1.
Robert S. Mulliken
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Dr. Mulliken received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1966. He received the Priestley Medal in 1983, Mulliken was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts. His father, Samuel Parsons Mulliken, was a professor of chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. As a child, Robert Mulliken learned the name and botanical classification of plants and, in general, had an excellent, but selective, memory. For example, he learned German well enough to skip the course in scientific German in college and he also made the acquaintance, while still a child, of the physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes. Mulliken helped with some of the work when his father wrote his four-volume text on organic compound identification. In high school in Newburyport, Mulliken followed a scientific curriculum and he graduated in 1913 and succeeded in getting a scholarship to MIT which had earlier been won by his father. Like his father, he majored in chemistry, already as an undergraduate, he conducted his first publishable research, on the synthesis of organic chlorides. Because he was unsure of his direction, he included some chemical engineering courses in his curriculum and spent a summer touring chemical plants in Massachusetts. He received his B. S. degree in chemistry from MIT in 1917, at this time, the United States had just entered World War I, and Mulliken took a position at American University in Washington, D. C. making poison gas under James B. After nine months, he was drafted into the Armys Chemical Warfare Service and his laboratory techniques left much to be desired, and he was out of service for months with burns. Later he got a bad case of influenza, and was still in the hospital at wars end. After the war, he took a job investigating the effects of zinc oxide and carbon black on rubber, so in 1919 he entered the Ph. D. program at the University of Chicago. He got his doctorate in 1921 based on research into the separation of isotopes of mercury by evaporation, while at Chicago, he took a course under the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert A. Millikan, which exposed him to the old quantum theory. He also became interested in strange molecules after exposure to work by Hermann I. Schlesinger on diborane, at Chicago, he had received a grant from the National Research Council which had paid for much of his work on isotope separation. The NRC grant was extended in 1923 for two years so he could study isotope effects on band spectra of diatomic molecules as boron nitride. He went to Harvard University to learn spectrographic technique from Frederick A. Saunders, at the time, he was able to associate with many future luminaries, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, John H. Van Vleck, and Harold C. Slater, who had worked with Niels Bohr and they all, as well as Wolfgang Pauli, were developing the new quantum mechanics that would eventually supersede the old quantum theory
2.
California Institute of Technology
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The California Institute of Technology is a private doctorate-granting university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910, the university is one among a small group of Institutes of Technology in the United States which is primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences. Caltech has six divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in 2011 in sponsored research. Its 124-acre primary campus is located approximately 11 mi northeast of downtown Los Angeles, first-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus House System at Caltech. Although Caltech has a tradition of practical jokes and pranks. The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division IIIs Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Caltech is frequently cited as one of the worlds best universities. There are 112 faculty members who have elected to the United States National Academies. In addition, numerous faculty members are associated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as well as NASA, according to a 2015 Pomona College study, Caltech ranked number one in the U. S. for the percentage of its graduates who go on to earn a PhD. Caltech started as a school founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute, the vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form an independent Polytechnic School in 1907. At a time when research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale. He joined Throops board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing it and he engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but a capable administrator and fund raiser, scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. In 1910, Throop moved to its current site, arther Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site. The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science, with the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC, subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes and Millikan, Caltech grew to prominence in the 1920s
3.
Lee Alvin DuBridge
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Lee Alvin DuBridge was an American educator and physicist. DuBridge continued his work at the California Institute of Technology, Washington University. At Rochester, he began his career as an academic administrator, serving as dean of the faculty of arts. On leave from Rochester between 1940 and 1946, he became the director of the Radiation Laboratory at MIT. He also served as president of the California Institute of Technology between 1946 and 1969. He was presidential Science Advisor under President Harry S. Truman from 1952 to 1953 and under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1955 and he died of pneumonia at a retirement home in Duarte, California, on January 23,1994
4.
Morrison, Illinois
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Morrison is a city in Whiteside County, Illinois, United States. The population was 4,188 at the 2010 census, down from 4,447 in 2000 and it is the county seat of Whiteside County. In 1854, Lyman Johnson and H. S. Vroom were already in what would become the City of Morrison as contractors and builders for the Air-line railroad, now the Union Pacific Railroad. Johnson and Vroom, along several other entrepreneurs, acquired the land that would surround the rail station that was planned here. They managed the work of surveyor W. S. Wilkinson in the layout of the town in 1855. Among these entrepreneurs were W. H. Van Epps, shortly thereafter, Morrison suffered severe financial losses and he was unable to participate, yet his name remained. Refrigerator manufacturer, Illinois Refrigerator Company, was organized in 1892 by Edward A. Smith, J. B. Market, George Brown, later it added school furniture to its line, Columbia School Equipment Company, which was a subsidiary of the Illinois Refrigerator Company. In 1914, Illinois Refrigerator Company acquired equipment to manufacture stoves, two additional school furniture companies formed the Illinois Seating Company and built a new factory in Morrison. The Morris and Rich Toy Factory of Sterling, IL moved to Morrison in 1928, in November 1929, a fire damaged two warehouses owned by Illinois Refrigerator Company, Rich Manufacturing Company, and Columbia School Equipment Company. The fire destroyed over 4,000 refrigerators and $35,000 worth of toys, including five or more carloads, the total loss was estimated at $500,000. By April 1932, the company was bankrupt. Soon after, a new corporation was formed, Rich Illinois Manufacturing Company, the company made wood and metal refrigerators, electric refrigerators, toys, furniture, wood ware, and wood and metal fabricated buildings. In 1934, The City Ice and Fuel Company of Cleveland, OH, the toy factory, Rich Illinois Manufacturing, moved to Clinton, Iowa. In 1954, ICA was sold to American Air Filter Company, Inc. at Louisville, Kentucky, general Electric started its Morrison plant in 1949, as a branch of the Schenectady, New York department. It became the Appliance Control Department in 1952 and was one of the first units to be established in a decentralization program, early production included relays, switchettes, and sump pump switches, followed by cold and heat controls. In 1952, the manufacture of range timers was transferred to the Morrison factory from Somersworth, in ensuing year, gas igniters, thermostats, and small d. c. motors were added. In 1965, a plant was established at Bridgeport, CT. Current major employers within the community include Whiteside County government, Morrison Community School District #6, Morrison Community Hospital, Climco Coils, because Morrison is the county seat, professional services such as attorneys, title and survey services, and financial and accounting services are well-represented
5.
