Drugs. The Criminal Code was first enacted in July 1892 after being a pet project of the Minister of Justice of the time, Canadas criminal code followed much of Englands 1878 bill. However Canada wanted to have a precise legal document that outlined all criminal laws. The Criminal Code has been revised numerous times, including the consolidation of federal statutes that occurred during 1955 and 1985, the criminal code has changed as society has advanced. The introduction of technology has pushed for new laws to be passed, for example laws against the use of cellphones while driving as well as cyber crimes. The Criminal Code, in its present form, is part of the 1985 consolidated statutes with further major amendments since that year, the offending sections are usually removed altogether, or heavily qualified, when new laws are passed. Before the terrorist attack against the World Trade Center on September 11,2001, after that event, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-36, the Anti-terrorism Act which received royal assent on December 18,2001. This statute added a new component to the Criminal Code. Falling between Part II and Part III is now Part II, however, sentencing, procedure and evidence law are modified to some extent by the Youth Criminal Justice Act. Depending on the severity of the crime, the Crown Prosecutor may argue for a youth to receive a sentence after the age of 14. In this case, the judge will make the decision, under the Young Offenders Act, the youth would be transferred to adult court in order to receive an adult sentence. This is no longer the case, under the Youth Criminal Justice Act the young person would receive the adult sentence in youth court. If the young person is given an adult custody sentence, he/she will attend a youth facility until becoming an adult at the age of 18. At this time it will be decided if the youth is transferred to an adult facility, if an adult sentence is given, the young persons name will be published and he/she will receive a permanent adult criminal record. In 2012, Bill C-10 made amendments to the Youth Criminal Justice Act regarding youth, Criminal law in Canada Criminal Code Criminal Code at The Canadian Encyclopedia Canadian Legal Information Institute contains the CCoC in a searchable database
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Winnipeg general strike
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The Winnipeg general strike of 1919 was one of the most famous and influential strikes in Canadian history. Their goal was to mobilize workers, including all different trades, skill levels, business leadership controlled the political system in Manitoba, and used force to break the strike and effectively destroy the One Big Union. The immediate post-war period in Canada was not a time of peace, social tensions grew as soldiers returned home to find large numbers of immigrants crowded into cities and working at their former jobs. High rates of unemployment among returned soldiers compounded their resentment towards the immigrants, along with the soldiers, the Spanish flu was brought back from Europe, causing an epidemic within the country. Canada’s large immigrant population was thought to hold strong Bolshevist leanings, Government fears of a possible uprising led to increased efforts to control radicals and immigrants at home. Threats and incidents of strike action, which could be considered radical criticism, were thought to require prompt, the cost of living was raised due to the inflation caused by World War I, making it hard for families to live above poverty. Another component which caused the strike was the conditions of many factories that upset the employees. Railways in particular were put in the climate, and many of the employees were hurt around the mountains due to rock falls. Sleeping there, the workers stayed in tents with unsanitary and overcrowded bunkhouses, at first, many workers liked the ideal wage pay, but the company deducted charges for staying overnight, transportation and blanket rental, making the workers motivated to revolt against the company. After three months of negotiations between the employers of the Winnipeg builders exchange and the union, worker frustration grew. The city councils new proposal to the workers was unsatisfactory to the four departments, electrical workers took action, waterworks and fire department employees joined a few days later. Strikers were labelled as Bolsheviks who were attempting to undermine Canada, the city council viewed this as unacceptable and thus dismissed the striking workers. This did not discourage the latter, instead, other unions joined the strike out of sympathy. On May 13, City Council gathered again to review the proposed agreement issued by the strikers and this amendment incensed the civic employees further, and by Friday, May 24, an estimated total of 6,800 strikers from thirteen trades had joined the strike. Fearing that the strike would spread to cities, the Federal Government ordered Senator Gideon Decker Robertson to mediate the dispute. After hearing both sides, Robertson settled in favour of the strikers and encouraged Council to accept the civic employees proposal, bolstered by their success, the labour unions would use striking again to gain other labour and union reforms. Restrictive labour policy in the 1900s meant that a union could be recognized voluntarily by employers, or through strike action, workers from both industrial groupings therefore struck to gain union recognition and to compel recognition of their collective bargaining rights. The Building and Metal Trade Councils appealed to the Trades and Labour Union, the Trades and Labour Union, in a spirit of solidarity, voted in favour of a sympathetic strike in support of the Building and Metal Trade Councils
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