1.
USS Adams (DM-27)
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USS Adams was a destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Lieutenant, junior grade Samuel Adams, the other two USS Adams that have existed were named after the second president. Adams was laid down as DD-739, an Allen M. Sumner-class destroyer, on 20 March 1944 at the Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine. She was redesignated a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer DM-27, on 20 July 1944, launched on 23 July 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Maude Ryan Adams, the widow of Lieutenant Adams. Adams was commissioned at Boston, Massachusetts, on 10 October 1944, after fitting out there, she embarked upon her shakedown cruise on 1 November. That cruise, which took her to Bermuda waters, lasted for the entire month, on 29 November, she headed back toward the United States and arrived at Norfolk, Virginia, on 3 December. Following post-shakedown availability in the yard there, she put to sea on 11 December with Shea, bound for New York City. The two destroyer minelayers departed New York with the carrier on 15 December and set a course for the Panama Canal. The three warships transited the canal on 20 December and, on 22 December, headed for the California coast and they arrived at San Diego on 29 December and remained there two days undergoing repairs. On New Years Day 1945, they got underway again, headed for Oahu, for almost two months, Adams remained in the Hawaiian operating area. During that time, she acted as guard for Bataan while the carrier conducted carrier landing qualifications for naval aviators. She also carried out exercises and shore bombardment practice. The warship spent two periods in the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard—once for the installation of VF radar equipment and again to have her deck plating strengthened. Early in February, she laid mines and tested mine detection equipment on them, later, the warship conducted mine laying exercises. She finished out her tour of duty in the Hawaii area late in February with another plane guard mission with Bataan, the destroyer minelayer stood out of Pearl Harbor on 2 March, bound for the western Pacific. She arrived in Ulithi Atoll on 14 March and remained until 19 March, the warship saw her first combat on 23 March, the day before she arrived off Okinawa. That evening, enemy aircraft attacked her task group, Adams sustained her first casualties when a projectile fired from the after five-inch mount exploded prematurely killing two sailors and injuring another 13. At dawn the following day, she began minesweeping operations off Okinawa, the destroyer minelayer provided gunfire support and mine destruction services to the wooden-hulled minesweepers doing the actual sweeping
2.
Bath Iron Works
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Bath Iron Works is a major American shipyard located on the Kennebec River in Bath, Maine. Since its founding in 1884, BIW has built private, commercial and military vessels, the shipyard has built and sometimes designed battleships, frigates, cruisers and destroyers, including the Arleigh Burke class, which are currently among the worlds most advanced surface warships. Since 1995, Bath Iron Works has been a subsidiary of General Dynamics, during World War II, ships built at BIW were considered by sailors and Navy officials to be of superior toughness, giving rise to the phrase Bath-built is best-built. Bath Iron Works was incorporated in 1884 by General Thomas W. Hyde, after the war, Hyde bought a local shop that helped make windlasses and other iron hardware for the wooden ships built in Baths many shipyards. He expanded the business by improving its practices, entering new markets, by 1882, Hyde Windlass was eyeing the new and growing business of iron shipbuilding, two years later, it incorporated as Bath Iron Works. On February 28,1890, BIW won its first contract for complete vessels, the Machias, one of these 190-foot gunboats, was the first ship launched by the company. In 1892, the yard won its first commercial contract for a steel vessel, in the 1890s, the company built several yachts for wealthy sailors. In 1899, General Hyde, suffering from the Brights Disease that would kill him later that year, resigned from management of the shipyard, leaving his sons Edward and that year the shipyard began construction of the Georgia, the only battleship to be built in Bath. The ship dominated the yard for five years until its launching in 1904, the yard faced numerous challenges because of the weight of armor and weapons. In sea trials, the Georgia averaged 19.26 knots for four hours, making her the fastest ship in her class, the company continued to rely on Navy contracts, which provided 86% of the value of new contracts between 1905 and 1917. The yard also produced fishing trawlers, freighters, and yachts throughout the first half of the century, at peak production during World War II, the shipyard launched a destroyer every 17 days. Bath Iron Works ranked 50th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, in 1981, Falcon Transport ordered two tankers, the last commercial vessels built by BIW. In 1988, the USS Samuel B, Roberts, commissioned two years earlier at Bath, survived a mine explosion that tore a hole in its engine room and flooded two compartments. Over the next two years, BIW repaired the Roberts in unique fashion, the guided missile frigate was towed to the companys dry dock in Portland, Maine, and put up on blocks, where its damaged engine room was cut out of the ship. Meanwhile, workers in Bath built a 315-ton replacement, when it was ready, the module was floated south to Portland, placed on the dry dock, slid into place under the Roberts, jacked up, and welded into place. In 2001, BIW wrapped up an effort to build an enormous concrete platform. Instead of being built on a way so that they could slide into the Kennebec at launch. This greatly reduced the work involved in building and launching the ships, the 750-foot,28, 000-ton dry dock was built by Chinas Jiangdu Yuchai Shipbuilding Company for $27 million
3.
Bethlehem Steel
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation was Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder. Bethlehem Steel and a company, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, were two of the most powerful symbols of American industrial manufacturing leadership. In 2005, ISG merged with Mittal Steel, ending American ownership of the assets of Bethlehem Steel, the companys roots go back to 1857 when the Saucona Iron Company was first organized by Augustus Wolle. The Panic of 1857, a financial crisis, halted further organization of the company. Eventually, the organization was completed, the site moved elsewhere in South Bethlehem, on June 14,1860, the board of directors of the fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1,1861, the title was changed again. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1,1861, the first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863, with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, during its early years, the company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating for the US Navy. In 1899, the company assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Company, in 1904, Charles M. Schwab and Joseph Wharton formed the Bethlehem Steel Corporation with Schwab becoming its first president and chairman of its board of directors. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the gray rolling mill and producing the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in America and these shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In the early 1900s, the corporation branched out from steel, with mines in Cuba. In 1913, it acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited. In 1922, it purchased the Lackawanna Steel Company, which included the Delaware, Lackawanna, the nations decision to rebuild the United States Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Companys destiny. Following the American Civil War, the Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities, as national energies were redirected toward settling the West, almost no new ordinance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U. S. fleet, in 1883, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler and Secretary of the Army Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board. Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers and on one of these trips he formed ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. He returned to America as Whitworths agent and, in 1885, was granted a furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques was aware that the U. S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet
4.
Staten Island
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Staten Island /ˌstætən ˈaɪlənd/ is one of the five boroughs of New York City in the U. S. state of New York. In the southwest of the city, Staten Island is the southernmost part of both the city and state of New York, with Conference House Park at the tip of the island. The borough is separated from New Jersey by the Arthur Kill and the Kill Van Kull, with a 2015 Census-estimated population of 474,558, Staten Island is the least populated of the boroughs but is the third-largest in area at 58 sq mi. Staten Island is the borough of New York with a non-Hispanic White majority. The borough is coextensive with Richmond County, and until 1975 was the Borough of Richmond and its flag was later changed to reflect this. Staten Island has been called the forgotten borough by inhabitants who feel neglected by the city government. The East Shore is home to the 2. 5-mile F. D. R, Boardwalk, the fourth-longest in the world. The South Shore, site of the 17th-century Dutch and French Huguenot settlement, the West Shore is the least populated and most industrial part of the island. Motor traffic can reach the borough from Brooklyn via the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge and from New Jersey via the Outerbridge Crossing, Goethals Bridge, and Bayonne Bridge. Staten Island has Metropolitan Transportation Authority bus lines and an MTA rapid transit line, the Staten Island Railway, Staten Island is the only borough that is not connected to the New York City Subway system. The free Staten Island Ferry connects the borough to Manhattan and is a popular tourist attraction, providing views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. The landfill is being redeveloped as Freshkills Park, a devoted to restoring habitat. As in much of North America, human habitation appeared in the island fairly rapidly after the retreat of the ice sheet, archaeologists have recovered tool evidence of Clovis culture activity dating from about 14,000 years ago. This evidence was first discovered in 1917 in the Charleston section of the island, various Clovis artifacts have been discovered since then, on property owned by Mobil Oil. The island was abandoned later, possibly because of the extirpation of large mammals on the island. Rossville points are a type of arrowhead that defines a Native American cultural period that runs from the Archaic period to the Early Woodland period. They are named for the Rossville section of Staten Island, where they were first found near the old Rossville Post Office building, at the time of European contact, the island was inhabited by the Raritan band of the Unami division of the Lenape. In Lenape, one of the Algonquian languages, Staten Island was called Aquehonga Manacknong, meaning as far as the place of the bad woods, or Eghquhous, the area was part of the Lenape homeland known as Lenapehoking
5.