San Marino, California
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San Marino is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The city is located in the San Rafael Hills, the population was 13,147 at the 2010 census. In 2014, Forbes magazine ranked the city as the 48th most expensive area to live in the United States, in 2014, LA Weekly ranked the city as the 3rd most expensive area to live in the Los Angeles County, topping Beverly Hills, Malibu, and more. There are few to no homes priced under US$1,000,000, the city takes its name from the ancient Republic of San Marino, founded by Saint Marinus who fled his home in Dalmatia at the time of the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians. Marinus took refuge at Monte Titano on the Italian peninsula, where he built a chapel, the state which grew from the monastery is the worlds oldest surviving republic. The crown representing the monarchy on the original was replaced with five representing the five members of the Citys governing body. Beneath the citys seal are crossed palm fronds and orange branches, the city celebrated its centennial in 2013, including publication by the San Marino Historical Society of a 268-page book, San Marino, A Centennial History, by Elizabeth Pomeroy. In September 2014, this book and author Elizabeth Pomeroy received a prestigious Award of Merit for Leadership in History from the American Association for State, the site of San Marino was originally occupied by a village of Tongva Indians located approximately where the Huntington School is today. The area was part of the lands of the San Gabriel Mission, principal portions of San Marino were included in an 1838 Mexican land grant of 128 acres to Victoria Bartolmea Reid, a Gabrieleña Indian. She called the property Rancho Huerta de Cuati, after Hugo Reids death in 1852, Señora Reid sold her rancho in 1854 to Don Benito Wilson, the first Anglo owner of Rancho San Pascual. In 1903, the Shorb rancho was purchased by Henry E. Huntington, the site of the Shorb/Huntington rancho is occupied today by the Huntington Library, which houses a world-renowned art collection, research and rare-book library, and botanical gardens. The first mayor of the city of San Marino was George Smith Patton, the son of a slain Confederate States of America colonel in the U. S. Civil War, Patton graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1877, just before moving west. He married Ruth Wilson, the daughter of Don Benito Wilson and their son was the World War II general, George S. Patton, Junior. To a prior generation of Southern Californians, San Marino was known for its old-money wealth, San Marino is the location of the Huntington Library and gardens. El Molino Viejo, completed about 1816 as a grist mill for Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, is in San Marino, the original two-story structure measured 53 feet by 26 feet. It is the oldest commercial building in Southern California, the town is located on the former lands of the historic Rancho Huerta de Cuati. It is a National Historic Landmark, the Michael White Adobe House, is located on the high school campus and houses the San Marino Historical Society archives. The University of Southern California owns a house in San Marino which is used as the residence of the President of the University, the residence and grounds are often used for University Presidential events
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Oberlin College
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Oberlin College is a private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. The college was founded as the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1833 by John Jay Shipherd and it is the oldest coeducational liberal arts college in the United States and the second oldest continuously operating coeducational institute of higher learning in the world. The Oberlin Conservatory of Music, part of the college, is the oldest continuously operating conservatory in the United States, the College of Arts & Sciences offers more than 50 majors, minors, and concentrations. Oberlin is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the Five Colleges of Ohio consortium, both the college and the town of Oberlin were founded in northern Ohio in 1833 by a pair of Presbyterian ministers, John Jay Shipherd and Philo Stewart. The College was built on 500 acres of land donated by the previous owners, Titus Street, founder of Streetsboro, Ohio, and Samuel Hughes. Shipherd and Stewert named their project after Jean-Frédéric Oberlin, an Alsatian minister whom they both admired, the ministers vision was for both a religious community and school. Oberlins founders bragged that Oberlin is peculiar in that which is good, asa Mahan accepted the position as first President of the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1835, simultaneously serving as the chair of intellectual and moral philosophy and a professor of theology. The college had some difficult beginnings, and Rev. John Keep, a nondenominational seminary, Oberlins Graduate School of Theology, was established alongside the college in 1833. Oberlins role as an educator of African-American students prior to the Civil War, in 1844, Oberlin College graduated its first black student, George B. Vashon, who one of the founding professors at Howard University. The African Americans of Oberlin and those attending Oberlin College have experienced intense challenges and its African American and other students of color have used education and activism to influence the college, the town, and beyond. Their efforts have helped Oberlin remain committed to its values of freedom, social justice, the Colleges approach to African Americans was by no means perfect. Intensely anti-slavery, Oberlin was the college to admit black students in the 1830s. By the 1880s, however, with the fading of evangelical idealism, nonetheless, Oberlin graduates accounted for a significant percentage of African-American college graduates by the end of the 19th century. The college was listed as a National Historic Landmark on December 21,1965, for its significance in admitting African Americans, Oberlin is also the oldest coeducational institution in the United States, having admitted four women in 1837. These four women, who were the first to enter as full students, were Mary Kellogg, Mary Caroline Rudd, Mary Hosford, Mary Jane Patterson graduated in 1862 as the first black woman to earn a B. A. degree. Soon women were integrated into the college, and comprised from a third to half of the student body. The religious founders, especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney, saw women as morally superior to men
8.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
9.
