1.
Dresden, Yates County, New York
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Dresden is a village in Yates County, New York, USA. The population was 308 at the 2010 census, the village was named after Dresden in Germany. The Village of Dresden is in the Town of Torrey and is twelve miles south of Geneva, Dresden is located in the Finger Lakes Region of New York. The region was known as Kashong to the natives and was part of the Phelps, at the end of the 18th century, followers of Jemima Wilkinson, a religious leader, began to settle in the area. They called the area Jerusalem and founded their first community near the present site of Dresden, Dresden was founded in 1811 as a planned community. The Village of Dresden was incorporated in 1867, Dresden was the eastern terminus for the former Crooked Lake Canal, which operated from 1833 to 1877. This canal linked the area through other lake canals to the Erie Canal, the Robert Ingersoll Birthplace and Christopher Willis House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Frederick Condit, Wisconsin legislator Robert G. Ingersoll, political leader and orator, Dresden is located at 42°41′2″N 76°57′26″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 0.3 square miles. The village on the west shore of Seneca Lake, Keuka Lake Outlet, a stream connecting Keuka Lake with Seneca Lake, flows past the south side of the village. At first the significant water drop made it an important location for mills, later it was developed as a canal between the lakes. New York State Route 14 intersects New York State Route 54 at Dresden, as of the census of 2000, there were 307 people,116 households, and 78 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,005.1 people per square mile, there were 139 housing units at an average density of 455.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 94. 14% White,0. 33% Native American,0. 33% Asian,5. 21% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 9. 77% of the population. 23. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 2.92. In the village, the population was out with 21. 5% under the age of 18,8. 5% from 18 to 24,22. 8% from 25 to 44,30. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 43 years, for every 100 females there were 106.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.2 males, the median income for a household in the village was $42,500, and the median income for a family was $40,208
2.
Dobbs Ferry, New York
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Dobbs Ferry is a village in Westchester County, New York. The population was 10,875 at the 2010 census, the Village of Dobbs Ferry is located in, and is a part of, the town of Greenburgh. The village ZIP code is 10522, most of the Village falls into the boundaries of the Dobbs Ferry Union Free School District. Dobbs Ferry was ranked seventh in the list of the top 10 places to live in New York State for 2014 according to the national real estate brokerage Movoto. Dobbs Ferry is also the first village in New York State certified as a Climate Smart Community, Dobbs Ferry was named after Jeremiah Dobbs, a descendent of William Dobbs, of Swedish and Dutch ancestry whose family ran a ferry service that traversed the Hudson River at this location. Jeremiah was a fisherman and settled near the part of what is now Dobbs Ferry. He used a style of boat known at that day as a periauger, from this primitive ferry the village took its name. Dobbs Ferry played a role in the American Revolutionary War. The position of the village opposite the northernmost end of The Palisades gave it importance during the war, but on August 14,1781, a communication was received from French Admiral Comte de Grasse in the West Indies, which caused Washington to change his strategy. Washingtons new strategy, adopted and designed in mid-August 1781, at the encampment of the allied armies, the village was originally incorporated in 1873 as Greenburgh, but the name was changed to Dobbs Ferry in 1882. The current local government of Dobbs Ferry is headed by Mayor Hartley S. Connett, the Estherwood and Carriage House, Hyatt-Livingston House, South Presbyterian Church, and United States Post Office are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. As of the census of 2000, there were 10,622 people,3,792 households, the population density was 4,350.0 people per square mile. There were 3,941 housing units at a density of 1,614.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 80. 70% White,7. 38% African American,0. 08% Native American,7. 56% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,1. 93% from other races, and 2. 26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7. 00% of the population, of all households,27. 6% were made up of individuals and 8. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 3.13. In the village, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,27. 4% from 25 to 44,24. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 95.7 males
3.
Arlington National Cemetery
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The United States Department of the Army, a component of the United States Department of Defense, controls the cemetery. The national cemetery was established during the Civil War on the grounds of Arlington House, like nearly all federal installations in Arlington County, it has a Washington, D. C. mailing address. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of Martha Washington, acquired the land now is Arlington National Cemetery in 1802. The estate passed to Custis daughter, Mary Anna, who had married United States Army officer Robert E. Lee. Custis will gave an inheritance to Mary Lee, allowing her to live at and run Arlington Estate for the rest of her life. Upon her death, the Arlington estate passed to her eldest son, on May 7, troops of the Virginia militia occupied Arlington and Arlington House. With Confederate forces occupying Arlingtons high ground, the capital of the Union was left in a military position. Although unwilling to leave Arlington House, Mary Lee believed her estate would soon be infested with federal soldiers, so she buried many of her family treasures on the grounds and left for her sisters estate at Ravensworth in Fairfax County, Virginia, on May 14. On May 3, General Winfield Scott ordered Brigadier General Irvin McDowell to clear Arlington, McDowell occupied Arlington without opposition on May 24. In May 1864, Union forces suffered large numbers of dead in the Battle of the Wilderness, Meigs ordered that an examination of eligible sites be made for the establishment for a large new national military cemetery. Within weeks, his staff reported that Arlington Estate was the most suitable property in the area, the property was high and free from floods, it had a view of the District of Columbia, and it was aesthetically pleasing. It was also the home of the leader of the forces of the Confederate States of America. The first military burial at Arlington, for William Henry Christman, was made on May 13,1864, however, Meigs did not formally authorize establishment of burials until June 15,1864. Arlington did not desegregate its burial practices until President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 on July 26,1948, the government acquired Arlington at a tax sale in 1864 for $26,800, equal to $410,000 today. Mrs. Lee had not appeared in person but rather had sent an agent, the government turned away her agent, refusing to accept the tendered payment. In 1874, Custis Lee, heir under his grandfathers will passing the estate in trust to his mother, sued the United States claiming ownership of Arlington. In December,1882, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in Lees favor in United States v. Lee, deciding that Arlington had been confiscated without due process. After that decision, Congress returned the estate to him, and on March 3,1883, the land then became a military reservation
4.