San Pedro, Los Angeles
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San Pedro is a community within the city of Los Angeles, California. Formerly a separate city, it consolidated with Los Angeles in 1909, the Port of Los Angeles, a major international seaport, is partially located within San Pedro. The district has grown from being dominated by the industry to become primarily a working class community within the city of Los Angeles. The site, at the end of the Palos Verdes Peninsula. The peninsula, including all of San Pedro, was the homeland of the Tongva-Gabrieleño Native American people for thousands of years, in other areas of the Los Angeles Basin archeological sites date back 8, 000–15,000 years. The Tongva believe they have been here since the beginning of time, once called the lords of the ocean, due to their mastery of oceangoing canoes, many Tongva villages covered the coastline. Their first contact with Europeans in 1542 with João Cabrilho, the Portuguese explorer who also was the first to write of them, chowigna and Suangna were two Tongva settlements of many in the peninsula area, which was also a departure point for their rancherias on the Channel Islands. Legend has it that the Native Americans blessed the land of Palos Verdes, the Tongva called the San Pedro area Chaaw. San Pedro was named for St. Peter of Alexandria, a bishop in Alexandria. His feast day is November 24 on the ecclesiastical calendar of Spain. Santa Catalina Island, named after Catherine of Alexandria, was claimed for the Spanish Empire the next day, on her feast day, in 1602–1603, Sebastián Vizcaíno officially surveyed and mapped the California coastline, including San Pedro Bay, for New Spain. The anglicized pronunciation, popularized by the English-speaking people of Midwestern America, is san-PEE-dro, european settlement began in 1769 as part of an effort to populate California, although trade restrictions encouraged more smuggling than regular business. Rancho San Pedro is the site of the first Spanish land grant in Alta California, the land was granted in 1784 by King Carlos III to Juan Jose Dominguez, a retired Spanish soldier who came to California with the Gaspar de Portolà expedition. When New Spain won its independence from the Spanish Empire and Alta California became part of Mexico, the restrictions were lifted. In 1888, the War Department took control of a tract of land next to the bay and this became Fort MacArthur in 1914 and was a coastal defense site for many years. Woodrow Wilson transferred 200 United States Navy ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1919 when tension arose between the United States and Japan over the fate of China. San Diego Bay was considered too shallow for the largest ships, local availability of fuel oil minimized transportation costs, and consistently good weather allowed frequent gunnery exercises off the nearby Channel Islands of California. The heavy cruisers of the Scouting Force were transferred from the Atlantic to San Pedro in response to the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, by 1934,14 battleships, two aircraft carriers,14 cruisers, and 16 support ships were based at San Pedro
6.
Terminal Island
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Terminal Island is a largely artificial island located in Los Angeles County, California, between the neighborhood of San Pedro in the city of Los Angeles, and the city of Long Beach. Terminal Island is roughly split between the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach, land use on the island is entirely industrial and port-related, as well as the Federal Correctional Institution, Terminal Island. The island was originally called Isla Raza de Buena Gente and later Rattlesnake Island and it was renamed Terminal Island in 1891. The site chosen for the new plant was on a barren mudflat known as Rattlesnake Island, construction of Plant No.1 began in 1910. In 1930, the Ford Motor Company built a facility called Long Beach Assembly, the factory remained until 1958 when manufacturing operations were moved inland to Pico Rivera. In 1927, a facility, Allen Field, was established on Terminal Island. The Naval Reserve established a center at the field and later took complete control. In 1941 the Long Beach Naval Station became located adjacent to the airfield, in 1942 the Naval Reserve Training Facility was transferred, and a year later NAB San Pedros status was downgraded to a Naval Air Station. Reeves Field as a Naval Air Station was disestablished in 1947, a large industrial facility now covers the site of the former Naval Air Station. The island was home to about 3,500 first- and second-generation Japanese Americans prior to World War II in a known as East San Pedro or Fish Island. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, all of the adult Issei males on Terminal Island were incarcerated by the FBI on February 9,1942. Immediately after the signing of Executive Order 9066 on February 19,1942 and they were subsequently sent to internment camps, and the entire neighborhood was razed. The Japanese community on Terminal Island was the first to be evacuated and interned en masse, because of the relative geographical isolation of the island, the citizens developed their own culture and even their own dialect. After World War II, the Terminal Islanders settled elsewhere, in 1971, they formed the Terminal Islanders Club, which has organized various events for its members. In 2002, the surviving second-generation citizens set up a memorial on Terminal Island to honor their parents, during World War II, Terminal Island was an important center for defense industries, especially shipbuilding. It was also, therefore, one of the first places where African Americans tried to effect their integration into defense-related work on the West Coast. In 1946, Howard Hughes moved his monstrous Spruce Goose airplane from his plant in Culver City to Terminal Island in preparation for its test flight, in its first and only flight, it took off from the island on November 2,1947. Preservation of vacant buildings earned the island a spot on the top 11 sites on the National Trust for Historic Preservations 2012 Most Endangered Historic Places List, in mid-2013, the Los Angeles Board of Harbor Commissioners approved a preservation plan
7.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
8.
Turkish Naval Forces
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The Turkish Naval Forces, or Turkish Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. Since July 1949, the service has been known as the Turkish Naval Forces. In 2008, the Turkish Navy had a reported personnel strength of 48,600. As of early 2015, the navy operates a variety of ships and 51 maritime aircraft. The battleship Turgut Reis and the cruisers Hamidiye and Mecidiye were substantially limited, however, a lack of coal to fuel their propulsion systems caused the Preveze and Aydın Reis to remain in harbour until the end of 1919. During the early stages of the Turkish War of Independence, these two gunboats did not return to Istanbul, despite pressure from the Ottoman government and the Allies. Instead, they were placed under the command of the Turkish liberation forces led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a large number of the naval officers and students of the Naval Academy went to Anatolia for participating in the Turkish War of Independence. All existing naval institutions in the parts of Anatolia that were administered by the Ankara government were assigned to this Directorate, the Directorate of Naval Affairs was extremely successful in organizing local surface units and volunteers and in forming an intelligence network to discover the movements of the enemy ships. As a result, logistic transportation was carried out effectively, the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara made an agreement with the Soviet Union to procure supplies for the Turkish liberation forces. Aydın Reis left from Samsun and Preveze left from Trabzon for Novorossiysk in order to transport weapons, other supplies, on January 1,1921, the Samsun Naval Command was formed. In the same period, a number of Turkish civilian seamen formed a group under the name of the Naval Aid Organization, out of service,2 battleships,2 cruisers,4 destroyers,6 torpedo boats,1 gunboat. Preparations were made to carry out the maintenance and overhaul of small-tonnage warships, thus, the cruiser Hamidiye, which was planned to be employed as a Cadet Training Ship, was overhauled. During the 1920s, a commitment to refurbish the battlecruiser TCG Yavuz as the centerpiece of the fleet was the only constant element of the various naval policies which were put forward. Enough money was raised to allow the purchase of a new 26, 000-metric-ton floating dock from the German company Flender, as Yavuz could not be towed anywhere without risk of her sinking in rough seas. The French company Atelier et Chantiers de St. Nazaire-Penhöet was contracted in December 1926 to oversee the subsequent refit, in this period, Gölcük was designated as the main Turkish naval base. The overhaul works of TCG Yavuz proceeded over three years, they were delayed when several compartments of the dock collapsed while being pumped out, with this new reorganization, the Turkish Fleet Command was put under the command of the Turkish General Staff in terms of administration and logistics. On 2 November 1930, the Naval War College commenced training, during World War II, the naval schools were temporarily relocated from Istanbul to Mersin for security reasons and conducted education and training activities in this city. In 1933, with the approval of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, in the same year, the first new ship built at the Gölcük Naval Shipyard, the tanker TCG Gölcük, was laid down, and launched the following year
9.
Destroyer minelayer
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Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations, typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, the advent of the missile allowed destroyers to take on the surface combatant roles previously filled by battleships. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation, the emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy an enemy battle fleet using steam launches to launch torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats, the first seagoing vessel designed to fire the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons, these were replaced in 1879 by a torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, in response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called catchers were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Czech, Greek, Dutch and, up until the Second World War, Polish. At that time, and even into World War I, the function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future, an important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB81. This was a torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns. At 23.75 knots, while still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably. Another forerunner of the torpedo boat destroyer was the Japanese torpedo boat Kotaka, designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, in her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, the first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes, by the end of the 1890s torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the torpedo boat destroyers, which were much faster. The first example of this was HMS Rattlesnake, designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, the gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet long and 23 feet in beam, she displaced 550 tons, built of steel, Rattlesnake was un-armoured with the exception of a 3⁄4-inch protective deck
10.
Babcock & Wilcox
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Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises is an American power generation company headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. The company was founded in 1867 in Providence, Rhode Island by partners Stephen Wilcox and George Babcock as Babcock, Wilcox & Company to manufacture, built nuclear-powered surface ship, NS Savannah. B&Ws boilers supply more than 300,000 megawatts of installed capacity in over 90 countries around the world, a reactor from B&W was destroyed by a nuclear meltdown in the Three Mile Island accident. During World War II, over half of the US Navy fleet was powered by Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the company has its headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. B&W also has joint major joint venture companies in Beijing and the Indian city of Pune, on June 30,2015, Babcock & Wilcox completed a spinoff from BWX Technologies, its former parent which is now headquartered in Lynchburg, Virginia. The two companies began trading separately on July 1, B&W employs approximately 5,700 people, in addition to several thousand joint venture employees. B&W PGG and its subsidiaries have facilities in Ohio, Wisconsin, Arona, Italy, Beijing, China, Esbjerg, Denmark, Babcock & Wilcox MEGTEC LLC B&W SPIG Diamond Power International, Inc. The boilers more safely generated higher pressure steam and was more efficient than existing designs, in 1891, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd is established as a separate United Kingdom company, to be responsible for all sales outside the US and Cuba. In 1902 the New York Citys first subway is powered by B&W boilers, during 1907 and 1909 Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet were powered by B&W Boilers. In 1929 B&W installs the worlds first commercial size recovery boiler using the magnesium bisulfite process in Quebec, between 1941 and 1945 B&W designed and delivered 4,100 marine boilers for combat and merchant ships, including 95 percent of the US fleet in Tokyo Bay at Japanese surrender. In 1942, the developed the cyclone furnace. Between 1943 and 1945 B&W provided components, materials and process development for Manhattan Project, between 1949 and 1952 B&W provided the 8 boilers for the SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever constructed. Between 1953 and 1955 B&W designed and fabricated components for USS Nautilus, in 1961 B&W designed and supplied reactors for world’s first commercial nuclear ship NS Savannah. In 1962 B&W designed and furnished reactor systems for B&Ws first commercial reactor, Indian Point, in 1975 B&W designed and built components for liquid metal fast breeder reactors. In 1975 the long term agreements with the British Babcock & Wilcox Ltd were ended. Subsequently, the British company was renamed Babcock International Group plc, in 1978 B&W designed and built the nuclear reactor that was involved in the Three Mile Island accident. In 1999 B&W was awarded the contract to develop fuel cells, on February 22,2000, B&W filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in part as a result of thousands of claims for personal injury due to prolonged exposure to asbestos and asbestos fibers. Claims included asbestosis, lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, as a condition of emerging from bankruptcy, B&W created a trust fund to compensate victims, but for amounts far less than settlements paid in individual personal injury lawsuits
11.