Oil drop experiment
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The oil drop experiment was performed by Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in 1909 to measure the elementary electric charge. The experiment entailed observing tiny charged droplets of oil between two metal electrodes. First, with applied electric field, the terminal velocity of a droplet was measured. Now using the electric field, Millikan and Fletcher could determine the charge on the oil droplet. They proposed that this was the charge of a single electron, starting in 1908, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Millikan, with the significant input of Fletcher, and after improving his setup, published his seminal study in 1913. This remains controversial since papers found after Fletchers death describe events in which Millikan coerced Fletcher into relinquishing authorship as a condition for receiving his PhD, in return, Millikan used his influence in support of Fletchers career at Bell Labs. Millikan and Fletchers experiment involved measuring the force on oil droplets in a glass chamber sandwiched between two electrodes, one above and one below, with the electrical field calculated, he could measure the droplets charge, the charge on a single electron being. At the time of Millikan and Fletchers oil drop experiments, the existence of particles was not universally accepted. Experimenting with cathode rays in 1897, J. J. Thomson had discovered negatively charged corpuscles, as he called them, similar results had been found by George FitzGerald and Walter Kaufmann. The elementary charge e is one of the physical constants. In 1923, Millikan won the Nobel Prize in physics, in part because of this experiment, aside from the measurement, the beauty of the oil drop experiment is that it is a simple, elegant hands-on demonstration that charge is actually quantized. Thomas Edison, who had thought of charge as a continuous variable, became convinced after working with Millikan. This experiment has since repeated by generations of physics students, although it is rather expensive. In the last two decades, several computer-automated experiments have been conducted to search for isolated fractionally charged particles, so far, no evidence for fractional charge particles was found after measuring over 100 million drops. Millikan’s and Fletchers apparatus incorporated a pair of horizontal metal plates. By applying a potential difference across the plates, an electric field was created in the space between them. A ring of insulating material was used to hold the plates apart, four holes were cut into the ring, three for illumination by a bright light, and another to allow viewing through a microscope. A fine mist of oil droplets was sprayed into a chamber above the plates, the oil was of a type usually used in vacuum apparatus and was chosen because it had an extremely low vapour pressure
10.
Electron
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The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, the electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the include a intrinsic angular momentum of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant. As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of particles and waves, they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. Since an electron has charge, it has an electric field. Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the Lorentz force law, electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are accelerated. Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as electron plasma by the use of electromagnetic fields, special telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons are involved in applications such as electronics, welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors. Interactions involving electrons with other particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry. The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without, allows the composition of the two known as atoms, ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the cause of chemical bonding. In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of a quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms. Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge electron in 1891, electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known as beta particles. Electrons can be created through beta decay of isotopes and in high-energy collisions. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical, when an electron collides with a positron, both particles can be totally annihilated, producing gamma ray photons. The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur, along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanitys earliest recorded experiences with electricity. In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus, both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum, which came from the Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον
11.
Photoelectric effect
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The photoelectric effect or photo ionization is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light is shone onto a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons, the phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics, as well as in fields of chemistry, such as quantum chemistry or electrochemistry. According to classical theory, this effect can be attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of light would induce changes in the energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. Furthermore, according to theory, a sufficiently dim light would be expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron. However, the results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical theory. Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons when those photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency, below that threshold, no electrons are emitted from the metal regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the light. This shed light on Max Plancks previous discovery of the Planck relation linking energy, the factor h is known as the Planck constant. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, in 1914, Robert Millikans experiment supported Einsteins model of the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching zero to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements with an atomic number. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts, study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the effect, the photovoltaic effect. It is also usual to have the surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of photoelectrons. When the photoelectron is emitted into a rather than into a vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used. The photons of a light beam have an energy proportional to the frequency of the light
12.