Public speaking
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Public speaking is the process or act of performing a speech to a live audience. This type of speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes, to inform, to persuade and to entertain, Public speaking is commonly understood as formal, face-to-face speaking of a single person to a group of listeners. It is closely related to presenting, but presenting is more associated with commercial activity. There are 1 million basic elements of public speaking that are described in Lasswells model of communication, in short, the speaker should be answering the question who says what in which channel to whom with what effect. Public speaking can serve the purpose of transmitting information, telling a story, Public speaking can also take the form of a discourse community, in which the audience and speaker use discourse to achieve a common goal. Public speaking for business and commercial events is often done by professionals and these speakers can be contracted independently, through representation by a speakers bureau, or by other means. Public speaking plays a role in the professional world, in fact. Although there is evidence of public speech training in ancient Egypt and this work elaborated on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators. Aristotle was one of the first recorded teachers of oratory to use definitive rules and his emphasis on oratory lead to oration becoming an essential part of a liberal arts education during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The classical antiquity works written by the ancient Greeks capture the ways they taught, in classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of composition and speech delivery, both of which were critical skills for citizens to be able to use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke on their own rather than having professionals, like modern lawyers. Any citizen who wished to succeed in court, in politics or in life had to learn techniques of public speaking. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called Sophists who are notable for teaching paying students how to speak effectively using the methods they developed. Separately from the Sophists, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all developed their own theories of public speaking, Plato and Aristotle taught these principles in schools that they founded, The Academy and The Lyceum, respectively. Although Greece eventually lost political sovereignty, the Greek culture of training in speaking was adopted almost identically by the Romans. In the political rise of the Roman Republic, Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking, instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar, preliminary exercises, and preparation of public speeches in both forensic and deliberative genres. The Latin style of rhetoric was heavily influenced by Cicero and involved a strong emphasis on an education in all areas of humanistic study in the liberal arts. Other areas of study included the use of wit and humor, the appeal to the emotions
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Essay
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An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the authors own argument — but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have traditionally been sub-classified as formal and informal, Essays are commonly used as literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays, while brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthuss An Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries, essays have become a part of formal education. The concept of an essay has been extended to other mediums beyond writing, a film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary filmmaking styles, and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea. A photographic essay covers a topic with a series of photographs that may have accompanying text or captions. An essay has been defined in a variety of ways, one definition is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion or a long, systematic discourse. It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall, aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. He notes that the essay is a device for saying almost everything about almost anything, and adds that by tradition, almost by definition. Furthermore, Huxley argues that essays belong to a species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference. Their art consists of setting forth, passing judgment upon, the abstract-universal, In this pole we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high abstractions, who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience. Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays. make the best not of one, the word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, to try or to attempt. In English essay first meant a trial or an attempt, for the rest of his life, he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacons essays, published in form in 1597,1612. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, English essayists included Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne. In France, Michel de Montaignes three volume Essais in the mid 1500s contain over 100 examples widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay, in Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il Libro del oregano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art, whereas some essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays
6.
Political criticism
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Political criticism is criticism that is specific of or relevant to politics, including policies, politicians, political parties, and types of government. There has been controversy over the relevance and importance of political criticism in civilizations, advocates argue that political discussion creates and promotes the variety of opinions necessary for a true democracy. The American constitution is often pointed to as support for the belief, critics of this philosophy argue that the general public lacks the resources and capability to conceive opinions that are educated enough to be taken seriously. There are many methods used throughout history of promoting political opinions, some of the most common include the following, Throughout history one of the most influential methods of promoting political opinions has been literary. It is from this correlation between books and politics that the phrase, the pen is mightier than the sword, derives, since their development in this past century, both television and films have often had far-reaching political effects throughout the world. Influential films and television events include Countdown with Keith Olbermann, Citizen Kane, the works of Walt Disney, like literature, a movie or television event has the capacity to have emotional impact on its viewers, making it an invaluable tool for politics. Political cartoons are infamous for their ability to promote political views through satirical means, any bias in these mediums alters peoples impressions of current events into different understandings and opinions than those that may have been chosen with more accurate information. With the recent invention of the Internet, political criticism has been extended to anyone with a connection to the World Wide Web. The many means of exchanging ideas, including blogs and internet forums, has extended the political debate to anyone that cares to contribute and this ability and speed that which ideas can flow has literally changed the way that political parties stay connected to constituents
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Philosophy and literature
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Philosophy and literature involves the literary treatment of philosophers and philosophical themes, and the philosophical treatment of issues raised by literature. Strictly speaking, the philosophy of literature is a branch of aesthetics, much of aesthetic philosophy has traditionally focused on the plastic arts or music, however, at the expense of the verbal arts. In fact, much discussion of aesthetic philosophy seeks to establish criteria of artistic quality that are indifferent to the subject matter being depicted. Since all literary works, almost by definition, contain notional content, the very existence of narrative raises philosophical issues. In narrative, a creator can embody, and readers be led to imagine, fictional characters, the ability of the human mind to imagine, and even to experience empathy with, these fictional characters is itself revealing about the nature of the human mind. Some fiction can be thought of as a sort of an experiment in ethics, it describes fictional characters, their motives, their actions. It is in light that some philosophers have chosen various narrative forms to teach their philosophy. Plato, for instance, believed that culture and even the lyrics of popular music had a strong impact on the ethical outlook of its consumers. In The Republic, Plato displays a strong hostility to the contents of the culture of his period. More recently, however, philosophers of various stripes have taken different, in more recent years, these epistemological issues have turned instead to an extended discussion of words and meaning, can language in fact bridge the barrier between minds. This cluster of issues concerning the meaning of language and of writings sometimes goes by the name of the linguistic turn, as such, techniques and tools developed for literary criticism and literary theory rose to greater prominence in Western philosophy of the late twentieth century. Philosophers of various stripes paid more attention to literature than their predecessors did, some sought to examine the question of whether it was in fact truly possible to communicate using words, whether it was possible for an authors intended meaning to be communicated to a reader. Others sought to use literary works as examples of contemporary culture, Literary works also pose issues concerning truth and the philosophy of language. In educated opinion, at least, it is reputed as true that Sherlock Holmes lived in London. It is also considered true that Samuel Pepys lived in London, yet Sherlock Holmes never lived anywhere at all, he is a fictional character. Samuel Pepys, contrarily, is judged to have been a real person and these two statements would appear to belong to two different orders of truth. A number of poets have written poems on themes. The cosmogony of Hesiod and the De Rerum Natura of Lucretius are important philosophical poems, the genre of epic poetry was also used to teach philosophy
8.
Biblical criticism
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Biblical criticism is the scholarly study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings. It will vary depending on whether the focus is on the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament. It also plays an important role in the quest for a historical Jesus and it also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies. Biblical criticism, defined as the treatment of biblical texts as natural rather than supernatural artifacts, a division is still sometimes made between historical criticism and literary criticism. Literary criticism asks what audience the authors wrote for, their purpose. In the 18th century Jean Astruc, a French physician, set out to refute these critics, borrowing methods of textual criticism already in use to investigate Greek and Roman texts, he discovered what he believed were two distinct documents within Genesis. These, he felt, were the original written by Moses, much as the four Gospel writers had produced four separate but complementary accounts of the life. Later generations, he believed, had conflated these original documents to produce the book of Genesis, producing the inconsistencies and contradictions noted by Hobbes. The implications of higher criticism were not welcomed by many religious scholars, quite rightly employed in the case of the Sacred Books. For the fact is that truth is presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts. Reimaruss conclusions appealed to the rationalism of 18th century intellectuals, but were deeply troubling to contemporary believers, baron dHolbach - Ecce Homo -The History of Jesus of Nazareth, a Critical Inquiry, the first Life of Jesus described as a mere historical man, published anonymously in Amsterdam. George Houston translated the work into English—published in Edinburgh,1799, London,1813, the questions they addressed were, What was Jesus’s key message. How was that message related to Judaism, does that message speak to our reality today. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1948 revitalised interest in the possible contribution archaeology could make to the understanding of the New Testament, contemporary New Testament criticism continues to follow the synthesising trend set during the latter half of the 20th century. The critical methods and perspectives now to be found are numerous, Textual criticism refers to the examination of the text itself to identify its provenance or to trace its history. It takes as its basis the fact that errors crept into texts as generations of scribes reproduced each others manuscripts. For example, Josephus employed scribes to copy his Antiquities of the Jews, as the scribes copied the Antiquities, they made mistakes
9.
