1.
Oven
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An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for the heating, baking or drying of a substance, and most commonly used for cooking. Kilns and furnaces are special-purpose ovens, used in pottery and metalworking, the earliest ovens were found in Central Europe, and dated to 29,000 BC. They were roasting and boiling pits inside yurts used to cook mammoth, in Ukraine from 20,000 BC they used pits with hot coals covered in ashes. The food was wrapped in leaves and set on top, then covered with earth, in camps found in Mezhirich, each mammoth bone house had a hearth used for heating and cooking. Ovens were used by cultures who lived in the Indus Valley, by 3200 BC, each mud-brick house had an oven in settlements across the Indus Valley. Ovens were used to food and to make bricks. Pre-dynastic civilizations in Egypt used kilns around 5000–4000 BC to make pottery, culinary historians credit the Greeks for developing bread baking significantly. Front-loaded bread ovens were developed in ancient Greece, the Greeks created a wide variety of doughs, loaf shapes, and styles of serving bread with other foods. Baking developed as a trade and profession as bread increasingly was prepared outside of the home by specially trained workers to be sold to the public. During the Middle Ages, instead of earth and ceramic ovens, Europeans used fireplaces in conjunction with large cauldrons and these were similar to the Dutch oven. Following the Middle-Ages, ovens underwent many changes over time from wood, iron, coal, gas, each design had its own motivation and purpose. The wood burning stoves saw improvement through the addition of fire chambers that allowed better containment, another recognizable oven would be the cast-iron stove. These were first used around the early 1700s when they underwent several variations including the Stewart Oberlin iron stove that was smaller and had its own chimney. In the early part of the 19th century, coal ovens were developed and its shape was cylindrical and was made of heavy cast-iron. The gas oven saw its first use as early as the beginning of the 19th century as well, Gas stoves became very common household ovens once gas lines were available to most houses and neighborhoods. James Sharp patented one of the first gas stoves in 1826, other various improvements to the gas stove included the AGA cooker invented in 1922 by Gustaf Dalén. More recently, ovens have become slightly more high-tech in terms of cooking strategy, the microwave as a cooking tool was discovered by Percy Spencer in 1946, and with the help from engineers, the microwave oven was patented. The microwave oven uses microwave radiation to excite the molecules in food causing friction, double oven, a built-in oven fixture that has either two ovens, or one oven and one microwave oven
2.
Caramelization
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Caramelization is the browning of sugar, a process used extensively in cooking for the resulting sweet nutty flavor and brown color. The brown colors are produced by three groups of polymers, caramelans, caramelens, and caramelins, as the process occurs, volatile chemicals such as diacetyl are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor. Like the Maillard reaction, caramelization is a type of non-enzymatic browning, however, unlike the Maillard reaction, caramelization is pyrolysis, as opposed to reaction with amino acids. When caramelization involves the disaccharide sucrose, it is broken down into the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, specific sugars each have their own point at which the reactions begin to proceed readily. Impurities in the sugar, such as the remaining in brown sugar. The caramelization reactions are also sensitive to the chemical environment, by controlling the level of acidity, the reaction rate can be altered. The rate of caramelization is generally lowest at near-neutral acidity, onions require 30 to 45 minutes of cooking to caramelize. Media related to caramelization at Wikimedia Commons Maillard reaction Sugar in food management
3.
Maillard reaction
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The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned food its distinctive flavor. Seared steaks, pan-fried dumplings, cookies and other kinds of biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows and it is named after French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein synthesis. The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 °C, at higher temperatures, caramelization and subsequently pyrolysis become more pronounced. This process is accelerated in an environment, as the amino groups are deprotonated and. The type of the acid determines the resulting flavor. This reaction is the basis for many of the flavoring industrys recipes, at high temperatures, a potential carcinogen called acrylamide can be formed. In the process, hundreds of different flavor compounds are created and these compounds, in turn, break down to form yet more new flavor compounds, and so on. Each type of food has a distinctive set of flavor compounds that are formed during the Maillard reaction. It is these same compounds that flavor scientists have used over the years to make artificial flavors, in 1913 Maillard published a paper to explain what happens when amino acids react with sugars at elevated temperatures. However, it was chemist John E. Hodge, working at the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Peoria, Illinois, who published a paper in 1953 that established a mechanism for the Maillard reaction. The structurally related compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has a smell, and occurs also naturally without heating and gives varieties of cooked rice. Both compounds have odor thresholds below 0.06 ng/l, caramelization is an entirely different process from Maillard browning, though the results of the two processes are sometimes similar to the naked eye. Caramelization may sometimes cause browning in the foods in which the Maillard reaction occurs. They both are promoted by heating, but the Maillard reaction involves amino acids, as discussed above, in making silage, excess heat causes the Maillard reaction to occur, which reduces the amount of energy and protein available to the animals who feed on it. Dicarbonyls react with amine to produce Strecker aldehyde through Strecker degradation, the Maillard reaction also occurs in the human body. It is a step in the formation of advanced glycation endproducts and it is tracked by measuring pentosidine. Although the Maillard reaction has been studied most extensively in foods, it has shown a correlation in numerous different diseases in the human body. In general, these diseases are due to the accumulation of AGEs on nucleic acids, proteins, though AGEs have numerous origins, they can form from the oxidation and dehydration of Amadori adducts, which themselves are products of nonenzymatic Maillard reactions
4.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
5.
Red meat
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Commonly, especially in gastronomy, red meat or dark meat is red when raw and dark in color when cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking. This definition only refers to flesh from mammals or fowl, in nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more myoglobin than white meat, white meat being defined as non-dark meat from chicken, or fish. Some meat, such as pork, is red meat using the nutritional definition, according to the USDA, all meats obtained from mammals are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than fish or white meat from chicken. The culinary definition has many rules and exceptions, generally meat from mammals and meat from hunting excluding fish and insects are considered red meat. Although poultry is usually considered white, duck and goose are red, for some animals the culinary definition of red meat differs by cut, and sometimes by the age of the animal is when it was slaughtered. Pork is considered red if the animal is adult, but white if young, the same applies to young lamb and veal. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether, Pork is considered white under the culinary definition, but red in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as Pork, the Other White Meat, profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful. Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, red meat is a source of lipoic acid. Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D, the liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal. In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which didnt distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz of fish each week. In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate because of the inadequacies of the USDAs recommendations. The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to limit red meat and avoid processed meat and its website says, Eating a lot of red meat and processed meat has been linked to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. So it’s best to avoid processed meat, and to limit red meat to no more than twice a week. Switching to fish, chicken, nuts, or beans in place of red meat and processed meat can improve cholesterol levels and can lower the risk of heart disease and diabetes. Red meat is not a product, its health effects can vary based on fat content, processing. Processed red meat is linked to mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases. There is some evidence too that the consumption of unprocessed red meat may have health effects in humans
6.