Cosmic ray
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Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation, mainly originating outside the Solar System. Upon impact with the Earths atmosphere, cosmic rays can produce showers of particles that sometimes reach the surface. Composed primarily of protons and atomic nuclei, they are of mysterious origin. Data from the Fermi space telescope have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of cosmic rays originate from the supernovae explosions of stars. Active galactic nuclei probably also produce cosmic rays, the term ray is a historical accident, as cosmic rays were at first, and wrongly, thought to be mostly electromagnetic radiation. In current usage, the cosmic ray almost exclusively refers to massive particles. Massive particles – those that have rest mass – can gain additional, kinetic, mass-energy when they are moving, through this process, some particles acquire tremendously high mass-energies. These are significantly higher than the energy of even the highest-energy photons detected to date. The energy of the massless photon depends solely on frequency, not speed, at the higher end of the energy spectrum, relativistic kinetic energy is the main source of the mass-energy of cosmic rays. Hence, the highest-energy detected fermionic cosmic ray was around 3×106 times more energetic than the highest-energy detected cosmic photons, of primary cosmic rays, which originate outside of Earths atmosphere, about 99% are the nuclei of well-known atoms, and about 1% are solitary electrons. Of the nuclei, about 90% are simple protons, i. e. hydrogen nuclei, 9% are alpha particles, identical to helium nuclei, a very small fraction are stable particles of antimatter, such as positrons or antiprotons. The precise nature of this fraction is an area of active research. An active search from Earth orbit for anti-alpha particles has failed to detect them, one can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration in Active galactic nuclei. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the energy of a 90-kilometre-per-hour baseball. As a result of discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies, however, his paper published in Physikalische Zeitschrift was not widely accepted. In 1911 Domenico Pacini observed simultaneous variations of the rate of ionization over a lake, over the sea, Pacini concluded from the decrease of radioactivity underwater that a certain part of the ionization must be due to sources other than the radioactivity of the Earth. In 1912, Victor Hess carried three enhanced-accuracy Wulf electrometers to an altitude of 5300 meters in a balloon flight
13.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
14.
IEEE Edison Medal
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It is the oldest and most coveted medal in this field of engineering in the United States. The award consists of a medal, bronze replica, small gold replica, certificate. The medal may only be awarded to a new leap/breakthrough in the area of science. The Edison Medal, named after the inventor and entrepreneur Thomas Edison, was created on 11 February 1904 by a group of Edisons friends, four years later the American Institute of Electrical Engineers entered into an agreement with the group to present the medal as its highest award. The first medal was presented in 1909 to Elihu Thomson, other recipients of the Edison Medal include George Westinghouse, Alexander Graham Bell, Nikola Tesla, Michael I. Pupin, Robert A. Millikan, and Vannevar Bush, a complete and authoritative list is published by the IEEE online
15.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
16.
Hughes Medal
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The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
17.
Franklin Medal
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The Franklin Medal was a science award presented from 1915 through 1997 by the Franklin Institute located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U. S. It was founded in 1914 by Samuel Insull, the Franklin Medal was the most prestigious of the various awards presented by the Franklin Institute. Together with other awards, it was merged into the Benjamin Franklin Medal. Recipients are listed in a database on The Franklin Institute website
18.
Medal for Merit
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Since the proclamation of an emergency by the President on September 8,1939. The first medals were awarded to John C, garand and Albert Hoyt Taylor on March 28,1944. The first person to receive this medal who was not an American citizen was Edgar Sengier, Sengier was awarded the Medal for Merit on April 9,1946. The second foreign civilian to receive the medal was the Canadian spymaster William Stephenson in November 1946, Stephenson had the code name Intrepid during World War II. Some writers consider Stephenson to be one of the real life inspirations for the fictitious character James Bond, all proposed awards were considered by the Medal for Merit Board, consisting of three members appointed by the President, of whom one was appointed as the Chairman of the Board. The last medal of this type was awarded in 1952 after a delay in processing
19.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
20.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
21.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
22.
Ogden Rood
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Ogden Nicholas Rood was an American physicist best known for his work in color theory. At age 18, Rood became a student at Yale University, but after his sophomore year he transferred to Princeton University, where he received his baccalaureate degree in 1852. For the next two years he was successively a graduate student at Yale University, an assistant at the University of Virginia, and an assistant to Benjamin Silliman. In 1854–1858, he lived in Germany, dividing his time between oil painting and academic studies in Berlin and Munich, working in the laboratory of Justus von Liebig, in 1858, shortly before returning to the U. S. A. he married Mathilde Prunner of Munich. In 1858 he joined the faculty of the short-lived Troy University, in 1865 Rood was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1869 he became a vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as an amateur artist, Rood was a member of the American Watercolor Society. In 1874 he gave two lectures to the National Academy of Design in New York on Modern Optics in Painting, along with Maxwell and Michel Eugène Chevreul, Roods work was an influence on the Impressionist artists and their successors. Roods theory of contrasting colors was particularly influential on Georges-Pierre Seurat, the founder of Neo-Impressionism, Rood suggested that small dots or lines of different colors, when viewed from a distance, would blend into a new color. He believed that the colors of his color wheel, when applied in pairs by the artist. William Innes Homer considered Seurat was influenced by passages in Ogden Roods Students Text-book of Color, Or, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry. In his 1912 Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Robert Ridgway named four colors for Rood, Rood’s Blue, Rood’s Brown, Rood’s Lavender, Art in Theory, An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Students Text-book of Color, Or, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art, New York, D. Appleton and Company. Works by or about Ogden Rood at Internet Archive Ogden Rood — Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences Ogden Rood Modern chromatics - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
23.
