1.
Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger
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He became a fashionable portraitist in the last decade of the reign of Elizabeth I under the patronage of her champion and pageant-master Sir Henry Lee. He introduced a new aesthetic in English court painting that captured the essence of a sitter through close observation and he became a favorite portraitist of James Is queen Anne of Denmark, but fell out of fashion in the late 1610s. Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger was born in Bruges, the son of the artist Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder, hardly anything is known of the paintings of the elder Gheeraerts, although his work as a printmaker was renowned in Europe. Like other Protestant artists from the Low Countries, Gheeraerts the Elder fled to England with his son to escape persecution in the Low Countries under the Duke of Alva and his wife was a Catholic and remained behind and is believed to have died a few years later. Father and son are recorded living with a Dutch servant in the London parish of St Mary Abchurch in 1568, on 9 September 1571, the elder Gheeraerts remarried. His new wife was Susanna de Critz, a member of a family from Antwerp. It is not known by whom young Marcus was trained, although it is likely to have been his father and he was possibly also a pupil of Lucas de Heere. Records suggest that Marcus was active as a painter by 1586, in 1590 he married Magdalena, the sister of his stepmother Susanna and of the painter John de Critz. The couple had six children, only two of whom seem to have survived—a son, Marcus III, also a painter, and his half-sister Sara married the painter Isaac Oliver in 1602. The earliest signed paintings by Gheeraerts the Younger date from c,1592, but Roy Strong identified a set of portraits of William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley dated to around 1586 as likely based on an original by Gheeraerts. The implications suggest that Oliver and Gheeraerts singly or together visited Antwerp in the eighties and were influenced by the portrait style of Frans Pourbus. From around 1590, Gheeraerts led a revolution in English portraiture, for the first time in English art sitters were rendered in three dimensions, achieving a lifelike impression through tonality and shadow. New too were capturing the character of individual sitters through close observation, Gheeraerts was one of the first English artists to paint on canvas rather than wood panel, allowing much larger pictures to be produced. He also introduced the figure set out-out-of-doors in a naturalistic landscape for full-scale portraiture. Sir Henry Lee of Ditchley, who retired as Queens Champion in the autumn of 1590, was the architect of much of the pageantry at the court of Elizabeth I. The queen likely sat to him for the Ditchley Portrait of 1592, the royal accounts for 1596–98 also include payments for decorative work by Marcus Gerarde. Another Gheeraerts portrait of Elizabeth is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge, the Ditchley Portrait seems to have always been at Lees home in Oxfordshire, and was likely painted for her two-day visit to Ditchley in 1592. In this image, the stands on a map of England
2.
Bromyard
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Bromyard is a market town in Herefordshire, England, situated in the valley of the River Frome. The latest census gives a population in 2011 of approximately 4,500 and it lies near to the county border with Worcestershire on the A44 between Leominster and Worcester. Bromyard has a number of traditional half-timbered buildings, including some of the pubs, for centuries there was a thriving and livestock and cattle market. The town is twinned with Athis-de-lOrne, Normandy, Bromyard is mentioned in Bishop Cuthwulfs charter of c.840. Cudwulf established a monasterium at Bromgeard behind a thorny enclosure with the permission of King Behrtwulf, ealdorman Aelfstan, the local magnate, was granted between 500–600 acres of land for a villa beside the River Frome. The settlement in the Plegelgate Hundred was allocated 30 hides for the gap where the deer play, the shire court meeting-place was on Flaggoners Green, now a hill in the modern borough. 42 villani,9 bordars, and 8 slaves were recorded in the Domesday entry, the first mention of the spelling Bromyard was in Edward Is Taxatio Ecclesiasticus on the occasion of a perambulation of the forest boundaries to set up a model for Parlements in 1291. It began to appear regularly in the church and court records of the 14th century, like Leominster, Ledbury, and Ross-on-Wye, the town and fair at the manor of Bromyard was probably founded in c1125 during the episcopate of Richard de Capella. As with those three towns, the bishops of Hereford had had a manor and minster there since Anglo-Saxon times. As at Ledbury the church was collegiate, with an establishment of clergy known as portioners, surveys for the bishop made c.1285 and 1575-80 give valuable information about the towns first few centuries. Bromyard contained 255 burgage and landowner tenancies in the 1280s which paid a rent of £23 10s 7 1/2d to the bishop. A Toll Shop at Schallenge House was where market tolls were paid, after the Reformation there were 800 communicants making Bromyard then a markett toune. greately Replenyshed with People, the third town in the county with a population of about 1200 souls. By 1664 Bromyard had fallen behind Leominster, Ledbury and Ross in population, besides the central town area, the large parish used to consist of the three townships of Winslow, Linton, and Norton, these areas were civil parishes in the 20th century. Bromyard Grammar School was re-founded in 1566 after the original chantry endowments had been nationalized, in 1656 the City of London Alderman John Perrin, who came from Bromyard, left the school £20 a year, to be paid through the Goldsmiths Company. The company improved the buildings in 1835. The building still stands in Church Street, but the school part of the first comprehensive school in Herefordshire in 1969. A Congregational Chapel was built in 1701, for centuries market day was always held on a Monday at Bromyard. Some farms remained in the hands until the late 20th century
3.
Liberties of the Tower of London
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The Liberties of the Tower, or the Tower Liberty, was a liberty around and including the Tower of London. It was outside the jurisdiction of the City of London and the County of Middlesex, the area of the liberty expanded in 1686. It became part of the County of London in 1889 and was dissolved in 1894, the liberty originally consisted of the area inside the walls of the Tower of London and immediately outside it. The limits were set out in the sixteenth century, in 1686 letters patent granted by James II added the Old Artillery Ground, Little Minories and the Liberty of Wellclose. These areas came into the possession of the Crown when the houses that formerly administered them were dissolved. They had subsequently used for the storing of ordnance. The population was 3,995 in 1811 and 4,190 in 1831, a force of constables was appointed for the area. The inhabitants had certain privileges such as being able to claim any beast that fell from. From 1837 the liberty formed part of the Whitechapel Poor Law Union, extra-parochial places were progressively eliminated and following the Extra-Parochial Places Act 1857, the Tower of London and Old Tower Without became civil parishes in 1858. The Old Artillery Ground became a parish in 1866, following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1866. From 1855 the area part of the Whitechapel District and was administered by the Whitechapel District Board of Works. The liberty became part of the County of London in 1889, by 1889 the liberty had become obsolete and it was thought that the Local Government Act 1888 had removed the jurisdiction of the justices. However, the charter was found to be still in operation, the liberty was abolished on 25 June 1894 following a petition by the justices of the peace of the County of London under the Liberties Act 1850. The area of the liberty was included in the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney in 1900. The liberty continued as a franchise coroners district, the area of the former liberty now forms part of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and following boundary changes around the Minories in 1994 is partly in the City of London. Map of the Tower Liberties,1720 Tower Liberties East of London Family History Society
4.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
5.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
6.
Church of St Peter ad Vincula
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For other churches of this dedication, see St Peter ad Vincula. The Chapel Royal of St. Peter ad Vincula is the church of the Tower of London. It is situated within the Towers Inner Ward and dates from 1520, the name refers to St. Peters imprisonment under Herod Agrippa in Jerusalem. At the west end is a tower, surmounted by a lantern bell-cote, and inside the church is a nave and shorter north aisle, lit by windows with cusped lights but no tracery. The church is a Chapel Royal, and the priest responsible for it is the chaplain of the Tower, the canonry was abolished in 1685 but reinstated in 2012. The existing building was rebuilt for Henry VIII by Sir Richard Cholmondeley in 1519–20, St Peter ad Vincula was the church of the extra-parochial area of Tower Within, part of the Liberties of the Tower of London. Extra-parochial places were eliminated in the 19th century, and in 1858 the area became a civil parish, the Tower of London liberty was dissolved in 1894, and the parish was absorbed by St Botolph without Aldgate in 1901. The church contains many splendid monuments, in the north-west corner is a memorial to John Holland, Duke of Exeter, a Constable of the Tower who died in 1447. Under the central arcade lies the effigy of Sir Richard Cholmondeley, there is a fine 17th-century organ, decorated with carvings by Grinling Gibbons. A list of persons buried in the chapel between 1534 and 1747 is listed on a table on the west wall. Thomas Babington Macaulay memorialised those buried in the chapel in his 1848 History of England, the church is a Chapel Royal and the priest responsible for it is the chaplain of the Tower of London, a canon and member of the Ecclesiastical Household. The canonry was abolished in 1685 but reinstated in 2012, the Reverend Roger Hall, MBE was installed as a canon the same year. The chapel can be visited as part of a tour within the Tower of London or by attending the regular Sunday morning service
7.