Foster Wheeler
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Foster Wheeler AG was a Swiss global engineering conglomerate with its principal executive offices in Reading, UK and its registered office in Baar, Canton of Zug, Switzerland. Foster Wheeler was added to the NASDAQ-100 on July 12,2007, as of November 13,2014 all Foster Wheeler operating units have become part of the new company Amec Foster Wheeler following a merger with AMEC plc. Foster Wheeler was formed in 1927 from a merger of the Power Specialty Company and the Wheeler Condenser & Engineering Company, which was created by Frederick Merriam Wheeler in 1891. It was originally based in New York City but later moved to Livingston, New Jersey and stayed there for nearly a century before relocating to Clinton. The company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1929, the firm was originally based in New York City but later moved to Livingston, New Jersey and stayed there for nearly a quarter century before relocating to Clinton, New Jersey in 1987. In 2000, Foster Wheeler moved its incorporation to Bermuda, in 2008, Foster Wheeler was acquired by AMEC plc in the second half of 2014. The company is focused on Engineering, procurement, and construction management contracting and it comprises two business groups, a Global Engineering and Construction Group and a Global Power Group. They own technology in delayed coking, solvent de-asphalting, and hydrogen production processes and they also provide international environmental remediation services with related technical, engineering, design and regulatory services. List of oilfield service companies Foster Wheeler Corporate Web Site Biographical sketch of Pell W. Foster Foster Wheeler Fonds, 1944-1980, RG 75-66 Brock University Library Digital Repository
12.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
13.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
14.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
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The Westinghouse Electric Corporation was an American manufacturing company. It was founded on January 8,1886, as Westinghouse Electric Company and later renamed Westinghouse Electric Corporation by inventor, George Westinghouse had previously founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company. The corporation purchased CBS broadcasting company in 1995 and became CBS Corporation in 1997, Westinghouse Electric was founded by George Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1886. The firm became active in developing electric infrastructure throughout the United States, in addition to George Westinghouse, early engineers working for the company included Frank Conrad, Benjamin Garver Lamme, Oliver B. Shallenberger, William Stanley, Nikola Tesla, Stephen Timoshenko and Vladimir Zworykin, early on Westinghouse was a rival to Thomas Edisons electric company. In 1892 Edison was merged with Westinghouses chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, making even bigger competitor, Westinghouse changed its name to Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1945. Westinghouse purchased CBS in 1995 and became CBS Corporation in 1997, in 1998, CBS established a brand licensing subsidiary Westinghouse Licensing Corporation. In 1997/1998 the Power Generation Business Unit, headquartered in Orlando, FL, was sold to Siemens AG, a year later, CBS sold all of its nuclear power businesses to British Nuclear Fuels Limited. Soon after, BNFL gained license rights on the Westinghouse trademarks and that company was sold to Toshiba in 2007. The first commercial Westinghouse steam turbine generator, a 1,500 kW unit. The machine, nicknamed Mary-Ann, was the first steam turbine generator to be installed by a utility to generate electricity in the US. George Westinghouse had based his original steam turbine design on designs licensed from the English inventor Charles Parsons. or were built overseas under Westinghouse license. Major Westinghouse licensees or joint venture partners included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of Japan and Harbin Turbine Co. Westinghouse boasted 50,000 employees by 1900, and established a formal research and development department in 1906. While the company was expanding, it would experience internal financial difficulties, during the Panic of 1907, the Board of Directors forced George Westinghouse to take a six-month leave of absence. Westinghouse officially retired in 1909 and died years later in 1914. Under new leadership, Westinghouse Electric diversified its business activities in electrical technology and it acquired the Copeman Electric Stove Company in 1914 and Pittsburgh High Voltage Insulator Company in 1921. Westinghouse also moved into broadcasting by establishing Pittsburghs KDKA, the first commercial radio station. Westinghouse expanded into the business, establishing the Westinghouse Elevator Company in 1928
15.
Gear
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A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source, Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape, two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack, the gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage, in transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—the term gear as in first gear refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain gears. Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China, examples of further development include, Ma Jun used gears as part of a south-pointing chariot. The Antikythera mechanism is an example of an early and intricate geared device. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC, the water-powered grain-mill, the water-powered saw mill, fulling mill, and other applications of watermill often used gears. The first mechanical clocks were built in AD725, the 1386 Salisbury cathedral clock may be the worlds oldest working mechanical clock. The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio, an external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, a gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, a gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal, spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially, though the teeth are not straight-sided, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts, No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds, helical or dry fixed gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix
16.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
17.
5"/38 caliber gun
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The Mark 12 5/38 caliber gun was a US naval gun. The gun was installed into Single Purpose and Dual Purpose mounts used primarily by the US Navy, the 38 caliber barrel was a mid-length compromise between the previous United States standard 5/51 low-angle gun and 5/25 anti-aircraft gun. The increased barrel length provided greatly improved performance in both anti-aircraft and anti-surface roles compared to the 5/25 gun, however, except for the barrel length and the use of semi-fixed ammunition, the 5/38 gun was derived from the 5/25 gun. Both weapons had power ramming, which enabled rapid fire at high angles against aircraft, the 5/38 entered service on USS Farragut, commissioned in 1934. The base ring mount, which improved the rate of fire, entered service on USS Gridley. Even this advanced system required nearly 100 rounds of ammunition expenditure per aircraft kill, however, the planes were normally killed by shell fragments and not direct hits, barrage fire was used, with many guns firing in the air at the same time. Base ring mounts with integral hoists had a rate of fire of 15 rounds per minute per barrel, however. On pedestal and other mounts lacking integral hoists,12 to 15 rounds per minute was the rate of fire, useful life expectancy was 4600 effective full charges per barrel. The 5/38 cal gun was mounted on a large number of US Navy ships in the World War II era. It was backfitted to many of the World War I-era battleships during their wartime refits and it has left active US Navy service, but it is still on mothballed ships of the United States Navy reserve fleets. It is also used by a number of nations who bought or were given US Navy surplus ships, each mount carries one or two Mk 12 5/38cal Gun Assemblies. The gun assembly shown is used in single mounts, and it is the gun in twin mounts. It is loaded from the left side, the left gun in twin mounts is the mirror image of the right gun, and it is loaded from the right side. The Mk12 gun assembly weighs 3,990 lb, the major Mk12 Gun Assembly characteristics are,158 Semi-automatic During recoil, some of the recoil energy is stored in the counter-recoil system. That stored energy is used during counter-recoil to prepare the gun for the next round, the firing pin is cocked, the breech is opened, the spent powder case is ejected, and the bore is air cleaned. Hand loaded A Projectile-Man and a Powder-Man are stationed at each gun assembly and their job is to move the round, consisting of a projectile and a powder case, from the hoists to the rammer tray, and then start the ram cycle. The hydraulically driven Rammer Spade, called the Power Spade in that picture, is at the back of the Rammer Tray, if the multiple names of the Spade is confusing, look at this footnote. Vertical sliding-wedge breech block The breech block closes the chamber behind the powder case and it also holds the firing pin assembly
18.
Bofors 40 mm gun
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The Bofors 40 mm gun, often referred to simply as the Bofors gun, is an anti-aircraft/multi-purpose autocannon designed in the 1930s by the Swedish arms manufacturer AB Bofors. It was one of the most popular medium-weight anti-aircraft systems during World War II, a small number of these weapons remain in service to this day, and saw action as late as the Gulf War. In the post-war era the original design was not suitable for action against jet powered aircraft, so Bofors introduced a new model of more power. In spite of sharing almost nothing with the design other than the calibre and the distinctive conical flash hider. Although not as popular as the original L/60 model, the L/70 remains in service to this day, especially as a weapon for light armored vehicles. Bofors itself has been part of BAE Systems AB since March 2005, the Swedish Navy purchased a number of 2 pounder Pom-Poms from Vickers as anti-aircraft guns in 1922. The Navy approached Bofors about the development of a capable replacement. Bofors signed a contract in late 1928, Bofors produced a gun that was a smaller version of a 57 mm semi-automatic gun developed as an anti-torpedo boat weapon in the late 19th century by Finspong. Their first test gun was a re-barreled Nordenfelt version of the Finspong gun, testing of this gun in 1929 demonstrated that a problem existed feeding the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired and this proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. This seemed to be the solution they needed, improving firing rates to a level. During this period Krupp purchased a share of Bofors. Krupp engineers started the process of updating the Bofors factories to use equipment and metallurgy. The prototype was completed and fired in November 1931, and by the middle of the month it was firing strings of two and three rounds. Changes to the mechanism were all that remained, and by the end of the year it was operating at 130 rounds per minute. Continued development was needed to turn it into a suitable for production. Since acceptance trials had been passed the year before, this known as the 40 mm akan M/32
19.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
20.
20 mm Oerlikon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
21.