Mihajlo Pupin
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LL. D. also known as Michael I. Pupin was a Serbian American physicist and physical chemist, Pupin was a founding member of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics on 3 March 1915, which later became NASA. Mihajlo Pupin was born on 4 October 1858 in the village of Idvor in Banat and he enrolled in high school in Pančevo, and later in the Real Gymnasium. He was one of the best students there, a local archpriest saw his enormous potential and talent, because of his activity in the Serbian Youth movement, which at that time had many problems with Austro-Hungarian police authorities, Pupin had to leave Pančevo. In 1872, he went to Prague, where he continued the sixth, after his father died in March 1874, the sixteen-year-old Pupin decided to cancel his education in Prague due to financial problems and to move to the United States. For the next five years in the United States, Pupin worked as a manual laborer while he learned English, Greek and Latin. After three years of courses, in the autumn of 1879 he successfully finished his tests and entered Columbia College. A friend of Pupins predicted that his physique would make him a splendid oarsman, a popular student, he was elected president of his class in his Junior year. He graduated with honors in 1883 and became an American citizen at the same time, Pupins research pioneered carrier wave detection and current analysis. Pupin completed his studies in 1883 as one of the best students, especially in the field of physics and mathematics, later, he went back to Europe, initially the United Kingdom, where he continued his schooling at the University of Cambridge. He was an investigator into X-ray imaging, but his claim to have made the first X-ray image in the United States is incorrect. He learned of Röntgens discovery of unknown rays passing through wood, paper, insulators, and thin metals leaving traces on a photographic plate, and attempted this himself. Using a vacuum tube, which he had used to study the passage of electricity through rarefied gases. Edison provided Pupin with a calcium tungstate fluoroscopic screen which, when placed in front of the film, shortened the time by twenty times. Based on the results of experiments, Pupin concluded that the impact of primary X-rays generated secondary X-rays, with his work in the field of X-rays, Pupin gave a lecture at the New York Academy of Sciences. He was the first person to use a fluorescent screen to enhance X-rays for medical purposes, a New York surgeon, Dr. Bull, sent Pupin a patient to obtain an X-ray image of his left hand prior to an operation to remove lead shot from a shotgun injury. The first attempt at imaging failed because the patient, a lawyer, was too weak. In another attempt, the Edison fluorescent screen was placed on a photographic plate, X-rays passed through the patients hand and caused the screen to fluoresce, which then exposed the photographic plate
24.
Albert A. Michelson
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Albert Abraham Michelson was an American physicist known for his work on the measurement of the speed of light and especially for the Michelson–Morley experiment. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics and he became the first American to receive the Nobel Prize in sciences. Michelson was born in Strzelno, Province of Posen in Prussia into a Jewish family and he moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of two. He grew up in the towns of Murphys Camp, California and Virginia City, Nevada. His family was Jewish by birth but non-religious, and Michelson himself was a lifelong agnostic and he spent his high school years in San Francisco in the home of his aunt, Henriette Levy, who was the mother of author Harriet Lane Levy. President Ulysses S. Grant awarded Michelson a special appointment to the U. S. Naval Academy in 1869, during his four years as a midshipman at the Academy, Michelson excelled in optics, heat, climatology and drawing. After graduating in 1873 and two years at sea, he returned to the Naval Academy in 1875 to become an instructor in physics, in 1879, he was posted to the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, to work with Simon Newcomb. In the following year he obtained leave of absence to continue his studies in Europe and he visited the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, and the Collège de France and École Polytechnique in Paris. In 1877, he married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer and they had two sons and a daughter. Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the speed of light in particular, while at Annapolis, he conducted his first experiments of the speed of light, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the Navy in 1881, in 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio and concentrated on developing an improved interferometer. In 1887 he and Edward Morley carried out the famous Michelson–Morley experiment which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the luminiferous ether and he later moved on to use astronomical interferometers in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars. In 1899, he married Edna Stanton and they raised one son and three daughters. He also won the Copley Medal in 1907, the Henry Draper Medal in 1916, a crater on the Moon is named after him. Michelson died in Pasadena, California at the age of 78, the University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Michelson and his achievements by dedicating Michelson House in his honor. Case Western Reserve has dedicated a Michelson House to him, clark University named a theatre after him. Michelson Laboratory at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in Ridgecrest, there is a display in the publicly accessible area of the Lab which includes facsimiles of Michelsons Nobel Prize medal, the prize document, and examples of his diffraction gratings. Michelson published his result of 299,910 ±50 km/s in 1879 before joining Newcomb in Washington DC to assist with his measurements there, thus began a long professional collaboration and friendship between the two
25.