Chicken as food
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Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. In developed countries, chickens are usually subject to intensive farming methods, the modern chicken is a descendant of red junglefowl hybrids along with the grey junglefowl first raised thousands of years ago in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Chicken as a meat has been depicted in Babylonian carvings from around 600 BC, Chicken was one of the most common meats available in the Middle Ages. It was eaten over most of the Eastern hemisphere and a number of different kinds of such as capons, pullets. It was one of the ingredients in the so-called white dish. In the United States in the 1800s, chicken was more expensive than other meats, Chicken consumption in the United States increased during World War II due to a shortage of beef and pork. In Europe, consumption of chicken overtook that of beef and veal in 1996, modern varieties of chicken such as the Cornish Cross, are bred specifically for meat production, with an emphasis placed on the ratio of feed to meat produced by the animal. The most common breeds of chicken consumed in the US are Cornish, chickens raised specifically for food are called broilers. In the United States, broilers are typically butchered at a young age, modern Cornish Cross hybrids, for example, are butchered as early as 8 weeks for fryers and 12 weeks for roasting birds. Capons produce more and fattier meat, for this reason, they are considered a delicacy and were particularly popular in the Middle Ages. Main Breast, These are white meat and are relatively dry, leg, Comprises two segments, The drumstick, this is dark meat and is the lower part of the leg, the thigh, also dark meat, this is the upper part of the leg. Wing, Often served as a meal or bar food. Buffalo wings are a typical example, Comprises three segments, the drumette, shaped like a small drumstick, the middle flat segment, containing two bones, and the tip, sometimes discarded. Other Chicken feet, These contain relatively little meat, and are mainly for the skin. Although considered exotic in Western cuisine, the feet are common fare in other cuisines, especially in the Caribbean, giblets, organs such as the heart, gizzards, and liver may be included inside a butchered chicken or sold separately. Head, Considered a delicacy in China, the head is split down the middle, kidneys, Normally left in when a broiler carcass is processed, they are found in deep pockets on each side of the vertebral column. Neck, This is served in various Asian dishes and it is stuffed to make helzel among Ashkenazi Jews. Oysters, Located on the back, near the thigh, these small, pygostyle and testicles, These are commonly eaten in East Asia and some parts of South East Asia
7.
Cucurbita
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Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five species are grown worldwide for their fruit, variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria and these other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species. Most Cucurbita species are vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils. The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types, female and male, the female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen. Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators, the fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients, such as vitamin A and vitamin C, among other nutrients according to species. The plants also contain phytochemicals, such as cucurbitin, cucurmosin. There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus, as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30, the five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. All of these can be treated as winter squash because the fruits can be stored for months, however. Cucurbita fruits have played a role in culture for at least 2,000 years. They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru, after Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World, paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century. The fruits have culinary uses including pumpkin pie, biscuits, bread, desserts, puddings, beverages. Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower, Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are mesophytic, the second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions. Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group, growing 5 to 15 meters in height or length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground. Most species do not readily root from the nodes, an exception is C. ficifolia. The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow, there is wide variation in size, shape, and color among Cucurbita fruits, and even within a single species. C. ficifolia is an exception, being uniform in appearance
8.
Sunday roast
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Its prominence in British culture is such that in a UK poll it was ranked second in a list of things people love about Britain. Other names for this meal are Sunday dinner, Sunday lunch, roast dinner, the meal is often comparable to a less grand version of a traditional Christmas dinner. Besides being served in its original homelands, the tradition of a Sunday dinner has been an influence on food cultures in the English-speaking world. Roast dinner is also a popular dish in the Republic of Ireland. The Sunday Roast originated in England as a meal to be eaten after church on Sunday, eating a large meal following church services is common to all of the continent of Europe as with other Christian countries, but the Sunday Roast variant of this meal is uniquely British. On Sundays, all types of meat and dairy produce are allowed to be eaten, unlike on Fridays where many Roman Catholics and Anglicans traditionally abstain from eating meats, so ate fish instead. Likewise, it is traditional for Anglicans and English Catholics to fast before Sunday services and these religious rules created several traditional dishes in the United Kingdom. Only eating fish on Friday resulted in a British tradition of fish Fridays which is common in fish and chip shops and restaurants across the United Kingdom on Fridays. There are two points on the origins of the modern Sunday roast. In the late 1700s during the revolution in the United Kingdom. They would then add in vegetables such as potatoes, turnips and parsnips before going to church on a Sunday morning, when they returned from the church the dinner was all but ready. The juices from the meat and vegetables were used to make a stock or gravy to pour on top of the dinner, the second opinion holds that the Sunday roast dates back to medieval times, when the village serfs served the squire for six days a week. Then, on the Sunday, after the church service, serfs would assemble in a field. Typical meats used for a Sunday roast are roast beef, chicken, lamb or pork, although duck, goose, gammon. Sunday roasts can be served with a range of boiled, steamed and/or roasted vegetables, the potatoes can be cooked around the meat itself, absorbing the juices and fat directly. However, many prefer to cook the potatoes and the Yorkshire pudding in a hotter oven than that used for the joint and so remove the meat beforehand to rest. Other vegetable dishes served with roast dinner can include mashed swede or turnip, roast parsnip, boiled or steamed cabbage, broccoli, green beans and boiled carrots, common traditional accompaniments include, beef — Yorkshire pudding, suet pudding, English mustard, or horseradish sauce. Pork — crackling and sage-and-onion stuffing, apple sauce or English mustard, lamb — mint sauce or jelly or redcurrant jelly
9.
Roast beef
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Roast beef is a dish of beef which is roasted in an oven. Essentially prepared as a meal, the leftovers can be and are often served within sandwiches and sometimes are used to make hash. A traditional side dish to roast beef is Yorkshire pudding, Roast beef is a signature national dish of England and holds cultural meaning for the English dating back to the 1731 ballad The Roast Beef of Old England. The dish is so synonymous with England and its cooking methods from the 18th century that the French nickname for the English is les Rosbifs, translucent appearance is nothing to be alarmed about. Some prefer roast beef to be served rare or pink, meaning that the center of the joint is cooked so that it retains a reddish color, others prefer roast beef to be cooked medium or well done. The beef on weck sandwich is a tradition in western New York, Roast beef is sometimes served with horseradish or horseradish sauce. In Denmark it is used in open sandwiches, called smørrebrød. Roasting Beef The Roast Beef of Old England Roast Beef at Wikibook Cookbooks Media related to Roast beef at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
11.
Vegetable
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In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
12.
Yorkshire pudding
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Yorkshire pudding is an English food made from batter consisting of eggs, flour, and milk or water. It is often served with beef and gravy and is part of the traditional Sunday roast, similar instructions were published during 1747 in the book The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse, with the name Yorkshire pudding. It was she who renamed the version, known as Dripping Pudding. An early recipe appeared in Sir Alexander William George Casseys The Whole Duty of a Woman during 1737, because the rich gravy from the roast meat drippings was used up with the first course, the main meat and vegetable course was often served with a parsley or white sauce. In poorer households, the pudding was served as the only course. Using dripping and blood, a meal was made with flour, eggs. This was traditionally eaten with a gravy or sauce, to moisten the pudding, the Yorkshire pudding is meant to rise. The Royal Society of Chemistry suggested during 2008 that A Yorkshire pudding isnt a Yorkshire pudding if it is less than four inches tall. Yorkshire pudding is cooked by pouring a batter made from milk, flour and eggs into preheated, oiled, a basic formula uses 1⁄3 cup flour and 1⁄3 cup liquid per egg. Yorkshire Pudding at Wikibook Cookbooks Media related to Yorkshire pudding at Wikimedia Commons
13.