Earl of Essex
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Earl of Essex is a title in the Peerage of England which was first created in the 12th century by King Stephen of England. The title has been recreated eight times from its original inception, the current holder of the earldom is Paul Capell, 11th Earl of Essex, a retired school teacher from Caton, Lancashire. The family seat was Cassiobury House, near Watford, Hertfordshire, the title was first created in the 12th century for Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex. Upon the death of the earl in 1189, the title became dormant or extinct. The Essex title passed to two of Fitz Peters sons before becoming extinct after the death of the second, William, the 3rd Earl of Essex. The third creation was for Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford in 1239, whose father Henry had married Maud, all three of the Earldoms of Hereford, Northampton and of Essex became extinct in 1373. Upon its extinction, the present creation was made in 1661, the Capell family descends from Sir Arthur Capell of Raines Hall in Essex and of Hadham in Hertfordshire. His grandson Arthur Capell represented Hertfordshire in both the Short and Long Parliaments, in 1641 he was raised to the Peerage of England as Baron Capell of Hadham, in the County of Hertford. Capell later fought as a Royalist in the Civil War and he was tried and condemned to death by the Parliamentarians and beheaded in May 1649. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron and these titles are also in the Peerage of England. Lord Essex later served as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and as First Lord of the Treasury, on his death the titles passed to his son, the second Earl. He was a lieutenant-general in the army and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire and he was succeeded by his son, the third Earl. He served as Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard from 1739 to 1743 and was also Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire, when he died the titles passed to his son, the fourth Earl. He also served as Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire and he was succeeded by his eldest son from his first marriage, the fifth Earl. He sat in the House of Commons for many years and was Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire from 1801 to 1817, Lord Essex assumed the surname of Coningsby. In 1839, at the age of seventy-six, he married the vocalist and he was succeeded by his nephew, the sixth Earl. He was the son of the Hon. John Thomas Capell, on his death the titles passed to his grandson, the seventh Earl. He was the eldest son of Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur de Vere Capell, Viscount Malden, the line of the sixth Earl failed on the death of the seventh Earls grandson, the ninth Earl, in 1981
8.
Favourite
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A favourite or favorite was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In medieval and Early Modern Europe, among other times and places, from 1600 to 1660 there were particular successions of all-powerful minister-favourites in much of Europe, especially in Spain, England, France and Sweden. The term is sometimes employed by writers who want to avoid terms such as royal mistress, or friend. Too close a relationship between monarch and favourite was seen as a breach of the order and hierarchy of society. Since many favourites had flamboyant over-reaching personalities, they led the way to their own downfall with their rash behaviour. As the opinions of the gentry and bourgeoisie grew in importance, dislike from all classes could be especially intense in the case of favourites who were elevated from humble, or at least minor, backgrounds by royal favour. Titles and estates were usually given lavishly to favourites, who were compared to mushrooms because they sprang up suddenly overnight, the Kings favourite Piers Gaveston is a night-grown mushrump to his enemies in Christopher Marlowes Edward II. Their falls could be even more sudden, but after about 1650, favourites who came from the higher nobility, such as Leicester, Lerma, Olivares, and Oxenstierna, were often less resented and lasted longer. Oxenstierna and William Cecil, who died in office, successfully trained their sons to succeed them. Elizabeth I had Cecil as Secretary of State and later Lord High Treasurer from the time she ascended the throne in 1558 until his death 40 years later. She had more colourful relationships with several courtiers, the most lasting and intimate one was with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who was also a leading politician. Only in her last decade was the position of the Cecils, father and son, challenged by Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Cardinal Wolsey was one figure who rose through the administrative hierarchy, but then lived extremely ostentatiously, before falling suddenly from power. Cardinal Granvelle, like his father, was a trusted Habsburg minister who lived grandly and it has been claimed that le Daims career was the origin of the term, as favori first appeared around the time of his death in 1484. Privado in Spanish was older, but was partly replaced by the term valido, in Spanish. Queen Victorias John Brown came much too late, the devotion of the monarch, in England, the scope for giving political power to a favourite was reduced by the growing importance of Parliament. Strafford can therefore hardly be called a favourite in the usual sense even though his relationship with Charles became very close and he was also from a well-established family, with powerful relations. After several years in power, Strafford was impeached by a Parliament now very hostile to him, there were later minister-favourites in England, but they knew that the favour of the monarch alone was not sufficient to rule, and most also had careers in Parliament. In France, the movement was in the opposite direction, the absolute monarchy pioneered by Cardinal Richelieu, Mazarins predecessor, was to be led by the monarch himself
9.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
10.
Dutch Revolt
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The southern provinces initially joined in the revolt, but later submitted to Spain. The religious clash of cultures built up gradually but inexorably into outbursts of violence against the repression of the Habsburg Crown. These tensions led to the formation of the independent Dutch Republic, the first leader was William of Orange, followed by several of his descendants and relations. This revolt was one of the first successful secessions in Europe, and led to one of the first European republics of the modern era, King Philip was initially successful in suppressing the rebellion. In 1572, however, the rebels captured Brielle and the rebellion resurged, the northern provinces became independent, first in 1581 de facto, and in 1648 de jure. The Southern Netherlands remained under Spanish rule, the continuous heavy-handed rule by the Habsburgs in the south caused many of its financial, intellectual, and cultural elite to flee north, contributing to the success of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch imposed a blockade on the southern provinces which prevented Baltic grain relieving famine in the southern towns. The first phase of the conflict can be considered to be the Dutch War of Independence, the focus of the latter phase was to gain official recognition of the already de facto independence of the United Provinces. This phase coincided with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a major power, in a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of Dukes of Burgundy expanded their original territory by adding to it a series of fiefdoms, including the Seventeen Provinces. Although Burgundy itself had been lost to France in 1477, the Burgundian Netherlands were still intact when Charles V was born in Ghent in 1500 and he was raised in the Netherlands and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Spanish, and some German. In 1506, he became lord of the Burgundian states, among which were the Netherlands, subsequently, in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the combined kingdoms of Aragon, and Castile and León which had become a worldwide empire with the Spanish colonization of the Americas. In 1519, he became ruler of the Habsburg empire, although Friesland and Guelders offered prolonged resistance, virtually all of the Netherlands had been incorporated into the Habsburg domains by the early 1540s. Flanders had long been a wealthy region, and had been coveted by the French kings for a long time. The other Netherlands had also grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within the empire, Charles Vs empire became a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe, control and defense of these were hampered by the disparity of the territories and huge length of the empires borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbors in its European heartlands, most notably against France in the Italian Wars, further wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany. The Netherlands paid heavy taxes to fund these wars, but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful, during the 16th century, Protestantism rapidly gained ground in northern Europe. Dutch Protestants, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities, by the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then
11.
Spanish Armada
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The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais. While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parmas army the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack, in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parmas army, who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats. The Armada managed to regroup and, driven by southwest winds, the commander ordered a return to Spain, but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return, the expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The word armada is from the Spanish armada, which is a cognate with English army, originally from the Latin armāta, the past participle of armāre to arm, used in Romance languages as a noun, for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy, Armada was also the Portuguese traditional term of the Portuguese Navy. Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, a devout Catholic, Mary began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake, marys death in 1558 led to her half-sister, Elizabeth I, taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp, Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. Under Roman law, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate, Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth, the King was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. A raid on Cadiz, led by Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies, the Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise and he was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred, and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it. The Armadas appointed commander was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he died in February 1588, and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, while a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armadas banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, on 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. The fleet was composed of 130 ships,8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, the full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. It included twenty eight purpose-built warships, of twenty were galleons, four galleys
12.