Walther Nernst
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Nernst helped establish the modern field of physical chemistry and contributed to electrochemistry, thermodynamics and solid state physics. He is also known for developing the Nernst equation, Nernst was born in Briesen in West Prussia as son of Gustav Nernst and Ottilie Nerger. His father was a country judge, Nernst had three older sisters and one younger brother. The third sister died due to cholera, Nernst went to elementary school at Graudenz. He studied physics and mathematics at the universities of Zürich, Berlin, Graz and Würzburg, in 1889, he finished his habilitation at University of Leipzig. It was said that Nernst was mechanically minded in that he was thinking of ways to apply new discoveries to industry. Nernsts hobbies included hunting and fishing, Nernst married in 1892 to Emma Lohmeyer with whom he had two sons and three daughters. Both of Nernsts sons died fighting in World War I and he was a colleague of Svante Arrhenius, and suggested setting fire to unused coal seams to increase the global temperature. He was a critic of Adolf Hitler and Nazism. In 1933, the rise of Nazism led to the end of Nernsts career as a scientist, Nernst died in 1941 and is buried near Max Planck, Otto Hahn and Max von Laue in Göttingen, Germany. After some work at Leipzig, he founded the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Göttingen, Nernst invented, in 1897 an electric lamp, using an incandescent ceramic rod. His invention, known as the Nernst lamp, was the successor to the lamp of Edison. Nernst researched osmotic pressure and electrochemistry, in 1905, he established what he referred to as his New Heat Theorem, later known as the Third law of thermodynamics. This is the work for which he is best remembered, as it provided a means of determining free energies of reactions from heat measurements. Theodore Richards claimed Nernst had stolen the idea from him, in 1911, with Max Planck, he was the main organizer of the first Solvay Conference in Brussels. In 1912, the impressionist painter Max Liebermann painted his portrait, in 1914 Nernst showed his support for German militarism by signing the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three. He also accepted the post of Staff Scientific Advisor in the Imperial German Army, in 1918, after studying photochemistry, he proposed the atomic chain reaction theory. The atomic chain reaction theory stated that when a reaction in which atoms are formed
26.
Chung-Yao Chao
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Chung-Yao Chao was a Chinese physicist. Chung-Yao Chao studied the scattering of rays in lead by pair production in 1930. He entered Nanjing Higher Normal School, in 1920 and earned a B. S. in physics in 1925, then he earned a Ph. D. degree in physics under supervision of Nobel Prize laureate Robert Andrews Millikan at California Institute of Technology in 1930. Later he went back to China and joined the faculty of Tsinghua University in Beijing. CHINESE SCIENCE AND THE ‘NOBEL PRIZE COMPLEX’ page 154
27.
Charles Christian Lauritsen
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Charles Christian Lauritsen was a Danish-born American physicist. Lauritsen was born in Holstebro, Denmark and studied architecture at the Odense Tekniske Skole, by 1921 he was working in Palo Alto on radio for communicating between ship and shore. He became interested in the design of radio receivers, and for a few months in 1922 was in business with two partners building radios, by 1923 he had moved to St. Louis where he was chief engineer at the Kennedy Corporation, a producer of consumer radio receivers. In 1926 Lauritsen attended a lecture by Robert Millikan who, in casual conversation afterwards. Lauritsen and his family moved to Pasadena where he talked his way into graduate study in physics. In 1929 he received his Ph. D. and in 1930 he joined the department faculty. He spent the remainder of his career as Professor of Physics at this institution. In 1928 he and Ralph D. Bennett developed X-ray tubes of exceptionally high voltage and these tubes were then used for radiation therapy of cancer patients in the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory, built as a treatment clinic in 1931. Sigrid Lauritsen, who was one of the first female graduates of the University of Southern California medical school, in 1932 Lauritsen converted one of his X-ray tubes into an accelerator of protons and helium ions and began to study nuclear reactions. In 1934, Lauritsen and H. Richard Crane used a sample of recently discovered deuterium, lewis at Berkeley, to generate neutrons with which they made the first accelerator-produced artificial radioactivity. He later measured the radiation produced when a positron and an electron annihilate each other, one of his most significant discoveries was to show that protons could be captured by a carbon nucleus, releasing gamma rays. This radiative capture process was applied to the study of the processes at the heart of a star. In 1939 the laboratory ceased to do medical therapy and concentrated on nuclear physics, in 1937 he invented a radiation detector called the Lauritsen electroscope, widely used as quartz fiber radiation dosimeters. In 1940, more than a year before the U. S. entered World War II, in this connection he helped found the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern, California. In the last months of the war, he helped in the American efforts to design and build a bomb, including development of the pumpkin bomb. He continued his weapons work in the following the war. Among the projects in which he participated were Project Hartwell, Project Charles, Project Michael, during the Korean War he was at the front lines just after the Inchon landings observing and evaluating American weaponry for the Defense Department. He served as an adviser to the U. S. government and as a member of many committees, after a lengthy struggle with cancer, he died on April 13,1968
28.