Depth charge
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A depth charge is an anti-submarine warfare weapon. It is intended to destroy a submarine by being dropped into the nearby and detonating, subjecting the target to a powerful. Most depth charges use high explosive charges and a set to detonate the charge. Depth charges can be dropped by ships, patrol aircraft, Depth charges were developed during World War I, and were one of the first effective methods of attacking a submarine underwater. They were widely used in World War I and World War II and they remained part of the anti-submarine arsenals of many navies during the Cold War. Depth charges have now largely replaced by anti-submarine homing torpedoes. A depth charge fitted with a warhead is known as a nuclear depth bomb. These were designed to be dropped from a plane or deployed by an anti-submarine missile from a surface ship, or another submarine. All nuclear anti-submarine weapons were withdrawn from service by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia and they were replaced by conventional weapons whose accuracy and range had improved greatly as ASW technology improved. The first attempt to fire charges against submerged targets was with aircraft bombs attached to lanyards which triggered them, a similar idea was a 16 lb guncotton charge in a lanyarded can. Two of these together became known as the depth charge Type A. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. A1913 Royal Navy Torpedo School report described a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the design work was carried out by Herbert Taylor at the RN Torpedo and Mine School, HMS Vernon. The first effective depth charge, the Type D, became available in January 1916 and it was a barrel-like casing containing a high explosive. There were initially two sizes—Type D, with a 300 lb charge for fast ships, and Type D* with a 120 lb charge for ships too slow to leave the area before the more powerful charge detonated. A hydrostatic pistol actuated by water pressure at a pre-selected depth detonated the charge, initial depth settings were 40 or 80 ft. Because production could not keep up with demand, anti-submarine vessels initially carried two depth charges, to be released from a chute at the stern of the ship
22.
Naval mine
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A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, Naval mines can be used offensively—to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a harbour, or defensively—to protect friendly vessels and create safe zones. Mines can be laid in many ways, by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines and their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0. 5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. It is possible for some of these 1940s-era mines to remain dangerous for many years to come, Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of psychological warfare. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and across important shipping routes with the aim of sinking both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on trade routes and are used to stop shipping from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas, a single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, the warnings do not have to be specific, for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates and this kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships, although this is the rotating steel wheellocks first use in naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a floating petard which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627, American David Bushnell developed the first American naval mine for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy and it was used on the Delaware River as a drift mine. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a mine using an electrical circuit. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi and by Immanuel Nobel, the mining of Vulcan led to the worlds first minesweeping operation. During the next 72 hours,33 mines were swept, the Jacobi mine was designed by German born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor, a cable connected it to a cell which powered it from the shore
23.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
24.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
25.
Allen M. Sumner-class destroyer
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The Allen M. Sumner class was a group of 58 destroyers built by the United States during World War II. Another twelve ships were completed as destroyer minelayers, the Allen M. Sumner design was extended 14 feet amidships to become the Gearing class, which was produced in larger numbers. Completed in 1943–45, four were lost in the war and two were damaged so badly they were scrapped, but the ships served in the US Navy into the 1970s. After being retired from the US fleet,29 of them were sold to other navies, two still exist as museum ships, one in South Carolina, and one in Taiwan. The first ship was laid down in May 1943, while the last was launched in April 1945, in that time the United States produced 58 Allen M. Sumner-class destroyers. The Allen M. Sumner class was an improvement of the previous Fletcher class, which were built from 1941 until 1944. The 5-inch guns were guided by a Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System with a Mark 25 fire control radar linked by a Mark 1A Fire Control Computer stabilized by a Mark 68,500 rpm gyro and this fire control system provided effective long-range anti-aircraft or anti-surface fire. The initial design retained the Fletchers heavy torpedo armament of 10 21-inch tubes in two mounts, firing the Mark 15 torpedo. The increase in displacement was only 150 tons, about 7. 5%. Thus, the Allen M. Sumner class was a significant improvement in power at a small increase in cost. See also Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer, twelve of which were built on hulls originally intended as Allen M. Sumners, gearing-class destroyers were of the same design, modified with a 14-foot midship extension to carry more fuel to extend the ships range. Eighteen were built by Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Kearny, fourteen were built by Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine. Ten were built by Bethlehem Steels Mariners Harbor shipyard on Staten Island, six were built by Bethlehem Steels Union Iron Works in San Francisco, California. Five were built by Bethlehem Steel in San Pedro, California, five were built by Todd Pacific Shipyards in Seattle, Washington. USS Barton was the first ship of the class to be laid down, USS Henley was the last commissioned. The Allen M. Sumners served on picket stations in the Battle of Okinawa, as well as other duties. Cooper, Meredith, Mannert L. Abele, and Drexler were lost during the war, in addition, USS Frank E. Evans was split in half in a collision with HMAS Melbourne, and never repaired. After the war most of the class had their 40 mm and 20 mm guns replaced by up to six 3-inch/50 caliber guns, on most ships one depth charge rack was removed and two Hedgehog mounts added
26.
Destroyer
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Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations, typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, the advent of the missile allowed destroyers to take on the surface combatant roles previously filled by battleships. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation, the emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy an enemy battle fleet using steam launches to launch torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats, the first seagoing vessel designed to fire the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons, these were replaced in 1879 by a torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, in response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called catchers were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Czech, Greek, Dutch and, up until the Second World War, Polish. At that time, and even into World War I, the function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future, an important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB81. This was a torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns. At 23.75 knots, while still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably. Another forerunner of the torpedo boat destroyer was the Japanese torpedo boat Kotaka, designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, in her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, the first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes, by the end of the 1890s torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the torpedo boat destroyers, which were much faster. The first example of this was HMS Rattlesnake, designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, the gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet long and 23 feet in beam, she displaced 550 tons, built of steel, Rattlesnake was un-armoured with the exception of a 3⁄4-inch protective deck
27.
Minesweeping
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Minesweeping has been practiced since the advent of naval mining in 1855 in the Crimean War. The first minesweepers date to that war and consisted of British rowboats trailing grapnels to snag the mines. A sweep is either a sweep, a wire dragged through the water by one or two ships to cut the mooring wire of floating mines, or a distance sweep that mimics a ship to detonate the mines. The sweeps are dragged by minesweepers, either purpose-built military ships or converted trawlers, each run covers between 100 and 200 meters, and the ships must move slowly in a straight line, making them vulnerable to enemy fire. This was exploited by the Turkish army in the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915, if a contact sweep hits a mine, the wire of the sweep rubs against the mooring wire until it is cut. Sometimes cutters, explosive devices to cut the wire, are used to lessen the strain on the sweeping wire. Mines cut free are recorded and collected for research or shot with a deck gun, minesweepers protect themselves with an oropesa or paravane instead of a second minesweeper. These are torpedo-shaped towed bodies, similar in shape to a Harvey Torpedo, more recently, heavy-lift helicopters have dragged minesweeping sleds, as in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The distance sweep mimics the sound and magnetism of a ship and is pulled behind the sweeper and it has floating coils and large underwater drums. It is the only effective against bottom mines. During the Second World War, RAF Coastal Command used Vickers Wellington bombers Wellington DW. Mk I fitted with degaussing coils to trigger magnetic mines, modern influence mines are designed to discriminate against false inputs and are therefore much harder to sweep. They often contain inherent anti-sweeping mechanisms, for example, they may be programmed to respond to the unique noise of a particular ship-type, its associated magnetic signature and the typical pressure displacement of such a vessel. As a result, a mine-sweeper must accurately guess and mimic the required target signature in order to trigger detonation, the task is complicated by the fact that an influence mine may have one or more of a hundred different potential target signatures programmed into it. Another anti-sweeping mechanism is a ship-counter in the mine fuze, when enabled, this allows detonation only after the mine fuze has been triggered a pre-set number of times. To further complicate matters, influence mines may be programmed to arm themselves after a pre-set time, during the pre-set arming delay the mine would remain dormant and ignore any target stimulus, whether genuine or faked. When influence mines are laid in a minefield, they may have various combinations of fuze settings configured. Groups of mines within this mine-field may have different target signatures which may or may not overlap, the fuzes on influence mines allow many different permutations, which complicates the clearance process. Aircraft can also be used for minesweeping, during World War II, fifteen British Vickers Wellington bombers were modified to carry a large magnetic induction loop and an electrical generator
28.
Torpedo tube
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A torpedo tube is a cylinder shaped device for launching torpedoes. There are two types of torpedo tube, underwater tubes fitted to submarines and some surface ships. Thus a submarine torpedo tube operates on the principle of an airlock, the diagram on the right illustrates the operation of a submarine torpedo tube. The diagram is somewhat simplified but does show the working of a torpedo launch. A torpedo tube has a number of interlocks for safety reasons. For example, an interlock prevents the door and muzzle door from opening at the same time. The submarine torpedo launch sequence is, in simplified form, Open the breech door in the torpedo room, load the torpedo into the tube. Hook up the connection and the torpedo power cable. Shut and lock the breech door, turn on power to the torpedo. A minimum amount of time is required for torpedo warmup, fire control programs are uploaded to the torpedo. This may be manually or automatically, from sea or from tanks. The tube must be vented during this process to allow for complete filling, Open the equalizing valve to equalize pressure in the tube with ambient sea pressure. If the tube is set up for Impulse Mode the slide valve will open with the muzzle door, if Swim Out Mode is selected, the slide valve remains closed. The slide valve allows water from the pump to enter the tube. Modern torpedoes have a safety mechanism that prevents activation of the torpedo unless the torpedo senses the required amount of G-force, the power cable is severed at launch. However, if a wire is used, it remains connected through a drum of wire in the tube. Torpedo propulsion systems vary but electric torpedoes swim out of the tube on their own and are of a smaller diameter,21 weapons with fuel-burning engines usually start outside of the tube. Once outside the tube the torpedo begins its run toward the target as programmed by the control system
29.