Freethought
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In particular, freethought is strongly tied with rejection of traditional religious belief. The cognitive application of freethought is known as freethinking, and practitioners of freethought are known as freethinkers, the term first came into use in the 17th century in order to indicate people who inquired into the basis of traditional religious beliefs. Freethinkers hold that knowledge should be grounded in facts, scientific inquiry, the skeptical application of science implies freedom from the intellectually limiting effects of confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, prejudice, or sectarianism. The essay became a cry for freethinkers when published in the 1870s. Clifford was himself an organizer of freethought gatherings, the force behind the Congress of Liberal Thinkers held in 1878. Regarding religion, freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to support the existence of supernatural phenomena. According to the Freedom from Religion Foundation, No one can be a freethinker who demands conformity to a bible, creed, to the freethinker, revelation and faith are invalid, and orthodoxy is no guarantee of truth. And Freethinkers are convinced that religious claims have not withstood the tests of reason, not only is there nothing to be gained by believing an untruth, but there is everything to lose when we sacrifice the indispensable tool of reason on the altar of superstition. Most freethinkers consider religion to be not only untrue, but harmful, however, philosopher Bertrand Russell wrote the following in his 1944 essay The Value of Free Thought, What makes a freethinker is not his beliefs but the way in which he holds them. To be worthy of the name, he must be free of two things, the force of tradition, and the tyranny of his own passions. No one is free from either, but in the measure of a mans emancipation he deserves to be called a free thinker. On the other hand, according to Bertrand Russell, atheists and/or agnostics are not necessarily freethinkers. As an example, he mentions Stalin, whom he compares to a pope, what I am concerned with is the doctrine of the modern Communistic Party, and of the Russian Government to which it owes allegiance. In the 18th and 19th century, many regarded as freethinkers were deists. In the 18th century, deism was as much of a dirty word as atheism, deists today regard themselves as freethinkers, but are now arguably less prominent in the freethought movement than atheists. The pansy serves as the long-established and enduring symbol of freethought, the reasoning behind the pansy as the symbol of freethought lies both in the flowers name and in its appearance. The pansy derives its name from the French word pensée, which means thought and it allegedly received this name because the flower is perceived by some to bear resemblance to a human face, and in mid-to-late summer it nods forward as if deep in thought. In all their rule and strictest tie of their order there was but this one clause to be observed, Do What Thou Wilt, when Rabelaiss hero Pantagruel journeys to the Oracle of The Dive Bottle, he learns the lesson of life in one simple word, Trinch
10.
Agnosticism
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Agnosticism is the philosophical view that the existence of God or the supernatural are unknown and unknowable. Agnosticism is a doctrine or set of rather than a religion. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the word agnostic in 1869, the Nasadiya Sukta in the Rigveda is agnostic about the origin of the universe. Agnosticism is of the essence of science, whether ancient or modern and it simply means that a man shall not say he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe. Consequently, agnosticism puts aside not only the part of popular theology. On the whole, the bosh of heterodoxy is more offensive to me than that of orthodoxy, because heterodoxy professes to be guided by reason and science, and orthodoxy does not. Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, positively the principle may be expressed, In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively, In matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable, being a scientist, above all else, Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation. A hypothesis with no supporting objective, testable evidence is not an objective, as such, there would be no way to test said hypotheses, leaving the results inconclusive. His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth, or falsehood, karl Popper would also describe himself as an agnostic. Others have redefined this concept, making it compatible with forming a belief, george H. Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism and agnostic theism. Agnostic was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy, early Christian church leaders used the Greek word gnosis to describe spiritual knowledge. Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular, Huxley used the term in a broader, Huxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical, evidence-based inquiry. In recent years, scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean not knowable, in technical and marketing literature, agnostic can also mean independence from some parameters—for example, platform agnostic or hardware agnostic. Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt and he asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition. A strong agnostic would say, I cannot know whether a deity exists or not, a weak agnostic would say, I dont know whether any deities exist or not, but maybe one day, if there is evidence, we can find something out. Therefore, their existence has little to no impact on human affairs. Agnostic thought, in the form of skepticism, emerged as a philosophical position in ancient Greece
11.
Humanism
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The term was coined in 1808 by the early nineteenth century German educational reformer and theologian Friedrich Niethammer and gradually adopted into English. Niethammer had wished to introduce into German education the humane values of ancient Greece, the word Humanism is ultimately derived from the Latin concept humanitas, and, like most other words ending in -ism, entered English in the nineteenth century. Those who earnestly desire and seek after these are most highly humanized. For the desire to pursue of that kind of knowledge, and the training given by it, has granted to humanity alone of all the animals. Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and he himself was involved in public affairs. By assigning pride of place to Paideia in his comment on the etymology of humanitas, gelliuss writings fell into obscurity during the middle ages, but during the Italian Renaissance, Gellius became a favorite author. Teachers and scholars of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, during the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany, humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and it is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. The first Humanist Manifesto was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933, signatories included the philosopher John Dewey, but the majority were ministers and theologians. But in the century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of The general love of humanity. A virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call humanism, for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing. The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous philanthropic and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word humanism by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the mere humanity of Christ, i. e. Unitarians and Deists. Human-centered philosophy that rejected the supernatural may also be found circa 1500 BCE in the Lokayata system of Indian philosophy, nasadiya Sukta, a passage in the Rig Veda, contains one of the first recorded assertions of agnosticism. Another instance of ancient humanism as a system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. Zarathustras philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings, dignified with choice, in China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor. Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded, king Wu of Zhou has the famous saying, Humanity is the Ling of the world
12.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
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Women's rights
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In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men. Although males seem to have dominated in many cultures, there are some exceptions, for example, in the Nigerian Aka culture women may hunt, even on their own, and often control distribution of resources. Ancient Egypt had female rulers, such as Cleopatra, Women throughout historical and ancient China were considered inferior and had subordinate legal status based on the Confucian law. In Imperial China, the Three Obediences promoted daughters to obey their fathers, wives to obey their husbands, Women could not inherit businesses or wealth and men had to adopt a son for such financial purposes. Late imperial law also featured seven different types of divorces, the status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century, for the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding, foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus limiting the activities of women. Due to the custom that men and women should not be near each other. This resulted in a tremendous need for doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women, this College was located in Guangzhou, China, the College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese womens social status. During the Republic of China and earlier Chinese governments, women were legally bought and these women were known as Mui Tsai. The lives of Mui Tsai were recorded by American feminist Agnes Smedley in her book Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution. However, in 1949 the Republic of China had been overthrown by communist guerillas led by Mao Zedong, in May 1950 the Peoples Republic of China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This outlawed marriage by proxy and made legal so long as both partners consent. The New Marriage Law raised the age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women
14.