Bill Pickering (rocket scientist)
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William Hayward Bill Pickering ONZ KBE was a New Zealand-born rocket scientist who headed Pasadena, Californias Jet Propulsion Laboratory for 22 years, retiring in 1976. He was a senior NASA luminary and pioneered the exploration of space, Pickering was also a founding member of the United States National Academy of Engineering. He was born in Wellington, New Zealand on 24 December 1910, Pickering attended Havelock School, Marlborough, and Wellington College. His speciality was in Electrical Engineering, and he majored in what is now known in scientific vernacular as telemetry. William Pickering became involved with JPL in 1944, during the world war. As the Director of JPL, from 1954, Pickering was closely involved with management of the Private and his group launched Explorer I on a Jupiter-C rocket from Cape Canaveral on 31 January 1958 less than four months after the Russians had launched Sputnik. In 1958 the labs projects were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, JPL, under Pickerings direction flew further Explorer 3 and Pioneer missions as well as the Ranger and Surveyor missions to the moon and the several Mariner flybys of Venus and Mars. Explorer III discovered the radiation field round the earth that is now known as the Van Allen radiation belt, Explorer 1 orbited for 10 years and was the forerunner of a number of successful JPL earth and deep-space satellites. William Hayward Pickering is not to be confused with William Henry Pickering, at the time of his retirement as director, in 1976, the Voyager missions were about to launch on tours of the outer planets and Viking 1 was on its way to land on Mars. Bill Pickering, keen to support authentic science in his country, was Patron of New Zealands only school-based research group. He died on 15 March 2004 of pneumonia in La Cañada Flintridge, Dr. Pickering re-opened the Gifford Observatory as the guest of honour, on 25 March 2002. He had been a frequent user of the observatory during his days in Wellington College. IEEE Edison Medal in 1972, For contributions to telecommunications, rocket guidance and spacecraft control, National Medal of Science in 1975 awarded by President Gerald Ford Honorary Knight Commander in the Order of the British Empire in 1975 Japan Prize in 1994 Magellanic Premium in 1966. In 1964 he presented the Bernard Price Memorial Lecture in South Africa,2 June 2003 he became an honorary member of the Order of New Zealand. 1965 The Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand Honorary Fellowship Dr. Pickering is one of the few non-politicians to have appeared on the cover of Time twice, in December 2010 the New Zealand Geographic Board officially gazetted Mount Pickering as an official New Zealand place name
29.
Ralph A. Sawyer
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Ralph Alanson Sawyer was a physicist and a leader in American science. A New Hampshire native, he graduated from the Atkinson Academy in 1911, at the invitation of Harrison M. Randall, Sawyer then joined the faculty of the Physics Department at the University of Michigan, an affiliation that he retained for his entire career. At Michigan he began by doing work in spectroscopy for studies of atomic structure. In later years his talent for administration brought him to positions of scientific, military, Sawyer was the civilian director of the 1946 Bikini atomic bomb tests, president of the Optical Society of America from 1955–57 and was awarded the Frederic Ives Medal in 1963. He was also dean of the school and vice president for research at the University of Michigan. He was chairman of the board of governors of the American Institute of Physics 1959-1971, Sawyer died in 1978, at 83 years of age, in Ann Arbor. Optical Society of America#Past Presidents of the OSA Articles Published by early OSA Presidents Journal of the Optical Society of America
30.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
31.
Lieutenant colonel (United States)
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In the United States Army, U. S. Marine Corps, and U. S. Air Force, a lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of commander in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for the rank of lieutenant colonel is O-5, in the United States armed forces, the insignia for the rank consists of a silver oak leaf, with slight stylized differences between the Army/Air Force version and the Navy/Marine Corps version. While often written as Lt. Colonel in orders and signature blocks, as a courtesy, lieutenant colonels are addressed simply as colonel verbally, the U. S. Army uses the three letter abbreviation LTC. The United States Marine Corps and U. S. Air Force use the abbreviations LtCol and Lt Col respectively. The U. S. Government Printing Office recommends the abbreviation LTC for U. S. Army usage, LtCol for Marine Corps usage, the Associated Press Stylebook recommends the abbreviation Lt. Col. for the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force. Slang terms for the historically used by the U. S. military include light colonel, short colonel, light bird, half colonel, bottlecap colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel has existed in the British Army since at least the 16th century and was used in both American colonial militia and colonial regular regiments. The Continental Army continued the British and colonial use of the rank of lieutenant colonel, the lieutenant colonel was sometimes known as lieutenant to the colonel. In British practice, regiments were commanded by their lieutenant colonels. The conversion was never completely effected and some regiments remained commanded by colonels throughout the war, from 1784 until 1791, there was only one lieutenant colonel in the US Army, who acted as the armys commanding officer. In the Continental Army aides to the Commander in Chief, viz, Lieutenant General George Washington, were lieutenant colonels. Additionally, certain officers serving under the Adjutant General, Inspector General, such was the case of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, who commanded a Maine regiment as both a lieutenant colonel and later as a colonel. Such was the case with George A. Custer, who was a lieutenant colonel in the regular army, a lieutenant colonel may also serve as a brigade/brigade combat team, regiment/regimental combat team, Marine Aviation Group, Marine Expeditionary Unit, or battalion task force executive officer. These staff positions may include, G-1, G-2, G-3, G-4, G-5, usage of The G-n may refer to either a specific staff section or the staff officer leading a section. Lieutenant colonels may also be junior staff at a variety of higher echelons, Lieutenant colonels may also serve on general staffs and may be the heads of some wing staff departments. Senior Lieutenant colonels occasionally serve as group commanders, in US Army and Air Force ROTC detachments, the commanding officer is typically a lieutenant colonel, along with several majors, captains, and non-commissioned officers serving as assistants. However, some detachments are commanded by full colonels, the rank of lieutenant colonel is also used by many large American police departments for officers in senior administrative positions
32.