Radar picket
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A radar picket is a radar-equipped station, ship, submarine, aircraft, or vehicle used to increase the radar detection range around a force to protect it from surprise attack, typically air attack. Radar picket vessels may also be equipped to direct fighters to intercept the enemy. In British terminology the radar picket function is called aircraft direction, often several detached radar units encircle a force to provide increased cover in all directions. Airborne radar pickets are generally referred to as early warning. Radar picket ships first came into being in the US Navy during World War II to aid in the Allied advance to Japan. The number of pickets was increased significantly after the first major employment of kamikaze aircraft by the Japanese in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944. Fletcher- and Sumner-class destroyers were pressed into service with few modifications at first, deploying some distance from the force to be protected along likely directions of attack, radar pickets were the nearest ships to the Japanese airfields. Thus, they were usually the first vessels seen by incoming waves of kamikazes, the radar picket system saw its ultimate development in World War II in the Battle of Okinawa. A ring of 15 radar picket stations was established around Okinawa to cover all approaches to the island. Initially, a picket station had one or two destroyers supported by two landing ships, usually landing craft support or landing ship medium, for additional AA firepower. Eventually, the number of destroyers and supporting ships were doubled at the most threatened stations, seven destroyer escorts were also completed as radar pickets. The radar picket mission was vital, but it was costly to the ships performing it. Out of 101 destroyers assigned to picket stations,10 were sunk and 32 were damaged by kamikaze attacks. The 88 LCSs assigned to picket stations had two sunk and 11 damaged by kamikazes, while the 11 LSMs had three sunk and two damaged, from October 1943, the NJL Togo cruised the Baltic Sea under the operational control of the Luftwaffe. In March 1944, after the three great Soviet bombing raids on Helsinki, she arrived in the Gulf of Finland to provide fighter cover for Tallinn. During the Cold War, the United States Navy expanded the radar picket concept, the wartime radar picket destroyers were retained, and additional DDRs, destroyer escorts, and submarines were converted and built 1946-1955. The concept was that every group would have radar pickets deployed around it for early warning of the increasing threat of Soviet air-to-surface missile attack. The 26 Gearing-class DDRs were supplemented by nine additional conversions during the early 1950s, the seven wartime DERs were not considered worth modernizing and were relegated to secondary roles
30.
Battle of Okinawa
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The 82-day-long battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. The Tenth was unique in that it had its own air force. The battle has been referred to as the typhoon of steel in English, the nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks, and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with an total of over 82,000 direct casualties on both sides,14,009 Allied deaths and 77,417 Japanese soldiers. Allied grave registration forces counted 110,071 dead bodies of Japanese soldiers,149,425 Okinawans were killed, committed suicide or went missing, a significant proportion of the estimated pre-war 300,000 local population. As part of the operations surrounding the battle, the Japanese battleship Yamato was sunk. After the battle, Okinawa provided an anchorage, troop staging areas. Expeditionary Troops under Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. with Tenth Army, TF56 was the largest force within TF50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command, III Amphibious Corps, consisting of 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, the 2nd Marine Division was an afloat reserve, and Tenth Army also controlled the 27th Infantry Division, earmarked as a garrison, and 77th Infantry Divisions. In all, the Army had over 102,000 soldiers, at the start of Battle of Okinawa 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. It was planned that General Buckner would report to Turner until the phase was completed. Although Allied land forces were composed of U. S. units. Although all the carriers were provided by Britain, the carrier group was a combined British Commonwealth fleet with British, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian ships. Their mission was to neutralize Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, most of the air-to-air fighters and the small dive bombers and strike aircraft were U. S. Navy carrier-based airplanes. The Japanese land campaign was conducted by the 67, 000-strong regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku naval base, supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people. The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62nd Divisions, the 9th Division was moved to Taiwan prior to the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lt. General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one
31.
Kamikaze
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During World War II, about 3,862 kamikaze pilots died, and about 19% of kamikaze attacks managed to hit a ship. Kamikaze aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive missiles, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft, a kamikaze could sustain damage which would disable a conventional attacker and still achieve its objective. The goal of crippling or destroying large numbers of Allied ships, particularly aircraft carriers, was considered by the Empire of Japan to be a just reason for sacrificing pilots and these attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for the Japanese. They had long since lost aerial dominance due to outdated aircraft, Japan suffered from a diminishing capacity for war, and a rapidly declining industrial capacity relative to the Allies. Japan was also losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, in combination, these factors, coupled with the unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of kamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands. While the term usually refers to the aerial strikes, it has also been applied to various other suicide attacks. The Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving submarines, human torpedoes, speedboats, the tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture. It was one of the traditions in the samurai life. The Japanese word kamikaze is usually translated as divine wind, in Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is tokubetsu kōgeki tai, which literally means special attack unit. This is usually abbreviated to tokkōtai, more specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Shinpū is the on-reading of the characters that form the word kamikaze in Japanese. As a result, the attack units are sometimes known in Japan as kamikaze tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Axell and Kase see these suicides as individual, impromptu decisions by men who were prepared to die. The case of Nikolai Gastellos taran on 26 June 1941 passed into Soviet air-warfare lore, in most cases, little evidence exists that such hits represented more than accidental collisions of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea or air battles. One example of this occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor, First Lieutenant Fusata Iidas plane had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his plane were to become badly damaged he would crash it into an enemy target. During 1943–1944, U. S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan, newer U. S. -made planes, especially the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, began to outnumber and outclass Japans fighter planes. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of parts and fuel
32.
Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka
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The Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka was a purpose-built, rocket powered human-guided anti-shipping kamikaze attack aircraft employed by Japan towards the end of World War II. United States sailors gave the aircraft the nickname Baka ), the MXY-7 Navy Suicide Attacker Ohka was a manned flying bomb that was usually carried underneath a Mitsubishi G4M2e Model 24J Betty bomber to within range of its target. The design was conceived by Ensign Mitsuo Ohta of the 405th Kōkūtai, Ohta submitted his plans to the Yokosuka research facility. The Imperial Japanese Navy decided the idea had merit and Yokosuka engineers of the Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal created formal blueprints for what was to be the MXY7. The only variant which saw service was the Model 11,155 Ohka Model 11s were built at Yokosuka, and another 600 were built at the Kasumigaura Naval Air Arsenal. The final approach was difficult for a defender to stop because the aircraft gained high speed (650 km/h in level flight and 930 km/h or even 1,000 km/h in a dive. Later versions were designed to be launched from air bases and caves. It appears that the record of Ohkas includes three ships sunk or damaged beyond repair and three other ships with significant damage. Seven U. S. ships were damaged or sunk by Ohkas throughout the war, the USS Mannert L. Abele was the first Allied ship to be sunk by Ohka aircraft, near Okinawa on 12 April 1945. The only operational Ohka was the Model 11, essentially a 1,200 kg bomb with wooden wings, powered by three Type 4 Model 1 Mark 20 solid-fuel rocket motors, the Model 11 achieved great speed, but with limited range. This was problematic, as it required the slow, heavily laden aircraft to approach within 37 km of the target. There was one variant of the Model 11, the Model 21. It had the engine of the Model 11 and the airframe of the Model 22, the Ohka K-1 was an unpowered trainer version with water ballast instead of warhead and engines, to provide pilots with handling experience. 45 were built by Dai-Ichi Kaigun Koku Gijitsusho, the Model 22 was designed to overcome the short standoff distance problem by using a Campini-type thermojet engine, the Tsu-11. This engine was tested, and 50 Model 22 Ohkas were built at Yokosuka to accept this engine. The Model 22 was to be launched by the more agile Yokosuka P1Y3 Ginga Frances bomber, necessitating a shorter wing span, none appears to have been used operationally, and only three of the experimental Tsu-11s engines are known to have been produced. The Model 33 was a version of the Model 22 powered by an Ishikawajima Ne-20 turbojet with an 800 kg warhead. The mothership was to be the Nakajima G8N Renzan, Model 33 was cancelled due to the likelihood that the Renzan would not be available
33.
Reserve fleet
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A reserve fleet is a collection of naval vessels of all types that are fully equipped for service but are not currently needed, and thus partially or fully decommissioned. A reserve fleet is said to be in mothballs or mothballed. In earlier times, and especially in British usage, these ships were said to be laid up in ordinary and they may be modified, for instance by having rust-prone areas sealed off or wrapped in plastic or, in the case of sailing warships, the masts removed. While being held in the fleet, ships typically have a minimal crew to ensure that they stay in somewhat usable condition. If for nothing else, their bilge pumps need to be run regularly to reduce corrosion of their steel, the British Reserve Fleet was a repository for British decommissioned warships from c.1800 until c. The United States National Defense Reserve Fleet, consists of about fifty World War II ships that have been moored in Suisun Bay near San Francisco since the 1950s or 60s, the fleet includes military troopships and tankers. In practice most reserve ships rapidly become obsolete and are scrapped, or used for experiments or target practice, or are sold to other nations, exporting the vessels for shipbreaking or dismantling are alternatives to reserve fleets. More recently, the U. S. Navy has established a program to allow ships, such as Oriskany, to be sunk in selected locations to create artificial reefs. Recycling is another option, as in the case of the United States National Defense Reserve Fleet, the ships of which are set to be stripped of their paint, cut into pieces, the practice of exporting and dismantling ships has caused international protests as they contain toxic materials. In 2007, following studies that found that 20 tons of lead paint had flaked off the ships of the NDRF, environmentalist groups sued to have them removed. The federal Maritime Administration has agreed to more than 50 of the ships as a result,25 of which has been removed by 2012. Aircraft boneyard National Defense Reserve Fleet Suisun Bay Reserve Fleet United States Navy reserve fleets Daniel Madsen
34.
Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization
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The FRAM program also covered cruisers, aircraft carriers, submarines, amphibious ships, and auxiliaries. The United States Coast Guard also used term in the 1980s for the modernization of its Hamilton-class cutters. The program was started by Admiral Arleigh Burke as a response to estimates that the Soviets would have a force of about 300 modern fast-attack submarines by 1957, Burke oversaw preparation of a report to the House and Senate Appropriations Committees entitled The Aging Fleet. The idea that became FRAM was only one of six recommendations of a committee to address the poor material conditions of ships built during World War II. United States Secretary of the Navy Thomas S. Gates embraced the last recommendation in a meeting with United States Secretary of Defense Neil Hosler McElroy on 11 November 1958, among the destroyers, Gearing and Allen M. Sumner classes would take precedence over the Fletcher and Benson classes. Destroyer conversions relied on experience with Fletcher-class destroyers modernized for transfer to Spain, the first two destroyers began FRAM in Boston, Massachusetts and Long Beach, California shipyards in March 1959. In Navy slang, the destroyers were called FRAM cans, can being a contraction of tin can. Both were armed with the new Mark 44 torpedo, which was carried in torpedo tubes on the ships. ASROC could also launch a nuclear depth charge, there were three different sets of FRAM upgrades. During refitting in the early 1950s, FRAM I Fletcher-class destroyers gave up No,2,3 and 4 5-inch/38 caliber gun mounts. A trainable Mark 15 Hedgehog mount took the place of No.2 gun, connected to a new, all topside 21-inch torpedo tubes were removed and replaced with two tubes mounted in the after deckhouse. One twin 3-inch/50 caliber gun mount was placed aft, atop the after deckhouse, the only Fletcher-class destroyers to receive the FRAM II upgrade were Radford, Jenkins and Nicholas. Ships from the Gearing class were completely torn down and rebuilt from the hull up, including new engines, a larger combat information center. The 21-inch torpedo tubes between the funnels were removed, and the 8-round ASROC launcher placed there instead and this modernization was designed to extend the life of the destroyer by at least eight years. Eventually, all but four Gearings received FRAM I or FRAM II conversions, ships in the Allen M. Summner class received only armament modifications under FRAM II, and not all ships of the class received the FRAM upgrades. Although the rear deck was converted as a flight deck for DASH, the new 12. 75-inch triple torpedo tubes were placed where the older 21-inch ones had been. Typically, all three 5-inch/38 twin mounts were retained, additionally, two new 21-inch torpedo tubes for the Mark 37 ASW homing torpedo and variable depth sonar were added. The converted Allen M. Sumners were designed for five years of service
35.
USS Robert H. Smith
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USS Robert H. Smith was the lead ship of her class of destroyer minelayers in the United States Navy. She was named for naval officer Robert H. Smith, Robert H. Smith was laid down on 10 January 1944 by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine and launched on 25 May 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Robert Holmes Smith. The vessel was redesignated DM-23 on 19 July 1944, and commissioned on 4 August 1944, following shakedown off Bermuda, the new destroyer minelayer transited the Panama Canal with a Pacific-bound convoy 28 November, arriving at San Pedro 9 December and Pearl Harbor 21 December. On 27 January 1945, Robert H. Smith sailed as escort for a convoy of the 5th Amphibious Corps bound for Iwo Jima, during final amphibious rehearsals off Saipan, she rescued the crew of a downed B-29. She arrived off Iwo Jima early in the morning of D-day,19 February 1945, for most of the next three weeks, she served on radar picket station 50 miles north of the island, controlling CAP and reporting radar contacts. She also bombarded Japanese shore positions and acted as a ship for the night retirement formations. Robert H. Smith departed Iwo Jima on 9 March and escorted a group of merchantmen as far as Saipan, on 25 March she arrived off Kerama Retto with a group of minesweepers. During the landings she screened the area, then departed 5 April with a convoy for Guam. On her return 21 April, she undertook six weeks of radar picket duty, undergoing air attacks. On 4 June Robert H. Smith completed her radar picket duty and she spent a few more days screening the Okinawa transport area and supporting the amphibious attack on Iheya Point. On 13 June Robert H. Smith began a series of operations supporting minesweeping groups clearing an East China Sea area near Miyako Jima in the southern Ryukyu Islands. Air support was provided by a group of carriers with Robert H. Smith acting as primary fighter director ship. The operation lasted until 25 June, the next area to be swept was located in the central part of the East China Sea about 100 miles east of Shanghai. In that operation the ship acted as radar buoy layer and small craft supply ship, in July, Robert H. Smith departed Okinawa for a large minefield in the northern part of the East China Sea about 100 miles southwest of Kyūshū. However, scarcely a third of the area had been swept when the Japanese offer of surrender was accepted, Robert H. Smith and other ships were suddenly recalled and sent to the Yellow Sea to sweep a channel to the occupation ports of Korea for the 7th Amphibious Corps. It later became the task of Robert H. Smith to lead the convoy through that channel on 7 September 1945. The group then proceeded to Sasebo to clear mines from the sea approaches to the naval base for transports carrying occupation troops for Kyushu. On 17 January 1946 Robert H. Smith sailed for the United States, on 29 January 1947, she was placed out of commission in reserve and attached to the San Diego Group, Pacific Reserve Fleet
36.
Bath, Maine
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Bath is a city in Sagadahoc County, Maine, in the United States. The population was 8,514 at the 2010 census, and 8,357 as of 2013 and it is the county seat of Sagadahoc County, Which includes one city and 10 towns. The city is popular with tourists, many drawn by its 19th-century architecture and it is home to the Bath Iron Works and Heritage Days Festival, held annually on the Fourth of July weekend. It is commonly known as The City of Ships, Bath is part of the metropolitan statistical area of Greater Portland. Abenaki Indians called the area Sagadahoc, meaning mouth of big river and it was a reference to the Kennebec River, which Samuel de Champlain explored in 1605. Popham Colony was established in 1607 downstream, together with Fort St George, the settlement failed due to harsh weather and lack of leadership, but the colonists built the New Worlds first oceangoing vessel constructed by English shipwrights, the Virginia of Sagadahoc. It provided passage back to England, most of Bath, Maine, was settled by travelers from Bath, England. The next settlement at Sagadahoc was about 1660, when the land was taken from an Indian sagamore known as Robinhood, incorporated as part of Georgetown in 1753, Bath was set off and incorporated as a town on February 17,1781. It was named by the postmaster, Dummer Sewell, after Bath in Somerset, in 1844, a portion of the town was set off to create West Bath. On June 14,1847, Bath was incorporated as a city, Land was annexed from West Bath in 1855. Several industries developed in the city, including lumber, iron and brass, with trade in ice, but Bath is renowned for shipbuilding, which began here in 1743 when Jonathan Philbrook and his sons built 2 vessels. Since then, roughly 5,000 vessels have been launched in the area, Bath became the nations fifth largest seaport by the mid-19th century, producing clipper ships that sailed to ports around the world. The last commercial enterprise to build ships in the city was the Percy & Small Shipyard. But the most famous shipyard is the Bath Iron Works, founded in 1884 by Thomas W. Hyde who also became the manager of it in 1888. It has built hundreds of wooden and steel vessels, mostly warships for the U. S. Navy, during World War II, Bath Iron Works launched a new ship an average of every 17 days. The shipyard is a regional employer, and operates today as a division of the General Dynamics Corporation. The city is noted for its Federal, Greek Revival, and Italianate architecture, including the 1858 Custom House, Bath is sister city to Shariki in Japan, where the locally-built full rigged ship Cheseborough was wrecked in 1889. Scenes from the movies Message in a Bottle and The Man Without a Face were filmed in the city, Bath is located at 43°54′59″N 69°49′21″W
37.
USS Thomas E. Fraser
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USS Thomas E. Fraser was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Commander Thomas E. Fraser, the ship was reclassified as a destroyer minelayer and redesignated DM-24 on 20 July 1944, and commissioned on 22 August 1944, Commander Ronald Joseph Woodaman in command. After five days of exercises off San Clemente Island, Thomas E. Fraser departed the California coast, steaming in company with Shannon. On 21 December, the destroyer rendezvoused with two transports and entered Pearl Harbor on 26 December. Thomas E. Fraser devoted the last days of 1944 and most of January 1945 to intensive exercises in the Hawaiian Islands to prepare for her role in the assault on Iwo Jima. On 27 January, Thomas E. Fraser got underway to screen Task Group 51.11 as it proceeded via Eniwetok to the Marianas Islands, on 11 February, she reached Saipan, the final staging point for the operation. On 16 February, the force sortied for Iwo Jima, two hours before dawn on D-day,19 February, the ship left the convoy screen to make an antisubmarine sweep through the transport area off the southern beaches of Iwo Jima. At 06,15, she completed the patrol and proceeded to station in the anchorage screen. After protecting the transports during the landings, the minelayer proceeded in mid-afternoon to a fire support sector southeast of Mount Suribachi. At 17,37 — only 1,000 yards from the nearest beach—she began delivering call fire under the direction of a fire control party. She poured in 5-inch gunfire on enemy machinegun and mortar nests on the northeast base of the formidable mountain, shortly before sunset, she shifted her fire to positions in the caves near the base of Mount Suribachi. Japanese machinegunners on shore fired on the ship but did no damage and that evening, Thomas E. Fraser moved to a position southwest of Mount Suribachi and delivered call fire and illumination rounds throughout the night. Her star shells made it possible for Marine mortars to foil a Japanese attempt to infiltrate an American position via the sea, in the days that followed, Thomas E. Fraser alternated anchorage screening duties with fire support missions to assist Marines fighting ashore. Nevertheless, she continued firing on targets of opportunity until late in the afternoon when she returned to anchorage patrol. During a dusk air raid alert on 23 February, Thomas E. Fraser opened fire on a Japanese airplane as it passed down the side of the ship. Thomas E. Fraser remained off Iwo Jima through the first week in March, providing screening for the transports and she scored hits on enemy supply dumps, machinegun nests, and entrenchments, and knocked out numerous gun emplacements. At night, she often fired star shells or delivered harassment fire, on 8 March, with the help of a plane spotter, her 5-inch guns scored three direct hits on a Japanese blockhouse. Shortly before sunset that day, she departed that battle-torn island, arriving at Ulithi on 11 March, the minelayer remained in the lagoon for eight days for upkeep, provisioning, and ammunition replenishment
38.