Ebon C. Ingersoll
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Ebon Clark Ingersoll was a U. S. Representative from Illinois and the brother of the politician and orator Robert G. Ingersoll, born in Dresden, New York, Ingersoll moved to Wisconsin Territory in 1843 and subsequently to Illinois. He pursued classical studies in Peoria, Illinois, and in Paducah and he was admitted to the bar in 1854 and commenced practice in Peoria, Illinois. He served as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives in 1856, Ingersoll was elected as a Republican to the Thirty-eighth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Owen Lovejoy. He was re-elected to the Thirty-ninth, Fortieth, and Forty-first Congresses and served from May 20,1864 and he served as chairman of the Committee on District of Columbia, Committee on Roads and Canals, Committee on Railways and Canals. He was a candidate for re-election in 1870 to the Forty-second Congress. He settled in Washington, D. C. and engaged in the practice of law until his death there on May 31,1879, a eulogy given at his funeral by his brother Robert was later included in an anthology compiled by Clarence Darrow and Wallace Rice. He was interred in Oak Hill Cemetery, Ingersoll had a son, John Carter Ingersoll, who served as the American Consul in Cartagena, Columbia. He died in Colon, Columbia, in 1903, Darrow, Clarence, Rice, Wallace, Infidels and Heretics an Agnostics Anthology, Kessinger Publishing, p.223, ISBN 978-1-4326-1249-8, retrieved 27 April 2011 United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
15.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
16.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
17.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
18.
Congregational church
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
19.
Charles Grandison Finney
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Charles Grandison Finney was an American Presbyterian minister and leader in the Second Great Awakening in the United States. He has been called The Father of Modern Revivalism, together with several other evangelical leaders, his religious views led him to promote social reforms, such as abolition of slavery and equal education for women and African Americans. From 1835 he taught at Oberlin College of Ohio, which accepted all genders and he served as its second president from 1851 to 1866, during which its faculty and students were activists for abolition, the Underground Railroad, and universal education. Born in Warren, Connecticut in 1792, Finney was the youngest of nine children, the son of farmers who moved to the upstate frontier of Jefferson County, New York after the American Revolutionary War, Finney never attended college. His leadership abilities, musical skill, six-foot three-inch stature, and he and his family attended the Baptist church in Henderson, where the preacher led emotional, revival-style meetings. Both the Baptists and Methodists displayed fervor through the nineteenth century. He read the law, studying as an apprentice to become a lawyer, in 1821, Finney started studies at age 29 under George Washington Gale, to become a licensed minister in the Presbyterian Church. He had many misgivings about the doctrines taught in that denomination. He moved to New York City in 1832, where he was minister of the Chatham Street Chapel and he later founded and preached at the Broadway Tabernacle. Finney was active as a revivalist from 1825 to 1835, in Jefferson County, in 1830-31, he led a revival in Rochester, New York that has been noted as inspiring other revivals of the Second Great Awakening. He was known for his innovations in preaching and the conduct of religious meetings and he was also known for his extemporaneous preaching. In addition to becoming a popular Christian evangelist, Finney was involved with social reforms, the movement was strongly supported by the Northern and Midwestern Baptists and Methodists with Finney frequently denouncing slavery from the pulpit. In 1835, he moved to the state of Ohio. After more than a decade, he was selected as its second president, Oberlin was the first American college to accept women and blacks as students in addition to white men. From its early years, its faculty and students were active in the abolitionist movement and they participated together with people of the town in biracial efforts to help fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad, as well as to resist the Fugitive Slave Act. Many slaves escaped to Ohio across the Ohio River from Kentucky, Finney was twice a widower and married three times. In 1824, he married Lydia Root Andrews while living in Jefferson County, in 1848, a year after Lydias death, he married Elizabeth Ford Atkinson in Ohio. In 1865 he married Rebecca Allen Rayl, also in Ohio, each of Finneys three wives accompanied him on his revival tours and joined him in his evangelistic efforts
20.
Metropolis, Illinois
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Metropolis is a city located along the Ohio River in Massac County, Illinois, United States. It has a population of 6,465 according to the 2013 estimate of the United States Census Bureau, Metropolis is the county seat of Massac County and is part of the Paducah, KY-IL Micropolitan Statistical Area in Southern Illinois. Located on the Ohio River, the Metropolis area has settled by many different peoples throughout history. For thousands of years, varying cultures of American Indians populated the area and its people built large earthworks and related structures, many of which have been preserved and protected at the UNESCO World Heritage Site. Mississippian culture regional centers throughout the Ohio and lower Mississippian valleys. In 1757, Massac County was settled by a French expedition, the garrison at the fort was able to resist a Cherokee attack during the war. Afterward the defeated French abandoned the fort, and many moved west of the Mississippi River to escape British rule, when the victorious British colonists arrived to take control of territory ceded by the French, the Chickasaw had already destroyed the fort. During the American Revolutionary War, the mostly ethnic French residents of the town were sympathetic to the rebels, afterward in 1794, President George Washington ordered Fort Massac reconstructed, at a strategic site high above the Ohio River. The fort was damaged by the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes. Rather than rebuild, the US military abandoned the facility in 1814, local settlers scavenged the timbers and left little behind of the original construction materials. This section of the state was settled by migrants from the Upper South. It was years after Illinois was admitted as a state that all such slaves gained their freedom. In 1843, the Illinois Legislature formed Massac County, the McCartney family became leaders in building the town of Metropolis. During the early years of the American Civil War, soldiers were encamped in the vicinity, although Illinois was established as a free state, this section had many southern sympathizers. Despite this background, the state stayed with the Union during the war, during the twentieth century, agriculture has continued to be the economic driver of the region. The states authorization of riverboat gambling led to Metropoliss becoming the site of the Harrahs Metropolis casino/hotel, tourism is one of the citys largest industries. Metropolis is also the site of the Honeywell Uranium Hexafluoride Processing Facility, prior to the American Civil War, some groups worked to establish a Western District of Columbia, to include present-day Metropolis and the nearby area of Kentucky. An 1850 map illustrates this proposal, Metropolis is located at 37°9′12″N 88°43′31″W
21.
Mount Vernon, Illinois
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Mount Vernon known as The King City is a city in and the county seat of Jefferson County, Illinois, United States. The population was 15,277 at the 2010 census, Mount Vernon is the principal city of the Mount Vernon Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Jefferson and Hamilton counties. Mt. Vernon was founded in 1817 by Zadok Casey, who was elected to the State Senate in 1822 and was elected Lieutenant Governor in 1833 and he served in the U. S. Congress between 1833 and 1843. The town was named for George Washingtons plantation, Mount Vernon, which was named for Edward Vernon, when the town was founded, there was no road to it. Travelers had to get there by following the high ground from the north or crossing the swamps from the south. In the early 19th century the Goshen Road crossed Illinois in a direction from Old Shawneetown, Illinois to the Goshen Settlement. This road was the road in Illinois. The road entered the county at its southeast corner and it passed through, or near, what are now Opdyke, East Salem, Idlewood, Dix and Walnut Hill. However, it was apparent to the settlers that the town would fail without roads. In 1820–1821, Ben Hood and Carter Wilkey built a bridge over Casey Creek and this bridge was near the present bridge on Illinois Route 142. A road was built from there northwest, over ground that is now impassable, deep cuts through the old cemetery attest to the location of the road. From there the road probably followed modern Route 37 into town, after the state capitol was moved to Vandalia in 1819, it became apparent that a road to Vandalia was needed. A party was sent out to the northwest to mark the road, minor and William Maxwell built the Vandalia Road, now called the Old Centralia Road. It runs northwest out of Mt. Vernon to Walnut Hill, although legend says that this road is crooked because of the drunken state of the surveyors, the path is probably just the natural path of a pioneer road following the terrain. After the bridge and the Vandalia Road were built, Mt. Vernon was on the map, the bridge across Casey Creek and the Vandalia Road provided a much shorter path across Jefferson County than the original Goshen Road. The new Goshen Road soon captured most of the traffic, in 1836, Joshua Grant came to Mt. Vernon from Christian County, Kentucky with several of his sons and daughters. His family was a wealthy, southern, slave-owning family, most of which soon moved to Arkansas. Joshua left behind several daughters and one son, Angus McNeil Grant, Angus M. Grants brother, Joshua Jr. taught school in Mt. Vernon in 1838
22.