Rotisserie
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This method is generally used for cooking large joints of meat or entire animals, such as pigs or turkeys. The rotation cooks the meat evenly in its own juices and allows access for continuous self-basting. In medieval and early modern kitchens, the spit was the way of cooking meat in a large household. A servant, preferably a boy, sat near the turning the metal rod slowly and cooking the food. Mechanical turnspits were later invented, first powered by dogs on treadmills, the spit could also be powered by a turbine mounted in the chimney with a worm transmission for torque and speed conversion. Spits are now driven by electric motors. Rotisserie can also refer to a device used for rotisserie cooking. The word comes from French where it first appeared in Paris shops around 1450, additionally, in restaurants employing the Escoffierian brigade de cuisine, the rotisseur is the chef responsible for all spit-roasted, oven roasted, grilled and in some cases fried foods. It is commonly known in Latin America as A la brasa and this style mounts the spit horizontally. They are often used to cook whole chickens or roasts of various meats including beef, the design may include a single spit mounted over an open broiler or grill, a single spit mounted within an otherwise-conventional oven, or many spits mounted within a large industrial oven. The latter are used to mass-produce roasted meats for sale to consumers. In this style of rotisserie, balance is important, if the object to be cooked is far out of balance, it will impose a heavy load on the drive mechanism or cause the mechanism to fail to turn. Loose chicken legs or wings can cause the mechanism to jam. For these two reasons, some skewering skill is required, high-end consumer ovens commonly come with a rotisserie. In these cases, the drive mechanism is usually concealed within the oven. The rotisserie is used by removing the normal cooking racks, a carrier may be needed to provide one or both bearing points for the spit. The speed of rotation can vary, depending on the type of food being cooked, large animals, such as whole pigs, are often cooked at speeds ranging from 3 rpm to 1 rpm. Ron Popeil, inventor of the Ronco Showtime rotisserie oven, claims that 6 rpm is a speed for cooking a variety of food
14.
Filet mignon
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Filet mignon is a steak cut of beef taken from the smaller end of the tenderloin, or psoas major of the beef carcass, usually a steer or heifer. In French this cut can also be called filet de bœuf, when found on a menu in France, filet mignon generally refers to pork rather than beef. The tenderloin runs along both sides of the spine, and is harvested as two long snake-shaped cuts of beef. The tenderloin is sometimes sold whole, when sliced along the short dimension, creating roughly round cuts, and tube cuts, the cuts from the small forward end are considered to be filet mignon. Those from the center are tournedos, however, some butchers in the United States label all types of tenderloin steaks filet mignon. In fact, the shape of the filet mignon may be a hindrance when cooking. The tenderloin is the most tender cut of beef and is arguably the most desirable. The average steer or heifer provides no more than 500 grams of filet mignon, because the muscle is not weight-bearing, it contains less connective tissue, which makes it tender. However, it is not as flavorful as some other cuts of beef. Both the central and large end of the tenderloin are often sold as filet mignon in supermarkets and restaurants, the French terms for these cuts are tournedos, châteaubriand, and biftek. Porterhouse steaks and T-bone steaks are large cuts that include the fillet, filet mignon may be cut into 1- to 2-inch-thick portions, then grilled and served as-is. One also may find filet mignon in stores already cut into portions, high heat is the usual method for cooking the filet mignon, either grilling, pan frying, broiling, or roasting. Traditionally in European and American restaurants, fillets are most often served in a cream sauce, au poivre with peppercorns. Bacon is often used in cooking filet mignon because of the low levels of fat found in the cut, as fillets have low levels of marbling, bacon is wrapped around the fillet and pinned closed with a wooden toothpick. This adds flavor and keeps the fillet from drying out during the cooking process, traditional cooking calls for the filet mignon to be seared on each side using intense heat for a short time and then transferred to a lower heat to cook the meat all the way through. Filet mignon is often served rarer than other meats and those preferring a more well-done steak can request a butterflied filet, meaning that the meat is cut down the middle and opened up to expose more of it to heat during the cooking process. Tournedos Rossini – A French dish prepared with filet mignon Food portal
15.
Short loin
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Short loin is the American name for a cut of beef that comes from the back of the cattle. It contains part of the spine and includes the top loin and this cut yields types of steak including porterhouse, strip steak, and T-bone. The T-bone is a cut that contains less of the tenderloin than does the porterhouse, websters Dictionary defines it as a portion of the hindquarter of beef immediately behind the ribs that is usually cut into steaks. In Australian, British and South African butchery, this cut is referred to as the sirloin
16.
Searing
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Searing is a technique used in grilling, baking, braising, roasting, sautéing, etc. in which the surface of the food is cooked at high temperature until a caramelized crust forms. Similar techniques, browning and blackening, are used to sear all sides of a particular piece of meat, fish, poultry. To obtain the desired brown or black crust, the surface must exceed 150 °C, so searing requires the meat surface be free of water. Nonetheless, it remains an essential technique in cooking meat for several reasons, The browning creates desirable flavors through caramelization, the appearance of the food is usually improved with a well-browned crust. The contrast in taste and texture between the crust and the interior makes the food more interesting to the palate, typically in grilling, the food will be seared over very high heat and then moved to a lower-temperature area of the grill to finish cooking. In braising, the seared surface acts to flavor, color, the incorrect belief that searing meat seals in the juices is widespread and still often repeated. This theory was first put forth by Justus von Liebig, a German chemist and food scientist, the notion was embraced by contemporary cooks and authors, including Auguste Escoffier. It is more cited in regards to larger cuts, especially steaks and chops, of non-poultry meats such as beef, pork, lamb. Simple experimentation can test the theory, in two similar cuts of meat are cooked, one of which is seared and one of which is not. Each piece is then cooked normally in a preferred method until each reaches exactly the same predetermined internal temperature and they are then weighed to see which lost more moisture. As early as the 1930s, such experiments were carried out, moisture in liquid and vapor form continues to escape from a seared piece of meat
17.
Basting (cooking)
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Basting is a cooking technique that involves cooking meat with either its own juices or some type of preparation such as a sauce or marinade. The meat is left to cook, then coated with the juice. Improperly administered basting, however, may lead to the very problem it is designed to prevent. To prevent this, the easiest solution is to place the meat in a closed oven bag, the drops roll down to the lowest point of the closed space, where the meat sits and cooks in the resulting juices. This technique often requires minimal or no added liquids other than what the meat already contains, perhaps even better, some oven pans are designed to carry a lid. This is a type of cooking usually recommended for dishes that generally taste mild, Basting is a technique generally known to be used for turkey, pork, chicken, duck, and beef, but may be applied to virtually any type of meat. Pastry brush Kitchen utensil How Stuff Works - Basting
18.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
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Lard
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Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. It is obtained from any part of the pig where there is a proportion of adipose tissue. It can be rendered by steaming it or boiling it in water and then separating the insoluble fat from the water and it is a semi-soft white fat with a high saturated fatty acid content and no transfats, and refined lard is usually sold as paper-wrapped blocks. Lard is commonly used in cuisines around the world as a cooking fat or shortening. It is an ingredient in various dishes such as sausages, pates and fillings. Its use in contemporary cuisine has diminished with the increased popularity of vegetable oils. The culinary qualities of lard vary somewhat depending on the part of the pig from which the fat was taken, Lard can be obtained from any part of the pig where there is a high concentration of fatty tissue. The highest grade of lard, known as leaf lard, is obtained from the visceral fat deposit surrounding the kidneys. Leaf lard has little pork flavor, making it ideal for use in baked goods, the next-highest grade is obtained from fatback, the hard subcutaneous fat between the back skin and muscle of the pig. Lard may be rendered by either of two processes, wet or dry, in dry rendering, the fat is exposed to high heat in a pan or oven without the presence of water. The two processes yield somewhat differing products, wet-rendered lard has a more neutral flavor, a lighter color, and a high smoke point. Dry-rendered lard is somewhat more browned in color and flavor and has a lower smoke point, rendered lard produces an unpleasant smell when mixed with oxygen. Industrially-produced lard, including much of the lard sold in supermarkets, is rendered from a mixture of high-, Lard is often hydrogenated to improve its stability at room temperature. Hydrogenated lard sold to consumers typically contains fewer than 0.5 g of transfats per 13 g serving, Lard is also often treated with bleaching and deodorizing agents, emulsifiers, and antioxidants such as BHT. These treatments make it consistent and prevent spoilage. Consumers seeking a higher-quality source of lard typically seek out artisanal producers of rendered lard, a by-product of dry-rendering lard is deep-fried meat, skin and membrane tissue known as cracklings. Lard consists mainly of fats, which in the language of chemistry are known as triglycerides and these triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids and the distribution of fatty acids varies from oil to oil. In general lard is similar to tallow in its composition, pigs that have been fed different diets will have lard with a significantly different fatty acid content and iodine value
20.