English Armada
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It was led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir John Norreys as general, and failed to drive home the advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada in the previous year. The campaign resulted in the deadlocking of the English expeditionary force, the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip IIs naval power through the next decade. Queen Elizabeths intentions were to capitalise upon Spains temporary weakness at sea after the successful repulsion of the Spanish Armada, a further aim was to seize the Spanish treasure fleet as it returned from America to Cádiz, although this depended largely on the success of the Azores campaign. By securing an allegiance with the Portuguese crown, Elizabeth hoped to curb Spanish Habsburg power in Europe and this was a difficult proposition, because the domestic aristocracy and clergy of Portugal had accepted Philip as their King in 1581 at the Cortes of Tomar. The complex politics were not the only drawback for the enterprise, like its Spanish predecessor, the English expedition suffered from overly optimistic planning, based on hopes of repeating Drakes successful raid on Cadiz in 1587. Concerns over logistics and adverse weather delayed the departure of the fleet, when the fleet sailed it was made up of six royal galleons,60 English armed merchantmen,60 Dutch flyboats and about 20 pinnaces. In addition to the troops, there were 4,000 sailors and 1,500 officers, also sailing with them — against the Queens express orders — was the Earl of Essex. Unforeseen delays and a fear of becoming embayed in the Bay of Biscay led Drake to bypass Santander, where most of this refitting was underway, and attack Corunna in Galicia instead. Norreys took the town, killed around 500 Spaniards and plundered the wine cellars located there whilst Drake destroyed 13 merchant ships in the harbour. For the next two weeks the wind blew westerly, and while waiting for a change the English occupied themselves in a siege of Corunnas fortified upper town. Those who remained then turned their attention, first to Puente del Burgo, Lisbon was rumoured to be guarded by a disaffected garrison, but whilst the English were fruitlessly besieging Corunna, the Spanish had spent a fortnight shoring up Portugals military defences. When Norreys invested Lisbon, the uprising was not forthcoming. It was therefore decided to concentrate on the aim of the expedition - the establishment of a permanent military base in the Azores. However, by point the campaign had taken its toll. Two armed merchantmen were caught off Lisbon by nine Spanish galleys, the other vessel was engulfed in flames after a fight, and sunk, her commander Captain Minshaw being lost with the ship. Further damage was sustained one of three boats carrying Williams complement was lost with all hands after being attacked by the Spanish warships. With the aim of assailing the Azores becoming increasingly out of the question, at this point, most its men were out of action, with only 2000 still fit to be mustered. Stormy weather had also damaged a number of its ships, whilst Norreys sailed for home with the sick and wounded, Drake took his pick of what was left and set out with 20 ships to hunt for the Spanish treasure fleet
13.
Azores
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Its main industries are agriculture, dairy farming, livestock, fishing, and tourism, which is becoming the major service activity in the region. In addition, the government of the Azores employs a large percentage of the population directly or indirectly in the service, the main settlement of the Azores is Ponta Delgada. There are nine major Azorean islands and a cluster, in three main groups. These are Flores and Corvo, to the west, Graciosa, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, and Faial in the centre, and São Miguel, Santa Maria, and they extend for more than 600 km and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. All the islands have volcanic origins, although some, such as Santa Maria, have had no recorded activity since the islands were settled, mount Pico, on the island of Pico, is the highest point in Portugal, at 2,351 m. The Azores are actually some of the tallest mountains on the planet, measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean to their peaks, which thrust high above the surface of the Atlantic. The climate of the Azores is very mild for such a location, being influenced by its distance to continents. Due to the influence, temperatures remain mild year-round. Daytime temperatures normally fluctuate between 16 °C and 25 °C depending on season, temperatures above 30 °C or below 3 °C are unknown in the major population centres. It is also generally wet and cloudy, the culture, dialect, cuisine, and traditions of the Azorean islands vary considerably, because these once-uninhabited and remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries. However, these kinds of structures have always used in the Azores to store cereals. Detailed examination and dating to authenticate the validity of these speculations is lacking and it is unclear whether these structures are natural or man-made and whether they predate the 15th-century Portuguese colonization of the Azores. Solid confirmation of a human presence in the archipelago has not yet been published. The islands were known in the century and parts of them appear in the Atlas Catalan. In 1427, a captain sailing for Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, rediscovered the Azores, but this is not certain. In Thomas Ashes 1813 work, A History of the Azores, the author identified a Fleming, Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges and he stated that the Portuguese explored the area and claimed it for Portugal. Other stories note the discovery of the first islands by sailors in the service of Henry the Navigator, although there are few documents to support the claims. Although it is said that the archipelago received its name from the goshawk
14.
Nine Years' War (Ireland)
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The Nine Years War or Tyrones Rebellion took place in Ireland from 1594 to 1603. It was fought between the forces of Gaelic Irish chieftains Hugh ONeill of Tír Eoghain, Hugh Roe ODonnell of Tír Chonaill and their allies, the war was fought in all parts of the country, but mainly in the northern province of Ulster. It ended in defeat for the Irish chieftains, which led to their exile in the Flight of the Earls, the war against ONeill and his allies was the largest conflict fought by England in the Elizabethan era. At the height of the more than 18,000 soldiers were fighting in the English army in Ireland. By contrast, the English army assisting the Dutch during the Eighty Years War was never more than 12,000 strong at any one time. The Nine Years War was caused by the clashes between the Gaelic Irish chieftain Hugh ONeill and the advance of the English state in Ireland, from control over the Pale to ruling the whole island. In resisting this advance, ONeill managed to rally other Irish septs who were dissatisfied with English government, Hugh ONeill came from the powerful Ó Néill clan of Tyrone, which dominated the centre of the northern province of Ulster3. His father, Matthew ONeill, Baron Dungannon, was the son of Conn ONeill the Lame. Matthew ONeill was killed, and Seán An Díomais Ó Néill banished the child Hugh ONeill from Ulster, the Hovenden family brought Hugh up in the Pale, and the English authorities sponsored him as a reliable lord. In 1587 Hugh ONeill persuaded Queen Elizabeth I to make him Earl of Tyrone, the English title his grandfather had held. However, the power in Ulster lay not in the legal title of Earl of Tyrone. This position commanded the obedience of all the ONeills and their dependents in central Ulster, in 1595, after much bloodshed, from Hugh Roe ODonnell, his ally, Hugh ONeill enlisted Scottish mercenaries. Within his own territories, ONeill was entitled to limited service from his sub-lords or uirithe. He also pressed his tenants and dependants into military service and tied the peasantry to the land to increase food production, in addition, he hired large contingents of Irish mercenaries under leaders such as Richard Tyrell. To arm his soldiers, ONeill bought muskets, ammunition and pikes from Scotland and England, from 1591, ODonnell, on ONeills behalf, had been in contact with Philip II of Spain, appealing for military aid against their common enemy and citing also their shared Catholicism. With the aid of Spain, ONeill could arm and feed over 8,000 men, unprecedented for a Gaelic lord, and so was well prepared to resist any further English attempts to govern Ulster. By the early 1590s, the north of Ireland was attracting the attention of Lord Deputy Fitzwilliam, there was an outcry, with several sources alleging corruption against Fitzwilliam, but the same policy was soon applied in Longford and East Breifne. Any attempt to further the same in the ONeill and ODonnell territories was bound to be resisted by force of arms, the most significant difficulty for English forces in confronting ONeill lay in the natural defences that Ulster enjoyed
15.