USS Shannon
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USS Shannon was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Marine Colonel Harold D. Shannon, completing shakedown in the Bermuda area in late October, Shannon was ordered to overtake convoy GUS-54 and deliver election ballots before proceeding to Norfolk, Virginia for availability. She accomplished her mission, completed the work, and, on 21 November. On 25 November, she rescued two crewmen of a scout plane launched from the cruiser USS Tuscaloosa. She arrived in the Panama Canal Zone on 27 November, from there, she continued on to California and Hawaii. On 27 January, Shannon, flagship of Mine Division 7 and a unit of Task Force 51, departed Pearl Harbor for Eniwetok, Saipan, and Iwo Jima. At the latter island, on 19 February, she conducted antisubmarine patrols as Marines landed, then, during the afternoon, for the next five days, she rotated between those duties, then returned to Saipan to escort reinforcement and resupply echelons to the embattled island. She returned to Iwo Jima on 3 March and resumed duty-night illumination, harassing fire, on 8 March, she sailed for Ulithi, and, on 19 March, she left the Western Carolines for the Ryukyu Islands and Operation Iceberg, the invasion of Okinawa. Shannon arrived off Kerama Retto, a group west of Okinawa, on 25 March and covered minesweeping units. She then protected the minesweepers as they prepared the way for the landings on Okinawa. On 1 April, when the troops were landed on the Hagushi beaches, she patrolled to the east of Kerama Retto, further screening duties followed, and, on the 4th, she retired to the rear area. On 15 April, she returned to Okinawa and resumed screening duties, on 21 April, she commenced anti-small-boat patrols off southeastern Okinawa. She alternated that duty with picket duty until mid-June with interruptions only to cover minesweepers in the Tori Shima area on 11 May. From mid-June through the end of July, Shannon accompanied minesweeping units as they continued sweeping operations in the immediate Okinawa area, during the first part of August, she was at Buckner Bay for availability. On 12 August, she resumed operations with the minesweepers which continued until the war ended on 15 August, after the cessation of hostilities in the Pacific, Shannon moved into the Yellow Sea with mine units to clear the fields off Korea. On 7 September, she got underway for Japan, and, into November, then, having relinquished flagship duties in October, she headed back for the United States. After stops in Hawaii and on the west coast, she continued on to the east coast to join the Atlantic Fleet, arriving in Chesapeake Bay in April 1946, she conducted limited operations under ComDesLant and Com-SubLant into June. She then proceeded to Charleston, South Carolina for duty in MinDiv 2, during 1947, her operations were extended, and, that summer, she escorted the escort carrier Palau on a goodwill visit to Liberia
39.
USS Harry F. Bauer
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USS Harry F. Bauer was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Lieutenant Commander Harry F. Bauer, Harry F. Bauer was launched as destroyer DD-738 by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine,9 July 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Gladys Boyd Bauer, widow of Lt. Comdr. Bauer, converted to minelayer DM-26 and commissioned on 22 September 1944, Commander Richard Claggett Williams, the executive officer was Robert M. Morgenthau. As Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turners invasion troops stormed ashore on 19 February, Harry F. Bauer acted as a picket vessel, as the campaign developed, the ship also conducted shore bombardment, destroying several gun emplacements, tanks, and supply dumps. She proceeded to Ulithi on 8 March to prepare for the last and largest of the Pacific island operations, Harry F. Bauer arrived off Kerama Retto on 25 March and helped screen minecraft during preliminary sweeps of the invasion area. Under intensive air attack during this period, she shot down several Japanese planes, on the day of the assault,1 April 1945, she joined the picket ships offshore, and for over two months of antisubmarine and anti-aircraft duty was under almost continuous attack. A torpedo crashed through her ballast tank 6 April, but failed to explode, while in company with USS J. William Ditter on 6 June, she was attacked by eight aircraft. Each ship accounted for three, one crashed close aboard Harry F. Bauer, flooding two compartments, although damaged herself, the ship escorted the crippled J. William Ditter to Kerama Retto. Survey of her damage during repairs revealed an unexploded bomb in one of her flooded compartments, after repairs at Leyte, Harry F. Bauer arrived at Okinawa on 15 August, the day of the Japanese surrender. Sailing for the United States 1 December she arrived San Diego 22 December, sailing to Norfolk 8 January 1946, Harry F. Bauer began operations with the Atlantic Fleet. These consisted of antisubmarine cruises in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, tactical training, during October–November 1948 she took part in 2nd Fleet exercises in the Atlantic, and in June–July 1949 participated in a Naval Academy training cruise with USS Missouri. In 1950 Harry F. Bauer made her first cruise to the Mediterranean Sea, departing 9 September and returning to Charleston, during the years that followed she continued with tactical operations, that took her to the Caribbean and Northern Europe. She ended active steaming in September 1955 and decommissioned 12 March 1956 at Charleston, entering the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, Harry F. Bauer was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 August 1971 and sold for scrap on 1 June 1974. Harry F. Bauer received a Presidential Unit Citation for the Okinawan campaign, as of 2009, no other ship has been named Harry F. Bauer. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here
40.
USS Tolman
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USS Tolman was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Commander Charles E. Tolman, as of 2009, no other ship has been named Tolman. Helen Tolman, and commissioned on 27 October 1944, Commander Clifford Arthur Johnson in command, the minelayer held her shakedown training off Bermuda during November and December and returned, via Norfolk, Virginia, to Boston, Massachusetts. On 13 January 1945, Tolman departed Boston to escort the cruiser Pittsburgh to the west coast and she called at San Diego on 27 January and then escorted the cruiser Birmingham to Hawaii. She participated in exercises at Pearl Harbor until 23 February before heading for Eniwetok, on 22 March, she began clearing the approaches to the beaches of Okinawa. Shortly after midnight on 28 March, she encountered eight Japanese motor torpedo boats and they closed to 4,000 yards when Tolman opened fire with her 5-inch and 40-millimeter batteries. Tolman increased her speed to 34 knots and maneuvered radically to avoid torpedoes, two of the enemy boats exploded and sank as the remainder laid a smoke screen. The minelayer briefly lost contact, but used radar-controlled fire against the remaining boats, the last boat was seen to slow, apparently in trouble, just before it was blown up. The ship evidently made a sweep of the torpedo boats as a search revealed nothing. Later that morning, Tolman was approximately 500 yards from the minesweeper Skylark when Skylark struck, as Tolman moved in to pass a tow line to the stricken ship, Skylark hit a second mine and began settling rapidly. Tolman backed full to clear the area, but her boats, together with PC-1228 and PC-1179. Later, she shot down a kamikaze that was approaching her in a dive, the minelayer then proceeded to Kerama Retto to transfer Skylarks survivors to other ships. On the morning of 30 March, Tolman contacted three Japanese torpedo boats at a range of 3,000 yards and she went ahead at flank speed and made a hard turn to port. One torpedo passed astern and another was reported off her starboard bow, a third exploded astern, causing considerable vibration. On 3 April, she screened Transport Division 17 to an area approximately 150 miles southeast of Okinawa. Tolman grounded off Nagunna Reef on the morning of 19 April, two tugs then pulled her free on 25 April, and the salvage ship Clamp towed her to Kerama Retto for repairs. She entered drydock on 15 May and was not ready for sea until late in June, on 28 June, the ship got underway for the United States. After arriving at San Pedro on 21 July, she began permanent repairs that were completed on 8 November, the minelayer stood out for the Far East early in December and arrived at Sasebo on the day after Christmas
41.
USS Henry A. Wiley
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USS Henry A. Wiley was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Admiral Henry A. Wiley, Henry A. Wiley was launched on 21 April 1944 as DD-749 by Bethlehem Steel Company, Staten Island, New York, sponsored by Mrs. Elizabeth W. Robb, daughter of Admiral Henry A. Wiley. The ship was reclassified DM-2920 July 1944 and commissioned on 31 August 1944, after shakedown in the Caribbean Sea, the new minelayer rendezvoused with the battleships Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri and sailed 8 November for the Pacific to earn her nickname Hammering Hank. Henry A. Wiley reached Pearl Harbor on 9 December to prepare for the impending Iwo Jima campaign. As escort to the battleship New York, she rendezvoused with ships of the Gunfire and Covering Force off the rocky Japanese island on 16 February 1945. She remained there until 9 March, to fire support. The minelayer poured some 3,600 rounds into the Japanese fortress, a second and even more arduous campaign followed for Henry A. Wiley—Okinawa, the largest amphibious operation of the Pacific war. Reaching her position 23 March, D-day minus eight, she began to screen minesweepers as they cleared channels for transports, Japanese resistance was fierce and air attacks were almost unceasing. On 28 March, Henry A. Wiley downed two planes, and the next morning in 15 hectic minutes saw a bomb explode 50 yards astern. While screening transports on 1 April, D-day at Okinawa, Henry A. Wiley destroyed her fifth kamikaze, the battle-tried ship then shifted to radar picket duty and spent a total of 34 days on this important task, alerting other ships of enemy air attacks. During this period, Henry A. Wiley took 64 Japanese aircraft under fire, the morning of 4 May proved especially eventful. She began by downing a Mitsubishi G4M Betty at 0307, when her sister ship, Luce, was reported sinking, Henry A. Wiley proceeded to her aid, but came under heavy air attack. It hit the water, bounced over the fantail, and exploded just off the port quarter, having expended nearly 5,000 rounds of 5-inch and anti-aircraft ammunition, the minelayer then proceeded to rescue survivors from Luce. For her actions off Okinawa, which resulted in the destruction of 15 Japanese planes, Henry A. Wiley received the Presidential Unit Citation, and her skipper the Navy Cross and Legion of Merit. From Okinawa, Henry A. Wiley sailed for the East China Sea and she remained on this duty, with brief respites at Buckner Bay, until peace came. Henry A. Wiley remained in the Pacific to screen and guide minesweepers through the end of 1945 and she streamed her homeward bound pennant 17 January 1946 and on 7 February reached San Francisco, California via Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor. Henry A. Wiley decommissioned at San Francisco 29 January 1947 and went into reserve at San Diego, Henry A. Wiley was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 October 1970 and sold for scrapping on 30 May 1972. In addition to the Presidential Unit Commendation, Henry A. Wiley received four stars for her participation in World War II
42.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
43.