Cooking oil
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Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips. Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as oil, palm oil. Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic, a guideline for the appropriate amount of fat—a component of daily food consumption—is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, or neutral, effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats. Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean, peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, the consumption of trans fats increases ones risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of bad LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of good HDL cholesterol. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils, several large studies indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration, the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, heating an oil changes its characteristics. Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, therefore, palm oil can withstand the high heat of deep frying and is resistant to oxidation compared to highly unsaturated vegetable oils. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, in a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use. Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as oil, keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil. Rancidity tests have shown that the life of walnut oil is about 3 months. Lighter, more refined oils tend to have a higher smoke point, experience using an oil is generally a sufficiently reliable guide. Although outcomes of empirical tests are sensitive to the qualities of particular samples, smoking oil indicates a risk of combustion, and left unchecked can also set off a fire alarm. When using any cooking oil, should it begin to smoke, the cook should be fully prepared to extinguish a burning oil fire before beginning to heat the oil, by having on hand the lid to place on the pan, or having on hand the proper fire extinguisher
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Shawarma
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Shawarma or Shawurma is a Levantine meat preparation, where lamb, chicken, turkey, beef, veal, buffalo meat, or mixed meats are placed on a spit, and may be grilled for as long as a day. Shavings are cut off the block of meat for serving, Shawarma can be served on a plate, or as a sandwich or wrap. Shawarma is usually eaten with tabbouleh, fattoush, taboon bread, tomato, toppings include tahini, hummus, pickled turnips, and amba. Similar dishes in the region include Turkish döner kebabs and Greek gyros, Shawarma is an Arabic rendering of Turkish çevirme turning, in reference to the rotisserie-cooked nature of the meat, which turns around an axis. Similar naming conventions apply to the Turkish döner and the Greek gyros, Shawarma is made by alternately stacking strips of fat and pieces of seasoned meat on a vertical spit. An onion, a tomato, or a lemon is sometimes placed at the top for decoration. The meat is roasted slowly on all sides as the spit rotates in front of, or over, gas or electric heat is used, formerly, there was a cage holding burning charcoal or wood. Some restaurants offer two or more selections, many have just one. The meat is shaved off the stack with a large knife, Shawarma is eaten as a fast food, made up into a sandwich wrap with pita or lavash together with vegetables and dressing. A variety of vegetables come with the shawarma which include, cucumber, onion, tomato, lettuce, eggplant, parsley, pickled turnips, pickles, rhubarb, cabbage or French fries. Dressings include, tahini, amba sauce, hummus, or those flavored with vinegar and spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, chicken shawarma is served with garlic mayonnaise, toumaia, pomegranate concentrate, or skhug. Levantine cuisine Arab cuisine Israeli cuisine Doner kebab Gyros Kati roll Shish taouk List of sandwiches Street food Tacos al Pastor Media related to Shawarma at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Grilling
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Grilling is a form of cooking that involves dry heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above or below. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, food to be grilled is cooked on a grill, a grill pan, or griddle. Heat transfer to the food when using a grill is primarily through thermal radiation, heat transfer when using a grill pan or griddle is by direct conduction. In the United States, when the source for grilling comes from above. In this case, the pan that holds the food is called a broiler pan, direct heat grilling can expose food to temperatures often in excess of 260 °C. Grilled meat acquires a distinctive roast aroma and flavor from a process called the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction only occurs when foods reach temperatures in excess of 155 °C, marination may reduce the formation of these compounds. Grilling is often presented as an alternative to cooking with oils, although the fat. In Japanese cities, yakitori carts, restaurants, or shops can be found and these contain charcoal-fired grills and marinated grilled meat on a stick. Yakiniku is a type of food where meat and/or vegetables are grilled directly over small charcoal or gas grills at high temperatures. In Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand, a food item from food vendors is satay. In Germany, the most prominent outdoor form of grilling is using the gridiron over a bed of burning charcoal, care is taken that the charcoal does not produce flames. Often beer is sprinkled over the sausages or meat and used to suppress flames, the meat is usually marinated before grilling. Besides charcoal, sometimes gas and electric heat sources are used, other methods are used less frequently. In Argentina and Uruguay, both asado and steak a la parrilla are staple dishes and even hailed as national specialties, in Sweden, grilling directly over hot coals is the most prominent form of grilling. Usually the meat is Boston butt, pork chops or pork fillet and it is also common to cook meat and vegetables together on a skewer, this is called grillspett. In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth countries, and Ireland, grilling refers to cooking food directly under a source of direct. The grill is usually a part of an oven where the food is inserted just under the element
23.
Barbecue
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Barbecue or barbeque is both a cooking method and an apparatus. The word barbecue when used as a noun can refer to, the method itself, the meat cooked this way. The term is used as a verb, i. e. barbecuing is usually done outdoors by smoking the meat over wood or charcoal. Restaurant barbecue may be cooked in large, specially-designed brick or metal ovens, barbeque is practiced in many areas of the world and there are numerous regional variations. The English word barbecue and its cognates in other languages come from the Spanish word barbacoa, the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word to Haiti and translates it as a framework of sticks set upon posts. Gonzalo Fernández De Oviedo y Valdés, a Spanish explorer, was the first to use the word barbecoa in print in Spain in 1526 in the Diccionario de la Lengua Española of the Real Academia Española. After Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492, the Spaniards apparently found native Haitians roasting meat over a grill consisting of a wooden framework resting on sticks above a fire, the flames and smoke rose and enveloped the meat, giving it a certain flavor. The same framework was used as protection from nocturnal animal attacks. Traditional barbacoa involves digging a hole in the ground and placing some meat—usually a whole lamb—above a pot so the juices can be used to make a broth and it is then covered with maguey leaves and coal, and set alight. The cooking process takes a few hours, linguists have suggested the word barbacoa migrated from the Caribbean and into other languages and cultures, it moved from Caribbean dialects into Spanish, then Portuguese, French, and English. According to the OED, the first recorded use of the word in English was a verb in 1661, in Edmund Hickeringills Jamaica Viewed, Some are slain, And their flesh forthwith Barbacud and eat. The word barbecue was published in English in 1672 as a verb from the writings of John Lederer, the first known use of the word as a noun was in 1697 by the British buccaneer William Dampier. In his New Voyage Round the World, Dampier wrote, and lay there all night, upon our Borbecus, or frames of Sticks, raised about 3 foot from the Ground. The spelling barbeque is given in Merriam-Webster and the Oxford Dictionaries as a variant, in the southeastern United States, the word barbecue is used predominantly as a noun referring to roast pork, while in the southwestern states cuts of beef are often cooked. Because the word came from native groups, Europeans gave it savage connotations. However, according to Andrew Warnes, there is little proof that Hickeringills tale of cannibalism in the Caribbean is even remotely true. Today, those in the U. S. associate barbecue with classic Americana, in American English usage, grilling refers to a fast process over high heat while barbecuing refers to a slow process using indirect heat or hot smoke, similar to some forms of roasting. In a typical U. S. home grill, food is cooked on a grate directly over hot charcoal and its South American versions are the southern Brazilian churrasco and the Argentine asado
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Smoking (cooking)
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Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
25.