Master of the Horse
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The Master of the Horse was a position of varying importance in several European nations. The Magister Equitum served as the Dictators main lieutenant, the nomination of the Magister Equitum was left to the choice of the Dictator, unless a senatus consultum specified, as was sometimes the case, the name of the person who was to be appointed. The Magister Equitum was granted a form of imperium, but at the level as a praetor. In the Dictators absence, the Magister Equitum became his representative and it was usually but not always necessary for the man nominated as Magister Equitum to have already held the office of Praetor. Accordingly, the Magister Equitum had the insignia of a praetor, the toga praetexta, the most famous Master of the Horse is Mark Antony, who served during Julius Caesars first dictatorship. After the constitutional reforms of Augustus, the office of Dictator fell into disuse, the title magister equitum was revived in the late Empire, when Constantine I established it as one of the supreme military ranks, alongside the Magister Peditum. Eventually, the two offices would be amalgamated into that of the Magister Militum, the title Constable, from the Latin comes stabuli or count of the stables, has a similar history. The Master of the Horse in the United Kingdom was once an important official of the sovereigns household, the master of the horse is the third dignitary of the court, and was always a member of the ministry, a peer and a privy councillor. All matters connected with the horses and formerly also the hounds of the sovereign, as well as the stables and coachhouses, the stud, mews and previously the kennels, are within his jurisdiction. The practical management of the Royal Stables and stud devolves on the chief or Crown Equerry, the Clerk Marshal had the supervision of the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board of Green Cloth, and was in waiting on the Sovereign on state occasions only. They were always officers of the army, and each of them was on duty for about the time as the lords. They are youths aged from twelve to sixteen, selected by the sovereign in person, at the Coronation they assisted the groom of the stole in carrying the royal train. The current Master of the Horse is Samuel Vestey, 3rd Baron Vestey, today the Master of the Horse has a primarily ceremonial office, and rarely appears except on state occasions, and especially when the Sovereign is mounted. The Crown Equerry has daily oversight of the Royal Mews, which provides transport for the Sovereign. Train travel is arranged by the Royal Travel Office, which also co-ordinates air transport, the Pages of Honour, who appear only on ceremonial occasions, and the Equerries, were nominally under the authority of the Master of the Horse. The former are now controlled by the Keeper of the Privy Purse, the latter are effectively independent, and are functionally closer to the Private Secretarys Office. There are now three equerries to the Sovereign, and a number of extra equerries - usually retired officers with some connection to the Royal Household. The extra equerries are rarely if ever required for duty, for some years the senior Equerry has also held the position of Deputy Master of the Household
16.
Earl Marshal
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Earl Marshal is a hereditary royal officeholder and chivalric title under the sovereign of the United Kingdom used in England. He is the eighth of the Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom, ranking beneath the Lord High Constable, the Earl Marshal has among his responsibilities the organisation of major ceremonial state occasions like the monarchs coronation in Westminster Abbey and state funerals. He is also an officer of arms and oversees the College of Arms. The current Earl Marshal is Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 18th Duke of Norfolk, there was formerly an Earl Marshall of Ireland and Earl Marischal of Scotland. The office of royal marshal existed in much of Europe, involving managing horses, in England, the office became hereditary under John FitzGilbert the Marshal after The Anarchy, and rose in prominence under his second son, William Marshal, later Earl of Pembroke. He served under several kings, acted as regent, and organised funerals, after passing through his daughters husband to the Earls of Norfolk, the post evolved into Earl Marshal and the title remained unchanged, even after the earldom of Norfolk became a dukedom. In the Middle Ages, the Earl Marshal and the Lord High Constable were the officers of the horses and stables. When chivalry declined in importance, the constables post declined and the Earl Marshal became the head of the College of Arms, in 1672, the office of Marshal of England and the title of Earl Marshal of England were made hereditary in the Howard family. The Earl Marshal is considered the eighth of the Great Officers of State, with the Lord High Constable above him, nowadays, the Earl Marshals role has mainly to do with the organisation of major state ceremonies such as coronations and state funerals. Annually, the Earl Marshal helps organise the State Opening of Parliament, the Earl Marshal also remains to have charge over the College of Arms and no coat of arms may be granted without his warrant. As a symbol of his office, he carries a baton of gold with black finish at either end, in the general order of precedence, the Earl Marshal is currently the highest hereditary position in the United Kingdom outside the Royal Family. Although other state and ecclesiastical officers rank above in precedence, they are not hereditary, the holding of the Earl Marshalship secures the Duke of Norfolks traditional position as the first peer of the land, above all other dukes. Among the men who have held the title of Earl Marshal of Ireland are William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, 1652–1661 James Howard, 3rd Earl of Suffolk 1661–1662 in commission 1662–1672. Deputy Earls Marshal have been named at various times, discharging the responsibilities of the office during the minority or infirmity of the Earl Marshal, prior to an Act of Parliament in 1824, Protestant deputies were required when the Earl Marshal was a Roman Catholic. Lord Lyon King of Arms Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Earl Marshal, the Court Register and Statesmans Remembrancer Round, J. H. The Commune of London, and other Studies
17.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
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Lord Lieutenant was the title of the chief governor of Ireland from the Williamite Wars of 1690 till the Partition of Ireland in 1922. This spanned the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the office, under its various names, was often more generally known as the viceroy, from the French vice roi or deputy king, and his wife was known as the vicereine. The government of Ireland in practice was usually in the hands of the Lord Deputy up to the 17th century, although in the Middle Ages some Lords Deputy were Irish noblemen, only men from Great Britain, usually peers, were appointed to the office of Lord Lieutenant. The Kings representative possessed a number of overlapping roles and he was the representative of the King, the head of the executive in Ireland, a member of the English or British Cabinet, the font of mercy, justice and patronage, commander-in-chief in Ireland. His Government exercised effective control of parliament through the exercise of the powers of patronage, namely the awarding of peerages, baronetcies. Critics accused successive viceroys of using their power as a corrupt means of controlling parliament. On one day in July 1777, Lord Buckinghamshire as Lord Lieutenant promoted 5 viscounts to earls,7 barons to viscounts, under-Secretary for Ireland, The head of the civil service in Ireland. Lord Justices, Three office-holders who acted in the Lord Lieutenants stead during his absence, the Lord Justices were before 1800 the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh as Primate of All Ireland. Lords Lieutenant were appointed for no set term but served for His/Her Majestys pleasure, in reality that meant for as long as wished by the British Government. Where a ministry fell, the Lord Lieutenant was usually replaced by a supporter of the new ministry, until the 16th century, Irish or Anglo-Irish noblemen such as the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare traditionally held the post of Justiciar or Lord Deputy. Following the plantations, however, noblemen from Great Britain were given the post, the last Irish Catholic to hold the position was Lord Tyrconnell from 1685–91, during the brief Catholic Ascendancy in the reign of James II that was ended by the Williamite war in Ireland. Until 1767 none of the latter lived full-time in Ireland, instead they resided in Ireland during meetings of the Irish Parliament. However the British cabinet decided in 1765 that full-time residency should be required to enable the Lord Lieutenant to keep a eye on public affairs in Ireland. The office was restricted to members of the Anglican faith, the first Catholic appointed to the post since the reign of the Catholic King James II was in fact the last viceroy, Lord FitzAlan of Derwent, in April 1921. His appointment was possible because the Government of Ireland Act 1920 ended the prohibition on Catholics being appointed to the position, FitzAlan was also the only Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ever to hold office when the former Ireland was partitioned into Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland. The post ebbed and flowed in importance, being used on occasion as a form of exile for prominent British politicians who had fallen foul of the Court of St. Jamess or Westminster, on other occasions it was a stepping stone to a future career. Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, instead it was the Chief Secretary for Ireland who became central, with he, not the Lord Lieutenant, sitting on occasion in the British cabinet. The official residence of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle, the Geraldine Lords Deputy, the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare, being native Irish, both lived in, among other locations, their castle in Maynooth, County Kildare
18.
Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex
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Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, KG, was an English nobleman and general. From 1573 until his death he fought in Ireland in connection with the Plantation of Ulster and he was the father of Elizabeth Is favourite of her later years, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. Walter Devereuxs mother was Dorothy Hastings, daughter of George Hastings, 1st Earl of Huntingdon and Anne Stafford, on his grandfathers death, Devereux became on 27 September 1558 the 2nd Viscount Hereford and 10th Baron Ferrers of Chartley. He was entrusted with joint custody of the Queen of Scots in 1568, Devereux provided signal service in suppressing the Northern Rebellion of 1569, serving as high marshal of the field under the Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick and Lord Clinton. At that time, Ulster was completely under the dominion of the ONeills, led by Sir Brian MacPhelim and Turlough Luineach and his offer, with certain modifications, was accepted. He set sail for Ireland in July 1573, accompanied by a number of earls, knights and gentlemen and his enterprise had an inauspicious beginning, a storm dispersed his fleet and drove some of his vessels as far as Cork and the Isle of Man. His forces did not all reach the place of rendezvous till late in the autumn, here his troops were diminished by sickness, famine and desertion to not much more than 200 men. Intrigues of various sorts and fighting of a type followed. He was in dire straits, and his movements in Ulster took the form of raids. In October 1574, he treacherously captured MacPhelim at a conference in Belfast and he arrested William Piers, who had been active in driving the Scots out of Ulster, and accused him of passing military intelligence to Brian mac Phelim ONeill. Essex ordered Pierss arrest and detention in Carrickfergus Castle in December 1574, after encouraging Essex to prepare to attack the Irish chief Turlough Luineach, apparently at the instigation of the earl of Leicester, the queen suddenly commanded him to break off his enterprise. However, she left him a certain power, and he took advantage of that to defeat Turlough Luineach. He returned to England at the end of 1575, resolved to live henceforth an untroubled life and he was however persuaded to accept the offer of the queen to make him Earl Marshal of Ireland. He arrived in Dublin in September 1576, but died three weeks later of dysentery and it was suspected that he had been poisoned at the behest of the Earl of Leicester, who married his widow two years later. A post-mortem was carried out and concluded that Essex had died of natural causes and he was succeeded in the Earldom of Essex by his son Robert. In 1561 or 1562, Devereux married Lettice, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys, Walter and Lettice had the following children, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex Married Frances Walsingham Sir Walter Devereux. Married Margaret, daughter of Arthur Dakyns and he was killed at the siege of Rouen in 1591. Penelope Devereux Married Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich Dorothy Devereux
19.