Marion, Illinois
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Marion is a city in and the county seat of Williamson County, Illinois, United States. The population was 17,193 at the 2010 census and it is part of a dispersed urban area that developed out of the early 20th Century coal fields. Today Marion serves as the largest retail center in Southern Illinois with its central location along Interstate 57. The city is part of the unofficial Metro Lakeland area. The site sat in an open grassland known as Poor Prairie. For a name, they chose Marion to honor American Revolutionary War hero General Francis Swamp Fox Marion, william and Bethany Benson had entered the quarter-quarter section of land that contained the future site of Marion just the previous year on September 8,1838. He had lived in the county at least since 1817, and was the first settler to enter land in Poor Prairie, at the time the commissioners platted Marion, he had a small crop of corn and wheat growing over what became the public square. The Williamson County Court organized in Marion on October 7,1839, overflow crowds had to use pumpkins for stools. The federal government established a post office at Marion on January 30,1840, on May 29,1982, one of the larger tornadoes in Illinois history, an F-4, hit the city of Marion, Illinois and Williamson County. Ten people died and 200 people were injured after this tornado ripped across a 17-mile stretch, the Shawnee Village apartment complex was destroyed, and the Marion Ford-Mercury dealership sustained heavy damage. This tornado caused between $85 million and $100 million in damages, a memorial to the ten people who perished that day was later erected on the Tower Square. According to the 2010 census, Marion has an area of 16.217 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 17,180 people, the population density was 1,278.3 people per square mile. There are 8,273 housing units at a density of 589.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 8% White,7. 4% African American,0. 4% Native American,1. 5% Asian,0. 00% Pacific Islander,2. 0% from other races, and 2. 0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 6% of the population,33. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the family size was 2.86. In the city, the population was out with 22. 8% under the age of 18,8. 3% from 18 to 24,26. 5% from 25 to 44,22. 5% from 45 to 64
23.
Deism
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Deism is a philosophical position which posits that a god does not interfere directly with the world. Deism gained prominence among intellectuals during the Age of Enlightenment, especially in Britain, France, Germany, included in those influenced by its ideas were leaders of the American and French Revolutions. These lead to many subdivisions of modern deism which tends, therefore, Deism is a theological theory concerning the relationship between the Creator and the natural world. Deistic viewpoints emerged during the revolution of 17th Century Europe. Deism stood between the narrow dogmatism of the period and skepticism, though deists rejected atheism, they often were called atheists by more traditional theists. There were a number of different forms in the 17th and 18th Centuries, in England, deism included a range of people from anti-Christian to non-Christian theists. See the section Features of deism, following, Deism is related to naturalism because it credits the formation of life and the universe to a higher power, using only natural processes. Deism may also include an element, involving experiences of God. The words deism and theism are both derived from words for god, the former from Latin deus, the latter from Greek theós, prior to the 17th Century the terms were used interchangeably with the terms theism and theist, respectively. Theologians and philosophers of the 17th Century began to give a different signification to the words, both asserted belief in one supreme God, the Creator. Perhaps the first use of the term deist is in Pierre Virets Instruction Chrétienne en la doctrine de la foi et de lÉvangile, Viret, a Calvinist, regarded deism as a new form of Italian heresy. I have heard there are of this band those who call themselves Deists, an entirely new word. In England, the term deist first appeared in Robert Burtons The Anatomy of Melancholy, Lord Herbert of Cherbury is generally considered the father of English Deism, and his book De Veritate the first major statement of deism. Deism flourished in England between 1690 and 1740, at which time Matthew Tindals Christianity as Old as the Creation, also called The Deists Bible, later deism spread to France, notably through the work of Voltaire, to Germany, and to the United States. The concept of deism covers a variety of positions on a wide variety of religious issues. Sir Leslie Stephens English Thought in the Eighteenth Century describes the core of deism as consisting of critical and constructional elements, critical elements of deist thought included, Rejection of religions that are based on books that claim to contain the revealed word of God. Rejection of religious dogma and demagogy, Skepticism of reports of miracles, prophecies and religious mysteries. Constructional elements of deist thought included, God exists and created the universe, God gave humans the ability to reason
24.
Willis Allen
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Representative from Illinois, and the father of William J. Allen. Born near Roanoke, Virginia, Allen attended the common schools and he moved to Tennessee and settled in Wilson County. He moved to Franklin County, Illinois in 1830 and engaged in agricultural pursuits and he was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Marion. He was sheriff of Franklin County 1834–1838 and he served as member of the Illinois House of Representatives 1838–1840. He served as prosecuting attorney of the 1st judicial circuit in 1841 and he served as member of the Illinois Senate 1844–1847. He served as member of the constitutional convention in 1847 and 1848. Allen was elected as a Democrat to the Thirty-second and Thirty-third Congresses and he was not a candidate for reelection in 1854. He resumed the practice of his profession, Allen was elected judge of the twenty-sixth circuit court of Illinois on March 2,1859, and served until his death while holding court in Harrisburg on April 15,1859. He was interred in Marion Cemetery in Marion, allens house in Marion is still standing, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, qualifying because of its connection to Allen. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress and this article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http, //bioguide. congress. gov
25.
Old Shawneetown, Illinois
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Old Shawneetown is a village in Gallatin County, Illinois, United States. As of the 2010 census, the village had a population of 193, located along the Ohio River, Shawneetown served as an important United States government administrative center for the Northwest Territory. The village was devastated by the Ohio River flood of 1937, the villages population was moved several miles inland to New Shawneetown. At least one record suggests that a village was established here by the Pekowi Shawnee led by Peter Chartier about 1748, in early November 1803, Lewis and Clark are believed to have stopped at Old Shawneetown on their way to Fort Massac, just down the Ohio River. After the American Revolution, Shawneetown served as an important United States government administrative center for the Northwest Territory, Shawneetown and Washington, D. C. share the distinction of being the only towns chartered by the United States government. Old Shawneetown is the site of the first bank chartered in Illinois, originally in a log cabin, it was replaced in 1822 with a brick structure now known as the John Marshall House. Local legend states that the Shawneetown Bank refused to buy the first bonds issued by the city of Chicago on the grounds that no city located that far from a river could survive. Another historic bank building, the Bank of Illinois, was constructed in 1839-41 to house the offices of the Bank of Illinois at Shawneetown and it later housed numerous other financial institutions before it was closed in the 1930s. This fine example of Greek Revival architecture survives as the Shawneetown Bank State Historic Site, residents long remembered the visit by Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette of France to the city on May 8,1825, as a high point for the early communitys social history. Illinois Route 13 passes through the village, to the east it crosses the Shawneetown Bridge over the Ohio, becoming Kentucky Route 56 and leading 13 miles to Morganfield, Kentucky. To the west, IL13 leads 3 miles to Shawneetown, the Gallatin County seat, according to the 2010 census, Old Shawneetown has a total area of 0.53 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 278 people,100 households, the population density was 531.7 people per square mile. There were 146 housing units at a density of 279. 2/sq mi. The racial makeup of the village was 99. 64% White and 0. 36% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 08% of the population. 24. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.36. In the village, the population was out with 33. 8% under the age of 18,8. 3% from 18 to 24,27. 0% from 25 to 44,22. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males, the median income for a household in the village was $18,214, and the median income for a family was $20,625
26.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
27.