Reef knot
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The reef knot, or square knot, is an ancient and simple binding knot used to secure a rope or line around an object. It is sometimes referred to as a Hercules knot. The knot is formed by tying an overhand knot and then a right-handed overhand knot. A common mnemonic for this procedure is right over left, left over right, makes a knot both tidy and tight. Two consecutive overhands of the same handedness will make a granny knot, the working ends of the reef knot must emerge both at the top or both at the bottom, otherwise a thief knot results. The reef knot is at least 4,000 years old, the name reef knot dates from at least 1794 and originates from its common use to reef sails, that is to tie part of the sail down to decrease its effective surface area in strong winds. To release the knot a sailor could collapse it with a pull of one hand and it is specifically this behavior which makes the knot unsafe for connecting two ropes together. The name square knot is found in Danas 1841 maritime compendium A Seamans Friend, the name square knot is often used for the unslipped version of reef knot. Reef knot itself then is understood as the single slipped version, not really a double slipped reef knot. The reef knot is used to tie the two ends of a line together such that they will secure something, for example a bundle of objects. In addition to being used by sailors for reefing and furling sails, the knot lies flat when made with cloth and has been used for tying bandages for millennia. As a binding knot it was known to the ancient Greeks as the Hercules knot and is used extensively in medicine. In his Natural History, Pliny relates the belief that wounds heal more quickly when bound with a Hercules knot and it has also been used since ancient times to tie belts and sashes. A modern use in this manner includes tying the obi of a martial arts keikogi, with both ends tucked it becomes a good way to tie shoelaces, whilst the non-slipped version is useful for shoelaces that are excessively short. It is appropriate for tying plastic garbage or trash bags, as the forms a handle when tied in two twisted edges of the bag. The reef knot figures prominently in Scouting worldwide and it is included in the international membership badge and many scouting awards. In the Boy Scouts of America demonstrating the proper tying of the knot is a requirement for all boys joining the program. In Pioneering, it is used as a binding knot to finish off specialized lashing and whipping knots
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Packer's knot
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The packers knot is a binding knot which is easily pulled taut and quickly locked in position. It is most often made in line or string, such as that used for hand baling, parcel tying. This latter use, and its form, make it a member of a class of similar knots known as butchers knots. The knot is taught to Guides and Scouts, and those in similar organizations as a basic binding knot. A lightly tightened figure-eight knot is formed around the part of the line such that both ends emerge from the same point. Pulling on the standing part tightens the binding, after the desired degree of tension is reached, a locking half-hitch is added over the working end and pulled taut. Even without the locking half-hitch the knot will generally maintain tension while additional tying is accomplished, such as putting a second, perpendicular, a similar knot made with an overhand knot instead of a figure-eight works almost as well. Many other variations also exist finishing with this style of locking half-hitch, in fact, Clifford Ashley claimed that there were more knots of this type to be found than any other used for a single purpose. Corned beef knot List of binding knots List of knots Diagram of a packers knot
27.
Poultry
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Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the eggs they produce, their meat, or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae, especially the order Galliformes, if there are ducks and or geese that are kept as pets they shall not be considered poultry unlike domesticated chickens. Poultry also includes other birds that are killed for their meat, such as the young of pigeons but does not include wild birds hunted for sport or food. The word poultry comes from the French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin word pullus, the domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago. This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild, but later involved keeping the birds permanently in captivity. Domesticated chickens may have used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs. Selective breeding for fast growth, egg-laying ability, conformation, plumage and docility took place over the centuries, although some birds are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems, most birds available in the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises. Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat globally and, along with eggs, all poultry meat should be properly handled and sufficiently cooked in order to reduce the risk of food poisoning. The word poultry comes from the Middle English pultrie, from Old French pouletrie, from pouletier, poultry dealer, the word pullet itself comes from Middle English pulet, from Old French polet, both from Latin pullus, a young fowl, young animal or chicken. The word fowl is of Germanic origin, poultry can be defined as domestic fowls, including chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks, raised for the production of meat or eggs and the word is also used for the flesh of these birds used as food. The Encyclopædia Britannica lists the bird groups but also includes guinea fowl. In colloquial speech, the term fowl is often used near-synonymously with domesticated chicken, or with poultry or even just bird, both words are also used for the flesh of these birds. Poultry can be distinguished from game, defined as wild birds or mammals hunted for food or sport, chickens are medium-sized, chunky birds with an upright stance and characterised by fleshy red combs and wattles on their heads. Males, known as cocks, are larger, more boldly coloured. Chickens are gregarious, omnivorous, ground-dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings search among the leaf litter for seeds, invertebrates and they seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger, preferring to run into the undergrowth if approached. Todays domestic chicken is descended from the wild red junglefowl of Asia. Domestication is believed to have taken place between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, and what are thought to be fossilized chicken bones have been found in northeastern China dated to around 5,400 BC. Archaeologists believe domestication was originally for the purpose of cockfighting, the bird being a doughty fighter
28.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
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Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
30.
Lamb and mutton
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Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of domestic sheep at different ages. A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, the meat of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget, outside North America this is also a term for the living animal. The meat of a sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to meat in the Indian subcontinent. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as lamb, sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, in Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries, younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal, baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red. Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear, hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat, Much of the lamb sold in the UK is hogget to an Antipodean farmer. Mutton — a female or castrated male sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear, under United States law, lamb is defined in terms of mutton, The term lamb means meat, other than mutton, produced from sheep. Under current federal regulations, only the lamb is used, Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams The terms mutton. Nevertheless, the use of lamb in the United States may be confusing. Under the previous definition, lamb meant meat, other than mutton, the term mutton is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat and it is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled or roasted is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, the areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit
31.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
33.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
34.
Zucchini
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Zucchini or courgette is a summer squash which can reach nearly a meter in length, but is usually harvested immature at 15 to 25 cm. In the British Isles, a fully grown zucchini is referred to as a marrow, along with certain other squashes and pumpkins, it belongs to the species Cucurbita pepo. Zucchini can be dark or light green, a related hybrid, the golden zucchini, is a deep yellow or orange color. In a culinary context, zucchini is treated as a vegetable, botanically, zucchinis are fruits, a type of botanical berry called a pepo, being the swollen ovary of the zucchini flower. Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas, in the United States, Australia and Germany, the plant is commonly called a zucchini, from Italian, zucchina, diminutive of zucca, gourd, marrow, pumpkin, squash. In the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand, a fully-grown, in South Africa, the fruit is typically harvested as a baby vegetable, approximately finger size, and is referred to as “baby marrows”. The female flower is a golden blossom on the end of each emergent zucchini, the male flower grows directly on the stem of the zucchini plant in the leaf axils, on a long stalk, and is slightly smaller than the female. Both flowers are edible and are used to dress a meal or to garnish the cooked fruit. Firm and fresh blossoms that are slightly open are cooked to be eaten, with pistils removed from female flowers. There are a variety of recipes in which the flowers may be fried as fritters or tempura, stuffed, sautéed, baked. Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas, however, the varieties of green, cylindrical squash harvested immature and typically called zucchini were developed in northern Italy, long after the introduction of cucurbits from the Americas. Its been cultivated in north of Iran too known as Kachelik, the word zucchini and this culinary variety of C. pepo arose independently and simultaneously in 19th-century Tuscany and northern Italy. Zucca is the Italian word for pumpkin/squash and zucchino/zucchina are diminutive forms, zucchino, the masculine form, is the first form to be documented in writing. The Treccani, Istituto dellEnciclopedia italiana, another highly respected authority, gives zucchina as the main Italian word. Zucchini is used in Italy, Australia, Canada, and the United States, Zucchini is one of the plural forms in English, as well as the singular form. The first records of zucchini in the United States date to the early 1920s and it was almost certainly brought over by Italian immigrants and probably was first cultivated in the United States in California. A1928 report on vegetables grown in New York State treats Zucchini as one among 60 cultivated varieties of C. pepo, when used for food, zucchini are usually picked when under 20 cm in length, when the seeds are still soft and immature. Mature zucchini can be as large as a baseball bat, the larger ones are often fibrous
35.