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
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Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, KB, PC was an English Parliamentarian and soldier during the first half of the 17th century. With the start of the English Civil War in 1642 he became the first Captain-General and Chief Commander of the Parliamentarian army, however, he was unable and unwilling to score a decisive blow against the Royalist army of King Charles I. He was eventually overshadowed by the ascendancy of Oliver Cromwell and Thomas Fairfax, Robert Devereux was the son and heir of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, the courtier and soldier from the later reign of Queen Elizabeth I. His mother was Frances Walsingham, the daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham. He was born at the home of his grandmother, Lady Walsingham, in Seething Lane and he was educated at Eton College and Merton College, Oxford, being created MA by the university in 1605. The 2nd Earl led a rebellion against Elizabeth in 1601. He was subsequently executed for treason and the family lost its title, however, King James I chose to restore it after he became King of England. In 1604, Robert Devereux became the 3rd Earl of Essex, the young earl became a close friend of Henry Stuart, Prince of Wales, who was three years Essexs junior. Essex was married at age 13 to the 14-year-old Frances Howard, he was sent on a European tour from 1607 to 1609. Meanwhile, his wife began an affair with Robert Carr, Viscount Rochester, after Essexs return, Frances sought an annulment on the grounds of impotence. Essex claimed that he was impotent with her and had been perfectly capable with other women, adding that she reviled him, and miscalled him, terming him a cow and coward. The divorce was a spectacle and it made Essex a laughing-stock at court. The annulment was granted on 25 September 1613, and Frances Howard married her lover, Both were condemned to death, but the sentence was never carried out. On 11 March 1630 Essex married Elizabeth Pawlett, daughter of Sir William Pawlett, of Edington, Wiltshire, past High Sheriff of Wiltshire and cousin of William Paulet, 4th Marquess of Winchester. Elizabeth was introduced at Court during the Great Parliament of 1628/29 just after her father died, back from travels in military service on the Continent Robert was also pressured to marry again to show the Court the humiliation from his first marriage could be overcome. This marriage was also a disaster and failed, though not as publicly and they separated in 1631, the Countess remaining at Essex House in the Strand, London, Robert playing soldiers at his estates. There was a son from the union, Robert, styled Viscount Hereford, Elizabeth, through her funeral oration by her second husband Sir Thomas Higgons vigorously denied this. It has recently suggested that Essex suffered from male hormone deficiency, leading to failure to consummate his first marriage
20.
Frances Walsingham
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Frances Walsingham, Countess of Essex and Countess of Clanricarde was an English noblewoman. The daughter of Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth Is Secretary of State and her second husband was Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeths favourite, with whom she had five children. Shortly after his execution in 1601 she married her lover, Richard Burke, 4th Earl of Clanricarde and she was the only surviving child of Sir Francis Walsingham, Secretary of State for Queen Elizabeth I, and Ursula St. Barbe. A lady-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth, she married Philip Sidney in 1583, in 1590 Frances father also died, leaving her with an annuity of £300. She had one surviving child by Sidney, a born in 1585 named Elizabeth after the Queen. Elizabeth Sidney married Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland, in March 1599, in 1590 Frances married again, to Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to whom she had been committed by Philip at his death fighting overseas. This match caused great displeasure to the Queen, partly because Essex was the stepson of her favorite, Robert Dudley. Essex was also the great-grandson of two of Henry VIIIs mistresses, Mary Boleyn, the sister of Queen Anne Boleyn, and Anne Stafford, some historians believe that Catherine Carey, the daughter of Mary Boleyn and the grandmother of Essex, was fathered by Henry VIII. This would make Frances children Henry VIIIs great-great-grandchildren, Robert was executed in 1601 after participating in an attempted coup against the Queen. Frances had three children who survived infancy with her husband, these were named Frances, Robert. Robert became the third Earl of Essex, in 1603, she married her third husband Richard De Burgh, Earl of St Albans and Clanricarde. They had one son, Ulick Burke, 1st Marquess of Clanricarde, and a daughter, Honora, who became the second wife of John Paulet, 5th Marquess of Winchester
21.
Frances Seymour, Duchess of Somerset
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Frances Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, was an English noblewoman who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth I, James I, Charles I and Charles II. Her father was Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Elizabeth Is favourite who was executed for treason in 1601, Lady Frances was the second wife of William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset, and the mother of his seven children. Lady Frances was born on 30 September 1599 at Walsingham House, Seething Lane, London and she was the youngest child of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex and Frances Walsingham. Lady Frances was also a descendant of Mary Boleyn, the sister of Anne Boleyn. Essex was executed on 25 February 1601 for allegedly conspiring to murder the Queen and he left behind his wife and small children, Frances was less than two years old at the time. Francess brother was Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and she had an elder sister and she had also three younger half-siblings from her mothers third marriage in 1603 to Richard Burke, 4th Earl of Clanricarde. These were Honora, Mary and Ulick Burke, 1st Marquess of Clanricarde, on 3 March 1616 Frances married at Drayton Bassett William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset, the son of Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp of Hache, and the grandson of Lady Catherine Grey. During the English Civil War he was a Royalist Commander and he later escaped, and fled to the Continent. In 1615, Arbella died in the Tower, William and Frances together had seven children. She died on 24 April 1674 at the age of 74 and her numerous descendants include Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, Diana, Princess of Wales, and Sarah, Duchess of York. William Seymour Robert Seymour Henry Seymour, Lord Beauchamp, married Mary Capel, Lady Mary Seymour (1636 –10 April 1673, married Heneage Finch, 3rd Earl of Winchelsea, by whom she had issue. Lady Jane Seymour, married Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan, Lady Frances Seymour John Seymour, 4th Duke of Somerset, married Sarah Alston. Golden Lads, Sir Francis Bacon, Anthony Bacon, and Their Friends, thepeerage. com Accessed May 27,2008 Brian Tompsetts Royal Genealogy Directory
22.
Lettice Knollys
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A grandniece of Anne Boleyn and close to Princess Elizabeth since childhood, Lettice Knollys was introduced early into court life. At 17 she married Walter Devereux, Viscount Hereford, who in 1572 became Earl of Essex, after her husband went to Ireland in 1573 she possibly became involved with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. There was plenty of scandalous talk, not least when Essex died in Ireland of dysentery in 1576, two years later Lettice Knollys married Robert Dudley in private. When the Queen was told of the marriage she banished the Countess forever from court, the couples child, Robert, Lord Denbigh, died at the age of three, to the great grief of his parents and ending all prospects for the continuance of the House of Dudley. She continued to style herself Lady Leicester, the Countess was left rich under Leicesters will, yet the discharge of his overwhelming debts diminished her wealth. Lettice Knollys was always close to her family circle. Helpless at the eclipse of her eldest son, the second Earl of Essex. From the 1590s she lived chiefly in the Staffordshire countryside, where, in good health until the end. Lettice Knollys was born on 8 November 1543 at Rotherfield Greys and her father, Sir Francis Knollys, was a Member of Parliament and acted as Master of the Horse to Prince Edward. Her mother, Catherine Carey, was a daughter of Mary Boleyn, thus Catherine was Elizabeth Is first cousin, and Lettice Knollys her first cousin once removed. Lettice was the third of her parents 16 children, Sir Francis and his wife were Protestants. In 1556 they went to Frankfurt in Germany to escape persecution under Queen Mary I. It is unknown whether Lettice was among them, and she may have passed the next few years in the household of Princess Elizabeth with whom the family had a relationship since the mid-1540s. They returned to England in January 1559, two months after Elizabeth Is succession, Francis Knollys was appointed Vice-Chamberlain of the Royal Household, Lady Knollys became a senior Lady of the Bedchamber, and her daughter Lettice a Maid of the Privy Chamber. In late 1560 Lettice Knollys married Walter Devereux, Viscount Hereford, the couple lived at the family seat of Chartley in Staffordshire. Here the two eldest of their five children, the daughters Penelope and Dorothy, were born in 1563 and 1564, pregnant with her first son, she flirted with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, the Queens favourite. The Queen found out at once and succumbed to a fit of jealousy, the Viscountess went back to Staffordshire where, in November 1565, she gave birth to Robert, later 2nd Earl of Essex. Two more sons followed, Walter, who was born in 1569, and Francis, Walter Devereux was raised to the earldom of Essex in 1572
23.