John Crenshaw
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John Hart Crenshaw was an American landowner, salt maker, and slave trader, and slave breeder, based out of Gallatin County, Illinois. His great-great grandson was notorious Texas serial killer Joe Ball, a grand jury indicted Crenshaw for kidnapping, once in the mid-1820s and again in 1842 when a trial jury acquitted him. The case’s victims, Maria Adams and her seven or eight children, in 1828, Crenshaw took Frank Granger and 15 others downriver to Tipton Co. Tennessee, and sold them as slaves, Crenshaw also kidnapped Lucinda and her children in 1828. She ended up in Barren County, Kentucky, contemporary letters identifying Crenshaw’s role back both cases. Crenshaw also kidnapped Peter White and three others in the 1840s and they were sold into slavery in Arkansas, but later rescued. Stories of strange noises coming from victims, date to 1851
28.
Raleigh, Illinois
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Raleigh is a village in Saline County, Illinois, United States. The population was 330 at the 2000 census, Raleigh is located at 37°49′38″N 88°32′01″W. According to the 2010 census, Raleigh has an area of 1.983 square miles. The village of Raleigh was the seat of Saline County following the countys troubled creation in 1847, Raleigh had its own school, several stores, and was a bustling village. Now, along with many Saline County towns, Raleigh has been abandoned by business and commerce, on October 11,1847, at a meeting of the County Commissioners held in Curran, a location and name for a County Seat for the newly formed Saline County was established. The Musgrave family, having moved from Raleigh, North Carolina, clark, Israel W. Crawford, and Martin Kittinger helped Archibald Sloan survey the town. George Bond, William Carr, and Williams Stricklin were to build a county road reaching from Raleigh to the line of Saline. Raleigh Township was six square miles, when the surveying was completed, there were only three families living in Raleigh. The family of Andrew Musgrave owned 200 acres of farm ground, mrs. Crawford and Archibald Sloan were the other two occupants. Lots in the town were sold to raise money to pay for the construction of a new county courthouse, the first courthouse was a 20 x 24 building constructed by James M. Gaston from logs. The courtroom occupied the entire first floor, the second story held two rooms and a hallway, used during court proceedings for grant or petit purposes. The courthouse was finished August 15,1858 at a cost of $5,500.00, about 8 months after completion of the new building, a group began scheming to have the courthouse, and hence the County Seat, moved out of Raleigh. The subject of taking the County Seat away from Raleigh was a very heated, arguments held that Harrisburg was a more central location. Petitions were passed around that put the issue on the ballot, Raleigh filed suit but they never got their day in court because each time a date was set the hearing was postponed with no action every being taken and the suit was finally thrown out of court. It is rumored, and is included in the records in the Inventory of the County Archives of Illinois that some Harrisburg residents bribed the court. Accusations have been made that a group of people actually sneaked into Raleigh one night, broke into the Courthouse, stole the county records, only two families were living in Harrisburg at the time Harrisburg became the County Seat. The last County Court held in Raleigh was in June 1858, as of the census of 2000, there were 330 people,144 households, and 94 families residing in the village. The population density was 167.1 people per square mile, there were 182 housing units at an average density of 92.2 per square mile
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Saline County, Illinois
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Saline County is a county located in the U. S. state of Illinois. According to the 2010 census, it had a population of 24,913 and it is located in the southern portion of Illinois known locally as Little Egypt. Saline County is currently the 79th wealthiest county in the state, Saline County was formed from Gallatin County in 1847. It is named for the Saline River and the springs from which salt was produced in the history of Gallatin County. Saline County was almost named Moredock County, in honor of John Moredock, young Moredock had been travelling with another group, and he arrived on the scene to find his mothers body terribly mistreated. He not only managed to tracked down and kill every member of the band that did it, somewhat controversial because of this, he nevertheless was a popular figure in early Illinois. The creation of Saline County was extremely controversial, Illinois originally had a small number of very large counties. As settlement proceeded, new counties were formed out of the counties as a routine matter. Gallatin County was a county that was formed in 1812. This persisted for decades after the era of rapid formation of counties. Old Shawneetown was the county seat of Gallatin County. At that time Old Shawneetown was the largest city and commercial center of Illinois and it was, however, located on the eastern edge of the County. In 1826, the county seat was moved to the new village of Equality, Old Shawneetown opposed this move, and sought redress by splitting off Saline County, with the aim of moving the County seat of what remained back to Old Shawneetown. Thus the impetus for the formation of Saline County came not from settlers at the fringe of the county, Saline County was created by a voice vote in the General Assembly in 1847. Completion of the formation of the county, however, involved three acts of the General Assembly, four decisions of the Illinois Supreme Court and two referendums, the controversy came to involve the leading attorneys of Illinois, including Abraham Lincoln. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 387 square miles. The Saline County area is rolling hills throughout gradually rising to the Hills of the Shawnee National Forest. The Saline River flows through the point of the county in three forks, North, Middle, and South
30.
John A. Logan
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John Alexander Logan was an American soldier and political leader. He served in the Mexican-American War and was a general in the Union Army in the American Civil War and he served the state of Illinois as a State Senator, a Congressman, and a U. S. Senator and was a candidate for Vice President of the United States with James G. Blaine in the election of 1884. As the 3rd Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Army of the Republic and his likeness appears on a statue at the center of Logan Circle, Washington, D. C. He is also honored with a statue in Grant Park in Chicago, Logan is one of only three people mentioned by name in the Illinois state song. Upon his death, he lay in state in the United States Capitol rotunda. He is the father of U. S. Army officer and Medal of Honor recipient John Alexander Logan, Jr. John A. Logan was born near what is now Murphysboro, Jackson County, Illinois. He studied with his father, who was a physician, and with a private tutor and he enlisted in the 1st Illinois Infantry for the Mexican-American War, and received a commission as a second lieutenant and assignment as the regimental quartermaster. After the war Logan studied law in the office of an uncle, graduated from the Law Department of the University of Louisville in 1851, in 1858 and 1860, he was elected as a Democrat to the U. S. House of Representatives. In 1853, John A. Logan helped pass a law to prohibit all African Americans, including freedmen, from settling in the state. Soon after the victory at Donelson, he resigned his seat on April 2,1862 and was promoted to general in the volunteers. Major John Hotaling served as his chief of staff, to confuse matters, the 32nd Illinois was commanded at Shiloh by a different Colonel John Logan. During the Siege of Corinth, John A. Logan commanded first a brigade, in the spring of 1863, he was promoted to major general to rank from November 29,1862. In Grants Vicksburg Campaign, Logan commanded the 3rd Division of James B, mcPhersons XVII Corps, which was the first to enter the city of Vicksburg in July 1863 after its capture. Logan then served as the military governor. In November 1863 he succeeded William Tecumseh Sherman in command of the XV Corps, mcPherson during the day, he assumed command of the Army of the Tennessee. He was relieved a short time afterward by Oliver O. Howard and he returned to Illinois for the 1864 elections but rejoined the army afterward and commanded his XV corps in Shermans Carolinas Campaign. In December 1864, Grant became impatient with George H. Thomass unwillingness to attack immediately at Nashville, Logan was stopped in Louisville when news came that Thomas had completely smashed John Bell Hoods Confederate army in the Battle of Nashville
31.