Pumpkin
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A pumpkin is a cultivar of a squash plant, most commonly of Cucurbita pepo, that is round, with smooth, slightly ribbed skin, and deep yellow to orange coloration. The thick shell contains the seeds and pulp, some exceptionally large cultivars of squash with similar appearance have also been derived from Cucurbita maxima. Specific cultivars of winter squash derived from other species, including C. argyrosperma, in New Zealand and Australian English, the term pumpkin generally refers to the broader category called winter squash elsewhere. Native to North America, pumpkins are grown for commercial use and are used both in food and recreation. Pumpkins, like squash, are thought to have originated in North America. The oldest evidence, pumpkin-related seeds dating between 7000 and 5500 BC, was found in Mexico, since some squash share the same botanical classifications as pumpkins, the names are frequently used interchangeably. Pumpkin fruits are a type of botanical berry known as a pepo, traditional C. pepo pumpkins generally weigh between 6 and 18 pounds, though the largest cultivars regularly reach weights of over 75 pounds. The color of pumpkins derives from orange carotenoid pigments, including beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha and beta carotene, the word pumpkin originates from the word pepon, which is Greek for large melon, something round and large. The French adapted this word to pompon, which the British changed to pumpion and later American colonists changed that to the word that is used today, pumpkin. The term pumpkin has no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning, all pumpkins are winter squash, mature fruit of certain species in the genus Cucurbita. Characteristics commonly used to define pumpkin include smooth and slightly ribbed skin, circa 2005, white pumpkins had become increasingly popular in the United States. Other colors, including green, also exist. Pumpkins are grown all around the world for a variety of reasons ranging from agricultural purposes to commercial and ornamental sales. Of the seven continents, only Antarctica is unable to produce pumpkins, the biggest international producers of pumpkins include the United States, Canada, Mexico, India, the traditional American pumpkin used for jack-o-lanterns is the Connecticut Field variety. As one of the most popular crops in the United States,1.5 billion pounds of pumpkins are produced each year, the top pumpkin-producing states include Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California. According to the Illinois Department of Agriculture, 95% of the U. S. crop intended for processing is grown in Illinois, Nestlé, operating under the brand name Libbys, produces 85% of the processed pumpkin in the United States, at their plant in Morton, Illinois. In the fall of 2009, rain in Illinois devastated the Nestlé crop, Pumpkins are a warm-weather crop that is usually planted in early July. The specific conditions necessary for growing pumpkins require that soil temperatures three inches deep are at least 60 °F and soil that holds water well
36.
Turnip
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The turnip or white turnip is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white, bulbous taproot. Small, tender varieties are grown for consumption, while larger varieties are grown as feed for livestock. In the north of England and Scotland, and eastern Canada, turnip often refers to rutabaga, the most common type of turnip is mostly white-skinned apart from the upper 1–6 centimetres, which protrude above the ground and are purple or red or greenish where the sun has hit. This above-ground part develops from stem tissue, but is fused with the root, the interior flesh is entirely white. The root is roughly globular, from 5–20 centimetres in diameter, underneath, the taproot is thin and 10 centimetres or more in length, it is trimmed off before the vegetable is sold. The leaves grow directly from the shoulder of the root. Turnip leaves are eaten as turnip greens, and they resemble mustard greens in flavor. Turnip greens are a side dish in southeastern U. S. cooking, primarily during late fall. Smaller leaves are preferred, but the taste of larger leaves can be reduced by pouring off the water from the initial boiling and replacing it with fresh water. Varieties of turnip grown specifically for their leaves resemble mustard greens and have small or no storage roots and these include rapini, bok choy, and Chinese cabbage. Similar to raw cabbage or radish, turnip leaves and roots have a pungent flavor that becomes milder after cooking, Turnip roots weigh up to 1 kilogram, although they are usually harvested when smaller. Size is partly a function of variety and partly a function of the length of time the turnip has grown, most very small turnips are specialty varieties. These are only available when freshly harvested and do not keep well, most baby turnips can be eaten whole, including their leaves. Baby turnips are sold in yellow-, orange-, and red-fleshed varieties and their flavor is mild, so they can be eaten raw in salads like radishes and other vegetables. The turnips root is high in vitamin C, the green leaves of the turnip top are a good source of vitamin A, folate, vitamin C, vitamin K and calcium. Turnip greens are also high in lutein, sensitivity to the bitterness of these cyanoglucosides is controlled by a paired gene. Some evidence shows the turnip was domesticated before the 15th century BC, the turnip was a well-established crop in Hellenistic and Roman times, which leads to the assumption that it was brought into cultivation earlier. Sappho, a Greek poet from the seventh century BC, calls one of her paramours Gongýla, Zohary and Hopf note, however, there are almost no archaeological records available to help determine its earlier history and domestication
37.
Rutabaga
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The rutabaga, swede, or neep is a root vegetable that originated as a cross between the cabbage and the turnip, confusingly, the rutabaga can also be called a turnip. The roots are prepared for consumption in a variety of ways. The roots and tops are used as winter feed for livestock. Rutabaga has many national and regional names, Rutabaga is the common North American term for the plant. This comes from the old Swedish dialectal word rotabagge, from rot + bagge, in the U. S. the plant is also known as Swedish turnip or yellow turnip. The term swede is used instead of rutabaga in many Commonwealth Nations, including much of England, Australia, the name turnip is also used in parts of Northern and Midland England, the Westcountry, Ireland, Manitoba, Ontario and Atlantic Canada. In Wales, according to region it is known as maip, rwden, erfin, swedsen or swejen in Welsh. In Scotland, it is known as turnip, and in Scots as tumshie or neep, some areas of south east Scotland, such as Berwickshire and Roxburghshire, still use the term baigie, possibly a derivative of the original Swedish rutabaga. The term turnip is also used for the white turnip, some will also refer to both swede and turnip as just turnip. In North-East England, turnips and swedes are colloquially called snadgers, snaggers or narkies and its common name in Sweden is kålrot. Similarly, in Denmark it is known as kålroe and kålrabi, in Denmark and Norway, kålrabi is sometimes confused with Swedish kålrabbi. Rutabaga is known as Steckrübe in German, the first known printed reference to the rutabaga comes from the Swiss botanist Gaspard Bauhin in 1620, where he notes that it was growing wild in Sweden. It is often considered to have originated in Scandinavia or Russia and it is said to have been widely introduced to Britain around 1800, but it was recorded as being present in the royal gardens in England as early as 1669 and was described in France in 1700. It was asserted by Sir John Sinclair in his Husbandry of Scotland to have introduced to Scotland around 1781–1782. An article on the topic in The Gardeners Chronicle suggests that the rutabaga was then introduced widely to England in 1790. Introduction to North America came in the early 19th century with reports of rutabaga crops in Illinois as early as 1817, Rutabaga has a complex taxonomic history. The earliest account comes from the Swiss botanist Gaspard Bauhin, who wrote about it in his 1620 Prodromus, Brassica napobrassica was first validly published by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum as a variety of B. oleracea, B. oleracea var. napobrassica. It has since moved to other taxa as a variety, subspecies
38.