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
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The Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct statutory ancestor of the United States Air Force. The Aviation Section organized the first squadrons of the aviation arm, the Aviation Section, Signal Corps was created by the 63rd Congress on July 18,1914 after earlier legislation to make the aviation service independent from the Signal Corps died in committee. Despite the assignment of Lieutenant Colonel George O, the duties of the section were not resumed following World War I and it was formally disestablished by the creation of the Air Service in 1920. The Aviation Section, Signal Corps was created by the Act of July 18,1914,514, to supersede the Aeronautical Division, an administrative creation of the Signal Corps within the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, as the primary agency for military aviation. Earlier legislation to make the aviation service independent from the Signal Corps died in committee after all officers connected with aviation save one, Captain Paul W. Beck, testified against it. The new law established the purpose and duties of the section, the Aeronautical Division then became the administrative component of the Aviation Section until its abolition in 1918. The first funding appropriation for the Aviation Section was $250,000 for fiscal year 1915, officers on aviation duty who were promoted to permanent captain in their branch arm were automatically returned to the line. This placed them on the level as newly graduated pilots. At its creation, the Aviation Section had 19 officers and 101 enlisted men, the Aeronautical Division, a quasi-headquarters with three officers and 11 enlisted men, issued orders in the name of the Chief Signal Officer. All other personnel of the section were organized on August 5,1914. The impending war was defused by the resignation of Victoriano Huerta on July 15, by December 1914, the Aviation Section consisted of 44 officers,224 enlisted men, and 23 aircraft. Chief Signal Officer Brigadier General George P, the 1st Company, 2nd Aero Squadron was activated on May 12,1915 at San Diego but not manned until December. 31, a Martin T tractor airplane, returned from San Diego to Texas for the time in five years in April 1915. Milling and 2d Lt. Byron Q, Jones, as the Army massed around Brownsville in response to civil war between the forces of Pancho Villa and the Carranza government. On April 20, Milling and Jones became the first American military airmen to come under fire from a hostile force. Beginning in August 1915, the 1st Aero Squadron spent four months at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, Foulois and Milling, now also a captain, disagreed and the JN-2 remained operational until a second crashed on September 5. The aircraft were grounded until October 14, when conversions of the JN-2s to the newer JN-3 began, two copies of which the squadron received in early September. Between November 19 and 26,1915, the six JN-3s of the 1st Aero Squadron at Fort Sill made the first cross-country squadron flight,439 mi to a new airfield built near Fort Sam Houston, Texas
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Electric charge
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Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract, an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. An object is charged if it has an excess of electrons. The SI derived unit of charge is the coulomb. In electrical engineering, it is common to use the ampere-hour. The symbol Q often denotes charge, early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that dont require consideration of quantum effects. The electric charge is a conserved property of some subatomic particles. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields, the interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. 602×10−19 coulombs. The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e, the study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics. Charge is the property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the charge e. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge, robert Millikans oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. By convention, the charge of an electron is −1, while that of a proton is +1, charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, quarks have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but free-standing quarks have never been observed. The electric charge of an object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. An ion is an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net charge, or that has gained one or more electrons
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Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
35.
Electric field
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An electric field is a vector field that associates to each point in space the Coulomb force that would be experienced per unit of electric charge, by an infinitesimal test charge at that point. Electric fields are created by electric charges and can be induced by time-varying magnetic fields, the electric field combines with the magnetic field to form the electromagnetic field. The electric field, E, at a point is defined as the force, F. A particle of charge q would be subject to a force F = q E and its SI units are newtons per coulomb or, equivalently, volts per metre, which in terms of SI base units are kg⋅m⋅s−3⋅A−1. Electric fields are caused by electric charges or varying magnetic fields, in the special case of a steady state, the Maxwell-Faraday inductive effect disappears. The resulting two equations, taken together, are equivalent to Coulombs law, written as E =14 π ε0 ∫ d r ′ ρ r − r ′ | r − r ′ |3 for a charge density ρ. Notice that ε0, the permittivity of vacuum, must be substituted if charges are considered in non-empty media, the equations of electromagnetism are best described in a continuous description. A charge q located at r 0 can be described mathematically as a charge density ρ = q δ, conversely, a charge distribution can be approximated by many small point charges. Electric fields satisfy the principle, because Maxwells equations are linear. This principle is useful to calculate the field created by point charges. Q n are stationary in space at r 1, r 2, in that case, Coulombs law fully describes the field. If a system is static, such that magnetic fields are not time-varying, then by Faradays law, in this case, one can define an electric potential, that is, a function Φ such that E = − ∇ Φ. This is analogous to the gravitational potential, Coulombs law, which describes the interaction of electric charges, F = q = q E is similar to Newtons law of universal gravitation, F = m = m g. This suggests similarities between the electric field E and the gravitational field g, or their associated potentials, mass is sometimes called gravitational charge because of that similarity. Electrostatic and gravitational forces both are central, conservative and obey an inverse-square law, a uniform field is one in which the electric field is constant at every point. It can be approximated by placing two conducting plates parallel to other and maintaining a voltage between them, it is only an approximation because of boundary effects. Assuming infinite planes, the magnitude of the electric field E is, electrodynamic fields are E-fields which do change with time, for instance when charges are in motion. The electric field cannot be described independently of the field in that case
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Oil
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An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils have a carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable. The general definition of oil includes classes of compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin and they are used for food, fuel, medical purposes, lubrication, and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents. First attested in English 1176, the oil comes from Old French oile, from Latin oleum, which in turn comes from the Greek ἔλαιον, olive oil, oil. The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek
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Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