Benton, Illinois
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Benton is a city in Franklin County, Illinois, United States. The population was 7,087 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Franklin County. The city is part of the Metro Lakeland area, Benton, the county seat of Franklin County, took its name from the prominent senator from Missouri, Thomas Hart Benton. The village of Benton was organized in 1841 on 20 acres of property donated by John Ewing, in 1902 the village became a city, and incorporated under the mayor/commissioner form of government. Franklin County was platted in 1818, the year Illinois became a state and it included the territory that is now Williamson County. In 1839 the county was split roughly in half and the county seat was fixed at a hill at the south end of Rowlings Prairie. The Franklin County Courthouse sits in the center of the Public Square and it is the third courthouse that has served the people of Franklin County. A replica of the gallows and hangmans noose were built by the late retired Old Ben Coal miner, businessman & carpenter, Birchard L. Wampler and they remain standing today next to the old Franklin County Jail turned Museum. In September 1963, George Harrison of The Beatles visited Benton while on vacation and he stayed at the home of his sister, Louise, at 113 McCann Street. The bungalow is now the Hard Days Nite Bed and Breakfast, Harrison also performed with a band called The Four Vests at the Veterans of Foreign Wars hall in Eldorado, Illinois. In an interview, Harrisons sister Louise said his real first visit to America was when he came to the midwest in September 1963 and he met these wonderful, warm, friendly, School teachers, retired miners and all kinds of just wonderful people. He thought they were just wonderful people, according to the 2010 census, Benton has a total area of 5.66 square miles, of which 5.48 square miles is land and 0.18 square miles is water. Benton Public Library serves all residents of Benton High School District, www. benton. lib. il. us Benton and surrounding areas are served by a daily newspaper, The Benton Evening News. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,880 people,2,938 households, the population density was 1,286.2 people per square mile. There were 3,270 housing units at a density of 611.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 72% White,0. 29% African American,0. 15% Native American,0. 28% Asian,0. 06% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 51% of the population. 33. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.86. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 22. 0% under the age of 18,7. 8% from 18 to 24,24. 7% from 25 to 44,23. 0% from 45 to 64, the median age was 42 years
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Peoria, Illinois
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Peoria is a city in and the county seat of Peoria County, Illinois, United States, and the largest city on the Illinois River. Established in 1691 by the French explorer Henri de Tonti, Peoria is the oldest European settlement in Illinois, as of the 2010 census, the city was the seventh-most populated in Illinois, with a population of 115,007. The Peoria Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 373,590 in 2011, Peoria had a population of 118,943 in 2010, when far northern Peoria was also included. Around 12,000 jobs will still remain in the Peoria area, Peoria is one of the oldest settlements in Illinois, as explorers first ventured up the Illinois River from the Mississippi. The lands that eventually would become Peoria were first settled in 1680 and this fort would later burn to the ground, and in 1813 Fort Clark, Illinois was built. When the County of Peoria was organized in 1825, Fort Clark was officially named Peoria, Peoria was named after the Peoria tribe, a member of the Illinois Confederation. The original meaning of the word is uncertain, a 21st-century proposal suggests a derivation from a Proto-Algonquian word meaning to dream with the help of a manitou. Peoria was incorporated as a village on March 11,1835, the city did not have a mayor, though they had a village president, Rudolphus Rouse, who served from 1835 to 1836. The first Chief of Police, John B Lishk, was appointed in 1837, the city was incorporated on April 21,1845. This was the end of a president and the start of the mayoral system. Peoria, Arizona, a suburb of Phoenix, was named after Peoria, greenhut and Deloss S. Brown − wished to name it after their hometown. Peoria is located at 40°43′15″N 89°36′34″W, according to the 2010 census, Peoria has a total area of 50.23 square miles, of which 48.01 square miles is land and 2.22 square miles is water. Peoria is bounded on the east by the Illinois River except for the enclave of Peoria Heights, four bridges run directly between the city and neighboring East Peoria. On the south end of Peorias western border are Bartonville and the established city of West Peoria. Local municipal plans indicate that the city intends to continue its expansion northwest, into an area considered part of Dunlap. Peoria has a continental climate, with cold, snowy winters. Monthly daily mean temperatures range from 22.5 °F to 75.2 °F, snowfall is common in the winter, averaging 26.3 inches, but this figure varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation, averaging 36 inches, peaks in the spring and summer, extremes have ranged from −27 °F in January 1884 to 113 °F in July 1936
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11th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry
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The 11th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry was a cavalry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The regiment was raised by orator Robert Green Ingersoll, who became its first colonel, the 11th Illinois Cavalry was mustered into service at Peoria, Illinois, on December 20,1861. The regiment was mustered out on September 30,1865, colonel Robert Green Ingersoll - resigned June 30,1863, after his capture on December 18,1862, at the Battle of Lexington, Tennessee, and subsequent parole. Kerr - mustered out December 19,1864, colonel Otto Funke - mustered out with the regiment. List of Illinois Civil War Units Illinois in the American Civil War The Civil War Archive
34.