Parsnip
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The parsnip is a root vegetable closely related to the carrot and parsley. It is a plant usually grown as an annual. Its long, tuberous root has cream-colored skin and flesh, and left in the ground to mature, in its first growing season, the plant has a rosette of pinnate, mid-green leaves. If unharvested, it produces its flowering stem, topped by an umbel of yellow flowers. By this time, the stem is woody and the tuber is inedible, the seeds are pale brown, flat, and winged. The parsnip is native to Eurasia and it has been used as a vegetable since antiquity and was cultivated by the Romans, although some confusion exists in the literature of the time between parsnips and carrots. It was used as a sweetener before the arrival in Europe of cane sugar and it was introduced into the United States in the 19th century. The parsnip is usually cooked, but can also be eaten raw and it is high in vitamins and minerals, especially potassium. It also contains antioxidants and both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber and it can be cultivated in deep, stone-free soils. It is attacked by the fly and other insect pests, viruses. Handling the stems and foliage can cause a skin if the skin is exposed to sunlight after handling. The parsnip is a plant with a rosette of roughly hairy leaves that has a pungent odor when crushed. Parsnips are grown for their fleshy, edible, cream-colored taproots, the roots are generally smooth, although lateral roots sometimes form. Most are cylindrical, but some cultivars have a bulbous shape. The plants apical meristem produces a rosette of leaves, each with several pairs of leaflets with toothed margins. The lower leaves have stems, the upper ones are stemless. The leaves are once- or twice-pinnate with broad, ovate, sometimes lobed leaflets with toothed margins, the petioles are grooved and have sheathed bases. The floral stem develops in the year and can grow to more than 150 cm tall
39.
Cauliflower
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Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea in the genus Brassica, which is in the family Brassicaceae. It is a plant that reproduces by seed. Typically, only the head is eaten – the edible white flesh sometimes called curd, the cauliflower head is composed of a white inflorescence meristem. Cauliflower heads resemble those in broccoli, which differs in having flower buds as the edible portion, Brassica oleracea also includes broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, collard greens, and kale, collectively called cole crops, though they are of different cultivar groups. In the 1st century AD, Pliny included what he called cyma among his descriptions of cultivated plants in Natural History, plinys descriptions likely refer to the flowering heads of an earlier cultivated variety of Brassica oleracea, but comes close to describing modern cauliflower. In the 12th century, three varieties were described in Spain as introductions from Syria, where it had doubtless been grown for more than a thousand years. It is found in the writings of the Arab botanists Ibn al-Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar, françois Pierre La Varenne employed chouxfleurs in Le cuisinier françois. It was introduced in India in 1822 from England by the British, the origin of the name is from the Latin word caulis and flower. Cauliflower is relatively difficult to grow compared to cabbage, with problems such as an underdeveloped head. The earliest maturity possible for cauliflower is 7 to 12 weeks from transplanting, in the northern hemisphere, fall season plantings in July may enable harvesting before autumn frost. Long periods of sun exposure in summer hot weather may cause cauliflower heads to discolor with a red-purple hue, transplantable cauliflowers can be produced in containers as flats, hotbeds, or in the field. In soil that is loose, well-drained and fertile, field seedlings are shallow-planted 0.5 inches, ideal growing temperatures are about 65 °F when seedlings are 25 to 35 days old. Applications of fertilizer to developing seedlings begins when leaves appear, usually with a starter solution weekly, transplanting to the field normally begins late spring and may continue until mid-summer. Row spacing is about 15–18 inches, rapid vegetative growth after transplanting may benefit from such procedures as avoiding spring frosts, using starter solutions high in phosphorus, irrigating weekly, and applying fertilizer. The most important disorders affecting cauliflower quality are a stem, stunted head growth or buttoning, ricing, browning. Among major pests affecting cauliflower are aphids, root maggots, cutworms, moths, the plant is susceptible to black rot, black leg, club root, black leaf spot, and downy mildew. When cauliflower is mature, heads appear as white, compact, and 6–8 inches in diameter. Forced air cooling to remove heat from the field during hot weather may be needed for optimal preservation, short-term storage is possible using cool, high-humidity storage conditions
40.
Asparagus
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Asparagus, or garden asparagus, scientific name Asparagus officinalis, is a spring vegetable, a flowering perennial plant species in the genus Asparagus. Asparagus officinalis is native to most of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia, Asparagus is a herbaceous, perennial plant growing to 100–150 cm tall, with stout stems with much-branched, feathery foliage. The leaves are in fact needle-like cladodes in the axils of leaves, they are 6–32 mm long and 1 mm broad. The root system is adventitious and the type is fasciculated. It is usually dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants, the fruit is a small red berry 6–10 mm diameter, which is poisonous to humans. Plants native to the coasts of Europe are treated as Asparagus officinalis subsp. Distinguished by its low-growing, often prostrate stems growing to only 30–70 cm high and it is treated as a distinct species, Asparagus prostratus Dumort, by some authors. Asparagus has been used as a vegetable and medicine, owing to its flavour, diuretic properties. It is pictured as an offering on an Egyptian frieze dating to 3000 BC, in ancient times, it was also known in Syria and in Spain. Greeks and Romans ate it fresh when in season, and dried the vegetable for use in winter, Roman Epicureans even froze it high in the Alps, emperor Augustus created the Asparagus Fleet for hauling the vegetable, and coined the expression faster than cooking asparagus for quick action. A recipe for cooking asparagus is in the oldest surviving book of recipes, Apicius’s third-century AD De re coquinaria, the ancient Greek physician Galen mentioned asparagus as a beneficial herb during the second century AD, but after the Roman empire ended, asparagus drew little medieval attention. That piece of writing celebrates its aphrodisiacal power, a virtue that the Indian Ananga Ranga attributes to special phosphorus elements that also counteract fatigue. By 1469, asparagus was cultivated in French monasteries, Asparagus appears to have been hardly noticed in England until 1538, and in Germany until 1542. The finest texture and the strongest and yet most delicate taste is in the tips, the points damour were served as a delicacy to Madame de Pompadour. Asparagus became available to the New World around 1850, in the United States, only young asparagus shoots are commonly eaten, once the buds start to open, the shoots quickly turn woody. Water makes up 93% of asparaguss composition, Asparagus is low in calories and is very low in sodium. The amino acid asparagine gets its name from asparagus, as the plant is relatively rich in this compound. The shoots are prepared and served in a number of ways around the world, in Asian-style cooking, asparagus is often stir-fried
41.
Capsicum
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Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas, where they have cultivated for thousands of years. Following the Columbian Exchange, it has become cultivated worldwide, in addition to use as spices and food vegetables, Capsicum species have also been used as medicines and lachrymatory agents. The generic name may come from Latin capsa box, presumably alluding to the pods or the Greek word κάπτω kapto to gulp. The name pepper comes from the similarity of the flavor to black pepper, Piper nigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with it or with Sichuan pepper. The original term, chilli came from the Nahuatl word chīlli, denoting a larger Capsicum variety cultivated at least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains found in pottery from Puebla, the fruit of Capsicum plants have a variety of names depending on place and type. The piquant varieties are commonly called chili peppers, or simply chillies, the large, mild form is called red pepper, green pepper, or bell pepper in North America and United Kingdom and typically capsicum in New Zealand, Australia, Singapore and India. The fruit is called paprika in some other countries, ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C, that is moist but not waterlogged. Extremely moist soils can cause seedlings to damp-off and reduce germination, the plants are sensitive to frost. For flowering, Capsicum are a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop, however, at extremely high temperature,92 to 100 °F, pollen loses viability, and flowers are much less likely to pollinate successfully. Capsicum consists of 20–27 species, five of which are domesticated, C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, phylogenetic relationships between species have been investigated using biogeographical, morphological, chemosystematic, hybridization, and genetic data. Fruits of Capsicum can vary tremendously in color, shape, chemosystematic studies helped distinguish the difference between varieties and species. For example, C. baccatum var. baccatum had the same flavonoids as C. baccatum var. pendulum, peru is thought to be the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity since varieties of all five domesticates are commonly sold in markets in contrast to other countries. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Most of the capsaicin in a pungent pepper is concentrated in blisters on the epidermis of the ribs that divide the chambers, or locules. A study on capsaicin production in fruits of C. chinense fruits, the amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly among varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units. The worlds current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the Carolina Reaper, sources, Tubocapsicum anomalum Makino Vassobia fasciculata Hunz. Witheringia stramoniifolia Kunth Most Capsicum species are 2n=2x=24, a few of the non-domesticated species are 2n=2x=32
42.