Order of the Garter
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The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry and the third most prestigious honour in England and the United Kingdom. It is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George and it is awarded at the Sovereigns pleasure as a personal gift on recipients from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. Membership of the Order is limited to the Sovereign, the Prince of Wales, the order also includes supernumerary knights and ladies. New appointments to the Order of the Garter are always announced on St Georges Day, the orders emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in gold lettering. Members of the wear it on ceremonial occasions. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne, the list includes Sir Sanchet DAbrichecourt, who died on 20 October 1345. Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed, the Kings wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348. Also, its original statutes required that member of the Order already be a knight. The earliest written mention of the Order is found in Tirant lo Blanch and it was first published in 1490. This book devotes a chapter to the description of the origin of the Order of the Garter, at the time of its foundation, the Order consisted of King Edward III, together with 25 Founder Knights, listed in ascending order of stall number in St.1431. Various legends account for the origin of the Order, the most popular legend involves the Countess of Salisbury, whose garter is said to have slipped from her leg while she was dancing at a court ball at Calais. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the king picked it up and returned it to her, exclaiming, Honi soit qui mal y pense, King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order. This story is recounted in a letter to the Annual Register in 1774, The motto in fact refers to Edwards claim to the French throne, the use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour. Medieval scholars have pointed to a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in Gawain, a girdle, very similar in its erotic undertones to the garter, plays a prominent role. A rough version of the Orders motto also appears in the text and it translates from Old French as Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart. While the author of that poem remains disputed, there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates and the Order of the Garter. Scholar J. P. Oakden has suggested that it is related to John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and, more importantly. Another competing theory is that the work was written for Enguerrand de Coucy, the Sire de Coucy was married to King Edward IIIs daughter, Isabella, and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day
24.
Treason
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In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
25.
Herefordshire
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Herefordshire is a historic English county in the West Midlands. It is a county and a unitary non-metropolitan county and district, also named in legislation as the County of Herefordshire. The Welsh unitary county covering the part of Gwent next to Herefordshire is Monmouthshire, Hereford is a cathedral city and is the county town, with a population of approximately 55,800 inhabitants it is also the largest settlement. The county is one of the most rural and sparsely populated in England, the land use is predominantly agricultural and the county is well known for its fruit and cider production, and the Hereford cattle breed. From 1974 to 1998, Herefordshire was part of the former county of Hereford. Herefordshire was reconstituted both as a new district and as a new county by Statutory Instrument as defined in The Hereford and this Order established Herefordshire as a unitary authority on 1 April 1998, combining county and district functions into a single council. Herefordshire is also called a unitary district, but this is not official nomenclature. Herefordshire is officially known as an authority for local government purposes. The Lieutenancies Act 1997 made Herefordshire a ceremonial county, covering the area of the unitary district. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire NUTS2 region. The River Wye, which at 135 miles is the fifth-longest in the United Kingdom and it flows through both Hereford and Ross-on-Wye before returning to Wales. Leominster is situated on the River Lugg, a tributary of the Wye, there are two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the county. The Wye Valley is located in the valleys south of Hereford, while the Malvern Hills are in the east of the county. Herefordshire is one of the 39 historic counties of England, in 1974 it was merged with neighbouring Worcestershire to form the Hereford and Worcester administrative county. Within this, Herefordshire was covered by the government districts of South Herefordshire, Hereford. However, the county was dissolved in 1998, resulting in the return of Herefordshire and Worcestershire as counties, the current ceremonial county and unitary district have broadly the same borders as the pre-1974 historic county. However this has been from a base, with only Northumberland. The population is White 98. 2%, Asian 0. 8%, Mixed 0. 7%, Black 0. 2%, gypsies and Travellers have historically been Herefordshires largest minority ethnic group
26.
Mary Boleyn
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Mary Boleyn, also known as Lady Mary, was the sister of English queen Anne Boleyn, whose family enjoyed considerable influence during the reign of King Henry VIII. Mary was one of the mistresses of Henry VIII for a period of time. It has been rumoured that she bore two of the children, though Henry did not acknowledge either of them as he had acknowledged Henry FitzRoy, his son by another mistress. Mary was also rumoured to have been a mistress of Henry VIIIs rival, King Francis I of France, for some period between 1515 and 1519. Mary Boleyn was married twice, in 1520 to William Carey, and again, secretly, in 1534, to William Stafford, a soldier from a good family but with few prospects. This secret marriage to a man considered beneath her station angered both Henry VIII and her sister, Queen Anne, and resulted in Marys banishment from the royal court and she spent the remainder of her life in obscurity. She then died seven years later, Mary was probably born at Blickling Hall, the family seat in Norfolk, and grew up at Hever Castle, Kent. She was the daughter of a diplomat and courtier, Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, by his marriage to Lady Elizabeth Howard. There is no evidence of Marys exact date of birth, most historians suggest that she was the eldest of the three surviving Boleyn children. Evidence suggests that the Boleyn family treated Mary as the eldest child, in 1597, many ancient peerages can descend through female heirs, in the absence of an immediate male heir. If Anne had been the sister, the better claim to the title would have belonged to her daughter. However, it appears that Queen Elizabeth offered Marys son, Henry, if Mary had been the eldest Boleyn sister, Henry would have inherited the title upon his grandfathers death without a new grant from the queen. There is more evidence to suggest that Mary was older than Anne and she was married first, on 4 February 1520, an elder daughter was traditionally married before her younger sister. In 1532, when Anne was created Marchioness of Pembroke, she was referred to as one of the daughters of Thomas Boleyn, were she the eldest, that status would probably have been mentioned. Most historians now accept Mary as the eldest child, placing her birth some time in 1499, Mary was brought up with her brother George and her sister Anne by a French governess at Hever Castle in Kent. She was given a conventional education deemed essential for young ladies of her rank and status, which included the principles of arithmetic, grammar, history, reading, spelling. She was also taught archery, falconry, riding, and hunting, after a few weeks, many of the Queens English maids were sent away, but Mary was allowed to stay, probably due to the fact that her father was the new English ambassador to France. Even when Queen Mary left France after she was widowed on 1 January 1515, Mary remained behind at the court of Louis son-in-law and daughter, Francis I and Claude
27.
Anne Boleyn
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Anne Boleyn was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as the second wife of King Henry VIII, and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henrys marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution by beheading, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation. Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, in February/March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress – which her sister Mary had been and it soon became the one absorbing object of Henrys desires to annul his marriage to Queen Catherine so he would be free to marry Anne. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII would not annul the marriage, in 1532, Henry granted Anne the Marquessate of Pembroke. Henry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a marriage on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherines marriage null and void, five days later, he declared Henry, shortly afterwards, the Pope decreed sentences of excommunication against Henry and Cranmer. As a result of marriage and these excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Rome took place and the Church of England was brought under the Kings control. Anne was crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533, on 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a rather than a son but hoped a son would follow. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages, and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour, in order to marry Jane Seymour, Henry had to find reasons for his marriage with Anne to end. Henry had Anne investigated for treason in April 1536. She was beheaded four days later, modern historians view the charges against her, which included adultery, incest, and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing. Some say that Anne was accused of witchcraft but the indictments make no mention of this charge, after the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth, as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe. Over the centuries, she has inspired, or been mentioned, in artistic and cultural works. Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, Thomas Boleyn was a well respected diplomat with a gift for languages, he was also a favourite of King Henry VII, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. Anne and her siblings grew up at Hever Castle in Kent, however, the siblings were born in Norfolk at the Boleyn home at Blickling. A lack of records from the period has made it impossible to establish Annes date of birth
28.