Battle of Shiloh
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The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7,1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union force known as the Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. T. Beauregard, launched an attack on Grants army from its base in Corinth. Johnston was killed in action during the fighting, Beauregard, who succeeded to command of the army. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch a counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day. On April 6, the first day of the battle, the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river, Johnston hoped to defeat Grants army before the anticipated arrival of General Buells Army of the Ohio. The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fighting, and Grants men instead fell back to the northeast. A Union position on a sunken road, nicknamed the Hornets Nest. Benjamin Prentisss and William H. L. Wallaces divisions, provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of artillery batteries. Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed, while several regiments from the two divisions were surrounded and surrendered. General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while leading an attack. Beauregard, his second in command, acknowledged how tired the army was from the days exertions, Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area, ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi. Smiths orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee, Brig. Gen. William T. Shermans troops arrived from Paducah, Kentucky, to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport, Mississippi. Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee on an invasion up the Tennessee River, Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver, arriving at Savannah, Tennessee, on March 14, and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river. Grants troops set up camp farther upriver, five divisions at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, meanwhile, Hallecks command was enlarged through consolidation of Grants and Buells armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi. With Buells Army of the Ohio under his command, Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah, Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville, Tennessee, and headed southwest toward Savannah. The railroad was a supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tennessee to Richmond. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant developed a reputation during the war for being concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy
35.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
36.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
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Lexington, Tennessee
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Lexington is a city in Henderson County, Tennessee, United States. Lexington is midway between Memphis and Nashville, lying ten miles south of Interstate 40, which connects the two cities, the population was 7,473 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Henderson County, the first county courthouse was built in 1823, Lexington was incorporated in 1824 and by 1830 had a population of 260. As the lead-up to the American Civil War began, Henderson County voted against secession, as the war progressed, both Union and Confederate regiments were recruited in the county. The area in and around Lexington was the site of a skirmish on December 18,1862, Union Colonel Robert Ingersoll sent his troops to destroy a bridge over the Beech Creek to disallow Confederate army to move into the area. However, Ingersolls troops did not destroy the bridge and General Nathan Bedford Forrests troops headed into Lexington, Forrests troops overtook the Union soldiers, taking over 140 men, including Colonel Ingersoll, and collected artillery and supplies left behind by Union soldiers who escaped. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 11.7 square miles. Lexington is six miles south of Natchez Trace State Park, as of the census of 2000, the population density was 640.4 people per square mile. There were 3,371 housing units at a density of 292.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 84. 50% White,13. 07% African American,0. 14% Native American,0. 26% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 42% from other races, and 1. 60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 18% of the population,30. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the family size was 2.88. In the city, the population was out with 24. 0% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,28. 3% from 25 to 44,22. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 85.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $29,725, and the median income for a family was $41,429. Males had an income of $31,558 versus $23,212 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,368, about 10. 2% of families and 13. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 9% of those under age 18 and 12. 8% of those age 65 or over. Lexington has one city school system, Lexington City School System, there are three schools, Paul G. Caywood Elementary School, Lexington Middle School and Lexington High School
38.
Illinois Attorney General
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The Illinois Attorney General is the highest legal officer of the state of Illinois in the United States. Originally an appointed office, it is now an office filled by election through universal suffrage, the office of the Illinois Attorney General was established on December 3,1818 based on guidelines adopted by a state constitutional convention. The first person to fulfill the duties of the office was Daniel Pope Cook who only served eleven days, Cook County was named in his honor. The current holder of the office is Lisa Madigan, step-daughter of Michael Madigan. Justia. com U. S
39.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
40.
James Blaine
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In the general election, he was narrowly defeated by Democrat Grover Cleveland. Blaine was one of the late 19th century’s leading Republicans and champion of the moderate reformist faction of the party known as the “Half-Breeds. ”Blaine was born in the western Pennsylvania town of West Brownsville and after moved to Maine. Nicknamed “the Magnetic Man, he was a speaker in an era that prized oratory. He began his career as an early supporter of Abraham Lincoln. In Reconstruction, Blaine was a supporter of suffrage. Initially a protectionist, he worked for a reduction in the tariff. His efforts at expanding the United States trade and influence began the shift to a more active American foreign policy, Blaine was a pioneer of tariff reciprocity and urged greater involvement in Latin American affairs. An expansionist, Blaine’s policies would lead in less than a decade to the establishment of the United States acquisition of Pacific colonies, James Gillespie Blaine was born January 31,1830 in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, the third child of Ephraim Lyon Blaine and his wife Maria Blaine. Blaine’s father was a western Pennsylvania businessman and landowner, and the lived in relative comfort. On his father’s side, Blaine was descended from Scotch-Irish settlers who first emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1745 and his great-grandfather, Ephraim Blaine, served as a Commissary-General under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War. Blaine’s mother and her forebears were Irish Catholics who immigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1780s, Blaine’s parents were married in 1820 in a Roman Catholic ceremony, although Blaine’s father remained a Presbyterian. Following a common compromise of the era, the Blaines agreed that their daughters would be raised in their mother’s Catholic faith while their sons would be brought up in their father’s religion, in politics, Blaine’s father supported the Whig party. Blaine’s biographers describe his childhood as “harmonious, and note that the boy took an early interest in history, at the age of thirteen, Blaine enrolled in his father’s alma mater, Washington College, in nearby Washington, Pennsylvania. There, he was a member of the Washington Literary Society, Blaine succeeded academically, graduating near the top of his class and delivering the salutatory address in June 1847. After graduation, Blaine considered attending law school at Yale Law School, in 1848, Blaine was hired as a professor of mathematics and ancient languages at the Western Military Institute in Georgetown, Kentucky. Although he was eighteen years old and younger than many of his students. Blaine grew to enjoy life in his state and became an admirer of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay. He also made the acquaintance of Harriet Stanwood, a teacher at the nearby Millersburg Female College, on June 30,1850, the two were married
41.
Rutherford B. Hayes
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Rutherford Birchard Hayes was the 19th President of the United States. He became President at the end of the Reconstruction Era of the United States through a complex Compromise of 1877, Hayes, an attorney in Ohio, was city solicitor of Cincinnati from 1858 to 1861. When the Civil War began, he left a political career to join the Union Army as an officer. Hayes was wounded five times, most seriously at the Battle of South Mountain and he earned a reputation for bravery in combat and was promoted to the rank of brevet major general. After the war, he served in the Congress from 1865 to 1867 as a Republican, Hayes left Congress to run for Governor of Ohio and was elected to two consecutive terms, from 1868 to 1872, and then to a third term, from 1876 to 1877. In 1876, Hayes was elected president in one of the most contentious elections in national history and he lost the official popular vote to Democrat Samuel J. Tilden but he won an intensely disputed electoral college vote after a Congressional commission awarded him twenty contested electoral votes. The result was the Compromise of 1877, in which the Democrats acquiesced to Hayess election, Hayes believed in meritocratic government, equal treatment without regard to race. He ordered federal troops to crush the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and he implemented modest civil service reforms that laid the groundwork for further reform in the 1880s and 1890s. He vetoed the Bland–Allison Act, which would have put money into circulation and raised nominal prices. His policy toward Western Indians anticipated the assimilationist program of the Dawes Act of 1887, Hayes kept his pledge not to run for re-election, retired to his home in Ohio, and became an advocate of social and educational reform. Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, on October 4,1822, Hayess father, a Vermont storekeeper, took the family to Ohio in 1817. He died ten weeks before Rutherfords birth, Sophia took charge of the family, bringing up Hayes and his sister, Fanny, the only two of their four children to survive to adulthood. She never remarried, Sophias younger brother, Sardis Birchard, lived with the family for a time and he was always close to Hayes and became a father figure to him, contributing to his early education. Through both his father and mother, Hayes was of New England colonial ancestry and his earliest American ancestor emigrated to Connecticut from Scotland in 1625. His mothers ancestors arrived in Vermont at a time. John Noyes, an uncle by marriage, had been his fathers partner in Vermont and was later elected to Congress. His first cousin, Mary Jane Noyes Mead, was the mother of sculptor Larkin Goldsmith Mead, John Humphrey Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community, was also a first cousin. He became a member of the Sons of the American Revolution based on his descent from Daniel Austin, Hayes attended the common schools in Delaware, Ohio, and enrolled in 1836 at the Methodist Norwalk Seminary in Norwalk, Ohio
42.
Religion
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Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
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Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