Chestnut
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The chestnut group is a genus of eight or nine species of deciduous trees and shrubs in the beech family Fagaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce, Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. Unrelated but externally similar species of horse chestnut are abundant around Europe, other trees commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are the chestnut oak and the American beech, both of which are also in Fagaceae. The name chestnut is derived from an earlier English term chesten nut, the name Castanea is probably derived from the old name for the sweet chestnut, either in Latin or in Ancient Greek. Another possible source of the name is the town of Kastania in Thessaly, Greece, more probable, in the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the trees growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops and they grow so abundantly there, their presence would have determined the places name. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of Sardis glans – Sardis being the capital of Lydia, Asia Minor, the name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a staple food in the early 17th century. These synonyms are or have been in use, Fagus castanea, Sardian nut, Jupiters nut, husked nut, Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate to fast-growing for American and European species. Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby, to the giant of past American forests, C. dentata that could reach 60 m. Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut at 10 m average, followed by the Chinese chestnut at about 15 m, when standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The two latters foliage has striking yellow autumn colouring and its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown colour for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. The leaves are simple, ovate or lanceolate, 10–30 cm long and 4–10 cm wide, with sharply pointed, the flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long catkins of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree, some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight stamens, or 10 to 12 for C. mollissima, the ripe pollen carries a heavy, sweet odour that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the twig from which these spring, two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium, which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk, covering the fruits. Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination, all Castanea species readily hybridize with each other
43.
Burbot
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The burbot is the only gadiform freshwater fish. It is also known as bubbot, mariah, freshwater ling, the lawyer, coney-fish, lingcod, freshwater cusk, the species is closely related to the marine common ling and the cusk. It is the member of the genus Lota. For some time of the year, the lives under ice. The name burbot comes from the Latin word barba, meaning beard, referring to its single chin whisker, the generic and specific name lota comes from the old French lotte fish named also barbot in Old French. The Inuktitut–Iñupiaq word for burbot was used to name the recently discovered extinct presumed transitional species Tiktaalik. With an appearance like a cross between a catfish and an eel, the burbot has a body, but is easily distinguished by a single barbel on the chin. The body is elongated and laterally compressed, with a flattened head, the mouth is wide, with both upper and lower jaws consisting of many small teeth. Burbot have two dorsal fins, the first being low and short, and the second being much longer. The anal fin is low and almost as long as the dorsal fin, the caudal fin is rounded, the pectoral fins are fan-shaped, and pelvic fins are narrow with an elongated second fin ray. Having such small fins relative to body size indicates a benthic lifestyle with low swimming endurance, Burbot have circumpolar distribution above 40°N. Populations are continuous from the British Isles across Europe and Asia to the Bering Strait, in North America, burbot range from the Seward Peninsula in Alaska to New Brunswick along the Atlantic coast. Burbot are most common in streams and lakes of North America and they are fairly common in Lake Erie, but are also found in the other Great Lakes. Recent genetic analysis suggests the geographic pattern of burbot may indicate multiple species or subspecies, in the United Kingdom, the burbot is possibly an extinct fish. The last recorded capture was a specimen weighing 1 lb, on 14 September 1969, taken at night by John Dean, at the Old West River, near Aldreth, the burbot may still survive in the UK. The counties of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and Yorkshire seem to be the strongest candidates for areas in which the species might yet survive, plans to reintroduce this freshwater member of the cod family back into British waters are under investigation. Burbot live in large, cold rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, primarily preferring freshwater habitats, during the summer, they are typically found in the colder water below the thermocline. In Lake Superior, burbot can live at depths below 300 m, as benthic fish, they tolerate an array of substrate types, including mud, sand, rubble, boulder, silt, and gravel, for feeding
44.
Coffee roasting
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Roasting coffee transforms the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans into roasted coffee products. The roasting process is what produces the characteristic flavor of coffee by causing the green beans to change in taste. Some coffee drinkers even roast coffee at home as a hobby in order to experiment with the flavor profile of the beans and ensure the freshest possible roast. The first recorded implements for roasting coffee beans were thin pans made from metal or porcelain, used in the 15th century in the Ottoman Empire and Greater Persia. In the 19th century, various patents were awarded in the U. S. and Europe for commercial roasters, in the 1950s just as instant coffee was becoming a popular coffee drink, speciality coffee-houses began opening to cater to the connoisseur, offering a more traditionally brewed beverage. In the 1970s, more speciality coffee houses were founded, ones that offered a variety of roasts, in the 1980s and 1990s, the gourmet coffee industry experienced great growth. The first known implements for roasting coffee beans were thin, circular, often perforated pans made from metal or porcelain, used in the 15th century in the Ottoman Empire and Greater Persia. This type of shallow, dished pan was equipped with a handle so that it could be held over a brazier until the coffee was roasted. The beans were stirred with a slender spoon, only a small amount of beans could be heated at one time. The first cylinder roaster with a crank to keep the beans in motion appeared in Cairo around 1650 and it was made of metal, most commonly tinned copper or cast iron, and was held over a brazier or open fire. French, Dutch and Italian variations of this design quickly appeared and these proved popular over the next century in Europe, England and the American colonies. In the 19th century, various patents were awarded in the U. S. and Europe for commercial roasters, nevertheless, home roasting continued to be popular. A man working at a commercial roasting plant beginning in the 1850s in St. Louis, Missouri, said that selling roasted coffee was up-hill work, green beans were available at the local general store, or even through mail order. For roasting, many people used simple methods as a layer of beans on a metal sheet in the oven. As well, the 1864 marketing breakthrough of the Arbuckle Brothers in Philadelphia, introducing the convenient one-pound paper bag of roasted coffee, brought success, from that time commercially roasted coffee grew in popularity until it gradually overtook home roasting during the 1900s in America. In France, the roaster did not yield to the commercial roaster until after the 1920s. Because of the smoke and blowing chaff, country dwellers generally roasted outdoors, in the 1950s just as instant coffee was becoming a popular coffee drink, speciality coffee-houses began opening to cater to the connoisseur, offering a more traditionally brewed beverage. In the 1970s, more speciality coffee houses were founded, ones that offered a variety of roasts, in the 1980s and 1990s, the gourmet coffee industry experienced great growth
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Dry roasting
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Dry Roasting is a process by which heat is applied to dry foodstuffs without the use of oil or water as a carrier. Unlike other dry heat methods, dry roasting is used with such as nuts. Dry roasted foods are stirred as they are roasted to ensure even heating, dry roasting can be done in a frying pan or wok, or in a specialized roaster. Dry roasting changes the chemistry of proteins in the food, changing their flavor, roasted spices are commonly prepared by adding various herbs, spices and sugars in the frying pan and roasting until brown
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