Cousin
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A cousin is a relative with whom a person shares one or more common ancestors. In the general sense, cousins are two or more away from any common ancestor, thus distinguishing a cousin from an ancestor, descendant, sibling, aunt, uncle, niece. However, in common parlance, cousins typically refers to first cousins as the children of ones uncles, systems of degrees and removals are used in the English-speaking world to describe the exact relationship between two cousins and the ancestor they have in common. The ordinals in the terms first cousins, second cousins, third cousins, the number of G words used to describe this ancestor will determine how close the relationship is. For example, having great-great-grandparents in common would be third cousins, when the cousins are not the same generation, they are described as removed. In this case, the number of generations to the common ancestor is used to determine the degree. Note that the ages of the cousins are irrelevant to the definition of the cousin relationship, the following is a list of less common cousin terms. A cousin chart, or table of consanguinity, is helpful in identifying the degree of relationship between two people using their most recent common ancestor as the reference point. Cousinship between two people can be described in degrees and removals by determining how close, generationally. Another visual chart used in determining the relationship between two people who share a common ancestor is based upon a rhombus shape, usually referred to as a canon law relationship chart. The chart is used by placing the common progenitor in the top space in the diamond-shaped chart, then follow the line down the outside edge of the chart for each of the two people until their respective relationship to the common ancestor is reached. Upon determining that place along the opposing outside edge for each person, the information contained in the common intersection defines the relationship. Then, following the spaces inward, they would intersect in the brother diamond
29.
Chartley Castle
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Chartley Castle lies in ruins to the north of the village of Stowe-by-Chartley in Staffordshire, between Stafford and Uttoxeter. The remains of the castle and associated earthworks are a Scheduled Monument, the castle itself is a Grade II* listed building The motte and bailey castle was built by one of the early Earls of Chester circa 1100 as a safe stop over for their journeys to places like Tutbury. It was rebuilt in 1220 by Ranulph de Blondeville, 4th Earl of Chester and it then passed by marriage to William de Ferrers, Earl of Derby. It remained in the Ferrers family for more than 200 years and in 1453 passed to Walter Devereux through his wife Elizabeth, Walter was created Baron Ferrers in 1461 and was killed at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. The castle was abandoned as a residence and Chartley Manor. Mary, Queen of Scots was a prisoner in this manor house and it was destroyed by fire in 1781. What is now known as Chartley Manor was in fact known as Chartley Manor Farm until the 1980s, substantial remains are still present today, including a rare cylindrical keep, a curtain wall flanked by two half-round towers, a twin-towered gatehouse and an angled tower. A survey conducted in the nineteenth century identified five towers ranging from 35 to 41 feet external diameter, one author has noted similarities of the plan to Montlhery near Paris, France, which Ranulph de Blondeville may have been familiar with. Thompson has noted numerous architectural similarities between Chartley, Bolingbroke Castle, Lincolnshire, and also Beeston Castle in Cheshire, all thought to have been built under de Blondeville. When Chartley Manor belonged to Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex it became one of the last places of imprisonment of Mary, Queen of Scots. Her jailor Amias Paulet came from Tutbury Castle to view the manor in September 1585, Chartley manor was preferred over alternatives because the house had a deep moat, though the moat was quite narrow in places. The moat also helped security because the queens laundry could be washed without her maids leaving the house, Paulet wrote that the way the Manor was found to stand so low, and environed with water was not likely to please Mary. Paulet prepared to move the queen the twelve miles from Tutbury before Christmas 1585, Mary spent almost a year at Chartley. Many of servants would be kept at Chartley and she would be taken to another house, walsingham wrote to Paulet from Windsor Castle on 25 August that Elizabeth ordered that Mary should not leave Tixall. However, on that day, Paulet brought Mary back to Chartley, on 25 September 1586 Mary was removed to the strong castle of Fotheringay in Northamptonshire where she was beheaded on 8 February 1587. Entry at Castles UK Entry at GENUKI Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, the David & Charles Book of Castles. Newton Abbott, UK, David & Charles, engraving of old Chartley Manor, Staffordshire Past Track
30.
Lamphey
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Lamphey has an estimated population of 843 residents. The village includes the ruins of Lamphey Bishops Palace, a palace of the Bishop of St Davids. The parish church, dedicated to St Tyfai and St Faith, is medieval in origin but was rebuilt in 1869–71 by the architect Ewan Christian. The fine tower is thirteenth or fourteenth century, in the chancel a piscina and two lancet windows date from the thirteenth century, but have been repositioned. Several Georgian-era buildings remain in the including the farmhouse, Lower Lamphey Park. The town has two hotels/restaurants, a school, a service station with a shop, a hairdressers. The village hall, with a capacity of 120 people, was completed in 2007, Bishop Vaughan was responsible for adding the first-floor chapel on the north side of Lamphey Hall in the early 16th century. In 1542, Lamphey Manor was surrendered to Henry VIII in exchange for the rectory of Carew. The grade II listed Lamphey Court, a Georgian mansion, was built in 1823 to the west of the ruins of the Bishops Palace and it was the seat of the Mathias family until it was sold in 1978 by Wing Commander Lewis Mathias, the High Sheriff of Pembrokeshire. Lamphey, together with Cosheston, forms an electoral ward, the total ward population taken at the 2011 Census was 1,671. Lamphey railway station on the Pembroke Dock branch of the West Wales Line is operated by Arriva Trains Wales, Lamphey Bishops Palace Lamphey Cricket Club Ground Photos of Lamphey and surrounding area on geograph. org. uk
31.
Pembrokeshire
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Pembrokeshire is a county in the south west of Wales. It borders Carmarthenshire to the east and Ceredigion to the north east, Pembrokeshire County Councils headquarters are in the county town of Haverfordwest. Over the years Pembrokeshires beaches have received many International Blue Flag Awards, Green Coast Awards. In 2011 it had 39 beaches recommended by the Marine Conservation Society, industry is nowadays focused on agriculture and tourism, but historically mining and fishing were important activities. The county has a geography and a complex history. Pembrokeshires population was 122,400 at the 2011 census, an increase of 7. 2% from the 2001 figure of 114,131, Pembrokeshire is bordered by the sea on three sides, and by the counties of Ceredigion to the north east and Carmarthenshire to the east. Other towns include Pembroke, Pembroke Dock, Milford Haven, Fishguard, Tenby, Saundersfoot, Narberth, Neyland, St Davids, in the west of the county, is the United Kingdoms smallest city with a population of 2,000. Saundersfoot is the biggest village in Pembrokeshire with a population of well over 2,500, see List of places in Pembrokeshire for a comprehensive list of settlements in Pembrokeshire. The countys coastline includes internationally important seabird breeding sites and numerous bays, Pembrokeshire contains a predominantly coastal park, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, which includes a 186-mile walking trail, the Pembrokeshire Coast Path. A large estuary and natural harbour at Milford Haven cuts deeply into the coast, this inlet is formed by the confluence of the Western Cleddau, the Eastern Cleddau, and rivers Cresswell and Carew. The estuary is bridged by the large Cleddau Bridge which carries the A477 between Neyland and Pembroke Dock, upstream bridges span the Cleddau at Haverfordwest and Canaston Bridge, large bays are Newport Bay, Fishguard Bay, St Brides Bay and a portion of Carmarthen Bay. There are several islands off the Pembrokeshire coast, the largest of which are Ramsey Island, Grassholm Island, Skomer Island. Pembrokeshires diverse range of features was a key factor in the establishment of the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park. Younger rocks have been lost by subsequent geological processes, the land on which Pembrokeshire is today was established approximately 60 million years ago by a combination of uplift and falling sea levels. The sea cliffs and inland tors that are now a feature of the county were those that were resistant to weathering that has taken place since. The landscape was subject to change as a result of the ice ages over the last several thousand years. About 20,000 years ago the Irish Sea ice sheet deposited areas of clays, while Pembrokeshire is not a seismically active area, two periods of activity were noted in the 19th century. In 1873 there was a shock in the west of the county
32.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
33.
William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley
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William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley KG PC was an English statesman, the chief advisor of Queen Elizabeth I for most of her reign, twice Secretary of State and Lord High Treasurer from 1572. Albert Pollard says, From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth, Burghley set as the main goal of English policy the creation of a united and Protestant British Isles. His methods were to complete the control of Ireland, and to forge an alliance with Scotland, protection from invasion required a powerful Royal Navy. While he was not fully successful, his successors agreed with his goals, derek Wilson says, Few politicians were more subtle or unscrupulous than William Cecil. He was the founder of the Cecil dynasty which has produced politicians including two Prime Ministers. Cecil was born in Bourne, Lincolnshire, in 1520, the son of Sir Richard Cecil, owner of the Burghley estate, seisyllt is the original Welsh spelling of the anglicised Cecil. There is now no doubt that the family was from the Welsh Marches, the family had connections with Dore Abbey. However, the move to Stamford provides information concerning the Lord Treasurers grandfather, David, he, according to Burghleys enemies, David somehow secured the favour of the first Tudor king, Henry VII, to whom he seems to have been Yeoman of the Guard. He was Sergeant-of-Arms to Henry VIII in 1526, Sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532, and his eldest son, Richard, Yeoman of the Wardrobe, married Jane, daughter of William Heckington of Bourne, and was father of three daughters and the future Lord Burghley. William, the son, was put to school first at The Kings School, Grantham, and then Stamford School. The precaution proved useless and four months later Cecil committed one of the rare acts of his life in marrying Mary Cheke. The only child of this marriage, Thomas, the future Earl of Exeter, was born in May 1542, and in February 1543 Cecils first wife died. William Cecils early career was spent in the service of the Duke of Somerset, who was Lord Protector during the years of the reign of his nephew. Cecil accompanied Somerset on his Pinkie campaign of 1547, being one of the two Judges of the Marshalsea and he also seems to have acted as private secretary to the Protector, and was in some danger at the time of the Protectors fall in October 1549. The lords opposed to Somerset ordered his detention on 10 October, Cecil ingratiated himself with Warwick, and after less than three months he was out of the Tower. On 5 September 1550 Cecil was sworn in as one of King Edwards two secretaries of state, in April 1551, Cecil became chancellor of the Order of the Garter. But service under Warwick carried some risk, and decades later in his diary, to protect the Protestant government from the accession of a Catholic queen, Northumberland forced King Edwards lawyers to create an instrument setting aside the Third Succession Act on 15 June 1553. Cecil resisted for a while, in a letter to his wife, he wrote, Seeing great perils threatened upon us by the likeness of the time, but at Edwards royal command he signed it
34.
Commoner (academia)
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A commoner is a student at certain universities in the British Isles who historically pays for their own tuition and commons. Commoners were also known as pensioners at the University of Cambridge, pensioners paid for their own tuition and commons. A fellow‑commoner was a rank of student above pensioners but below noblemen and they paid double the tuition fee and enjoyed more privileges than pensioners, such as commoning with Fellows. As fellow‑commoners had considerable wealth, they were ineligible for scholarships, fellow‑commoners who wore a hat instead of a velvet cap were known as hat fellow‑commoners. They were often sons of nobility but not the eldest, who enjoyed the rank of noblemen, today, a fellow‑commoner at Cambridge is one who enjoys access to the Senior Common Room without a Fellowship. Formerly, there were also fellow-commoners who paid twice the fees but could incept for their degree a year earlier, dined at the High Table and wore velvet collars. Above these were Noblemen who paid four times tuition and were entitled to privileges, including gold. In the University of Oxford, a commoner is a student without a scholarship or exhibition, a gentleman‑commoner at the University of Oxford, equivalent to Cambridges fellow‑commoner, was historically a rank of student above commoners but below noblemen. According to Merriam-Webster, the first known usage of gentleman‑commoner was in 1687, battel Servitor Sizar Bristed, Charles Astor. Five years in an English university
35.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million
36.
Matriculation
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Matriculation is the formal process of entering a university, or of becoming eligible to enter by fulfilling certain academic requirements such as a matriculation examination. The matriculation exam was the prerequisite for entry into universities, Matriculation has generally been replaced with a Higher School Certificate or a completion certificate such as the Victorian Certificate of Education. In Bangladesh, the shortened term Matric refers to the Secondary School Examination taken at year 10, in Brazilian Portuguese, the word matrícula refers to the act of enrolling in an educational course, whether it be elementary, high school, college or post-graduate education. In Canada, the term is used by some universities to refer to orientation events, however some universities, including University of Kings College. The ceremony at Kings is quite similar to the ceremonies held in universities such as Oxford or Cambridge. In Ontario during the era with grade 13, satisfactory completion of grade 12 was considered junior matriculation, satisfactory completion of grade 13 was senior matriculation. In Nova Scotia, at the present time, Junior matriculation is grade 11, at Charles University in Prague, the oldest and most prestigious university in the Czech Republic, matriculation is held at the Great Hall. The ceremony is attended by students commencing their studies and it is intended as a demonstration of the adoption of students duties and obtaining of students rights. The ceremony itself involves students taking the Matriculation Oath of the University and symbolically touching the Faculty mace, other Czech universities hold ceremonies similar to the one just described. In Denmark, the University of Copenhagen holds a ceremony each year. The ceremony is held in the Hall of Ceremony in the building of the University. The ceremony begins with a procession with the rector and the deans in academic dress, the ceremony continues with the rector listing the different faculties, after which the different student, shouts when their respective faculty is mentioned. In Finland, Matriculation is the examination taken at the end of Secondary education to qualify for entry into University, the test also constitutes the high schools final exam, in other words it is a high school graduation exam. Since 1919, the test has been arranged by a national body, before that, the administration of the test was the responsibility of the University of Helsinki. The German term Immatrikulation describes the process of enrolling at university as a student. This can happen for winter semester and, depending on the degree program and it does not involve a ceremony. A prerequisite for matriculation is generally the Abitur, which is the matriculation examination in Germany, for regular universities. Both Abitur and Fachhochschulreife are school leaving certificates which students receive after passing their examinations at some types of German secondary schools
37.
Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester
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Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester KG was an English nobleman and the favourite and close friend of Elizabeth Is, from her first year on the throne until his death. He was a suitor for the hand for many years. Dudleys youth was overshadowed by the downfall of his family in 1553 after his father, Robert Dudley was condemned to death but was released in 1554 and took part in the Battle of St. Quentin under Philip II of Spain, which led to his full rehabilitation. On Elizabeth Is accession in November 1558, Dudley was appointed Master of the Horse, in October 1562, he became a Privy Councillor and, in 1587, was appointed Lord Steward of the Royal Household. In 1564, Dudley became Earl of Leicester and, from 1563, one of the greatest landowners in North Wales, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, was one of Elizabeths leading statesmen, involved in domestic as well as foreign politics alongside William Cecil and Francis Walsingham. Although he refused to be married to Mary, Queen of Scots, Dudley was for a time relatively sympathetic to her until, from the mid-1580s. As patron of the Puritan movement, he supported non-conforming preachers, a champion also of the international Protestant cause, he led the English campaign in support of the Dutch Revolt. His acceptance of the post of Governor-General of the United Provinces infuriated Queen Elizabeth, the expedition was a military and political failure, and it ruined the Earl financially. Leicester was engaged in many business ventures and was one of the main backers of Francis Drake. During the Spanish Armada, the Earl was in command of the English land forces. In this function, he invited Queen Elizabeth to visit her troops at Tilbury and this was the last of many events he had organised over the years, the most spectacular being the festival at his seat Kenilworth Castle in 1575 on occasion of a three-week visit by the Queen. Dudley was a patron of the arts, literature. Robert Dudleys private life interfered with his career and vice versa. When his first wife, Amy Robsart, fell down a flight of stairs and died in 1560, however, the resulting scandal very much reduced his chances in this respect. Popular rumours that he had arranged for his wifes death continued throughout his life, for 18 years he did not remarry for Queen Elizabeths sake and when he finally did, his new wife, Lettice Knollys, was permanently banished from court. This and the death of his legitimate son and heir were heavy blows. Shortly after the death in 1584, a virulent libel known as Leicesters Commonwealth was circulated in England. It laid the foundation of a literary and historiographical tradition that depicted the Earl as the Machiavellian master courtier
38.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