USS Shea
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USS Shea was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Lieutenant Commander John Joseph Shea, the ship was modified to be a destroyer minelayer and redesignated DM-30 in late 1944, and commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on 30 September 1944, Commander Charles C. Kirkpatrick in command. Shea spent 15 more days completing her fitting-out and she then loaded ammunition at Earle and Bayonne, New Jersey, returned briefly to New York and departed for her shakedown cruise on 21 October 1944. She completed shakedown training at and around Great Sound Bay, Bermuda, Sheas crew underwent a month of further training in the Norfolk area before embarking,13 December, for Brooklyn, New York, arriving the next day. From Brooklyn, Shea moved on to San Francisco, sailing with Task Group 27.3, she transited the Panama Canal, 20–22 December, and made San Francisco on the last day of 1944. Four days later, she was underway for Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, another round of training complete, she steamed out of Pearl Harbor bound for Eniwetok Atoll in the western Pacific, arriving on 2 March. After 17 days in the vicinity of Eniwetok, her crew engaged in more of the perennial training exercises. Shea departed for Ulithi Atoll on the first leg of her cruise into the war at Okinawa. On 19 March 1945, she sailed from Ulithi and joined TG52.3, by 24 March, Shea was off Okinawa helping prepare the way for the 1 April invasion. While her primary mission was to protect and assist the minesweepers clearing the area of mines, during the period 24 March –4 May, she was constantly fending off Japanese air attacks and guarding against enemy submarines. Moreover, she sank or severely damaged at least one submarine and, on 16 April, in the space of ten minutes. On the morning of 4 May 1945, Shea was en route to radar picket duty 20 miles northeast of Zampa Misaki and she arrived just after 06,00, having encountered two Japanese aircraft along the way, firing on both and possibly downing one. Upon receipt of reports indicating the approach of large Japanese air formations, Sheas crew went to General Quarters. Soon thereafter, a “considerable smoke haze blew over the ship from the Hagushi beaches” and “visibility was at a maximum 5.000 yards. ”At 08,54 a single Mitsubishi G4M Betty was sighted six miles distant, and, four minutes later, one was shot down by Shea-directed CAP. At 08,59, five minutes after the initial sighting, fire broke out on the mess deck, and in CIC, the chart house, division commanders stateroom, No.2 upper handling room, and compartment A-304-L. Shea lost all communications, 5-inch gun mounts numbers 1 and 2 were inoperative. The main director was jammed and the gyro and computer rendered unserviceable, one officer and 34 men were killed, and 91 others were wounded to varying degrees. With repair parties and survivors from damaged areas scurrying about, helping the wounded and fighting fires, Shea, listing 5 degrees to port, began limping off to Haeushi and medical assistance
44.
USS J. William Ditter
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USS J. William Ditter was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for Congressman J. William Ditter, J. William Ditter was launched as DD-751 by Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Staten Island, New York,4 July 1944, sponsored by Mrs. J. William Ditter, widow of Congressman Ditter. The ship was reclassified DM-3119 July 1944, and commissioned at New York Navy Yard 28 October 1944, J. William Ditter completed her shakedown off Bermuda in December. She sailed from Norfolk, Virginia 13 January 1945, and after transiting the Panama Canal and touching at San Diego, California arrived Pearl Harbor 10 February. As the Navys island-hopping thrust toward Japan reached its climax, J. William Ditter sailed 2 March for Eniwetok and Ulithi, departing the latter base 19 March for Okinawa. She arrived 25 March off the island, soon to be the scene of the largest amphibious assault of the Pacific war. The next day she dodged a torpedo during an encounter with a Japanese submarine, on 29 March she discovered two suicide boats off Okinawa, and sank one of them with gunfire. By the day of the invasion,1 April, J. William Ditter and her sister mine-craft had swept the channels and laid marker buoys, next day her duties shifted to convoy escort, as the versatile ship protected transports on night retirement away from Okinawa. On the night of 2 April the ship shot down two bombers, and she continued to come under air attack in the days that followed as the Japanese made an effort to stop the invasion with kamikaze tactics. J. William Ditter was assigned picket duty 12 April. She shot down several planes and assisted with several more until retiring to Kerama Retto 30 April, the ship was soon back on picket duty, however, and engaged in numerous battles with Japanese aircraft. While patrolling with Harry F. Bauer and Ellyson 6 June, the ships gun crews downed five of the planes, but a sixth glanced off her No.2 stack, and another crashed into her on the port side near the main deck. The ship lost all power and suffered casualties, but damage control kept her afloat until she could be towed by tug Ute to Kerama Retto the next day. Eventually she was repaired enough to steam to Saipan on 10 July and she touched at San Diego and the Canal Zone before arriving New York 12 July 1945. J. William Ditter was decommissioned there on 28 September 1945 and was scrapped in July 1946, J. William Ditter received one battle star for World War II service. As of 2009, no ship has been named J. William Ditter. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here
45.
USS Lindsey
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USS Lindsey was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy during World War II. She was named for Eugene E. Lindsey, the ship was reclassified DM-32 on 19 July 1944 and commissioned on 20 August 1944, Commander T. E. After shakedown off southern California, the new destroyer sailed from San Francisco on 25 November 1944 via Pearl Harbor for Ulithi. Underway from Ulithi the morning of 8 February, Lindsey steamed toward Iwo Jima, operating off Iwo Jima from 17 to 19 February, Lindsey knocked out six guns ashore and provided covering fire as minesweepers cleared the harbor. On 23 February she returned to Ulithi to prepare for landings on Okinawa, underway 19 March, Lindsey arrived off Okinawa on 24 March and swept the harbor for the inbound transports. Then as the Marines gained a foothold, the ship bombarded Japanese gun installations, on the afternoon of 12 April, Lindsey experienced a mass kamikaze attack. Her gunners scored repeated hits on seven onrushing dive bombers, but two Aichi D3A Val bombers damaged and out of control, crashed into Lindsey killing 57 sailors, the explosion from the second Val ripped some 60 feet off her bow. Only the “all back full” ordered by Commander Chambers prevented the pressure of inrushing water from collapsing the fireroom bulkhead, towed to Kerama Retto the same night, Lindsey remained in the lagoon for two weeks repairing battle damage. On 28 April she departed under tow for Guam, where, after arrival 6 May and she sailed under her own power 8 July for the east coast via Pearl Harbor and the Panama Canal, arriving Norfolk, Virginia 19 August 1945. After extensive repairs at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Lindsey steamed 6 March 1946 for Charleston, South Carolina, Lindsey decommissioned 25 May 1946 and entered the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 October 1970, Lindsey received two battle stars for World War II. As of 2006, no ship in the United States Navy has been named Lindsey. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here. Photo gallery at Navsource. org Photo gallery at Naval Historical Center
46.
USS Gwin (DM-33)
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USS Gwin was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the United States Navy. She was named for William Gwin, Gwin was launched by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, San Pedro, California on 9 April 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Jesse W. Tarbill, second cousin and sponsor of the previous Gwin. The ship was commissioned on 30 September 1944 at Los Angeles, after shakedown along the California coast, Gwin sailed for the Pacific theatre as flagship of Mine Squadron 3, reaching Pearl Harbor 3 January 1945. A week later the left for the fighting front. At Saipan,20 January, Gwin and her sister minesweepers joined Battleship Division 7, for 7 days,21 to 26 January, she participated in the preliminary bombardment of Iwo Jima, next to the last step in the island-hopping campaign across the Pacific. Returning to Pearl Harbor, Gwin underwent overhaul before sailing for Eniwetok,23 February, from Eniwetok Gwin steamed to Nansei Shoto 17 March to sweep the area around Okinawa. Acting in a variety of screen, radar picket ship, minesweeper, fire support—Gwin was to remain off Okinawa the following five months. During this period she accounted for some 16 enemy aircraft as the Japanese launched the kamikaze attacks, nine of these Japanese planes fell victim to Gwins guns on only two days,16 April and 4 May. An air raid 16 April saw Gwin down two Mitsubishi G4M Betty dive bombers, coming in only to have another come sweeping in, an alert gun crew swung their battery to catch another Japanese plane and shoot it down less than 50 yards from the ship. At dusk on 4 May, Gwin was on picket station off Okinawa. Combat Air Patrol reported 8 to 10 Japanese planes to port, suddenly a second contingent of planes swept in out of the setting sun to starboard. Gwin swung her guns around and two of the attackers were downed, whirling to port, the gun crews fired into the original attack group, and accounted for three more kamikazes. The seas had not yet closed over these three planes when a sixth, another kamikaze, crashed into Gwin, two men were killed,2 missing, and 11 injured as the plane embedded itself into Gwins aft gun platform. Then, as damage control parties rushed to quell the fires raging around the kamikaze, in less than six minutes, Gwin, although under attack from all quarters, had downed five Japanese planes and been herself damaged by a sixth. After a brief stay at Nansei Shoto for battle repairs, Gwin returned to patrol. She rendezvoused 20 August with Task Force 35 and headed for Tokyo Bay, putting into Sagami Bay 27 August 1945, Gwin began to sweep the area and destroyed some 41 mines in 2 days duty. At last on 2 August 1945 she steamed into Tokyo Bay, departing for Okinawa 1 September, Gwin, remained on minesweeping duty there and in the East China Sea for the rest of the year. With her share of the Pacific mopping-up complete, Gwin at last headed home, reaching San Pedro, the ship then sailed for Charleston, South Carolina, arriving on 14 March
47.
USS Aaron Ward (DM-34)
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The third ship named USS Aaron Ward in honor of Rear Admiral Aaron Ward was a Robert H. Smith-class destroyer minelayer in the service of the United States Navy. She was laid down as an Allen M. Sumner-class destroyer on 12 December 1943 at San Pedro, California by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation and launched on 5 May 1944, sponsored by Mrs. G. H. Ratliff. The ship was redesignated a destroyer minelayer, DM-34, on 19 July 1944, between commissioning and the end of January 1945, Aaron Ward completed fitting out and conducted her shakedown cruise off the California coast. On 9 February, she departed San Pedro, bound for Pearl Harbor where she arrived on 15 February, the warship conducted additional training in Hawaiian waters before loading supplies and ammunition and getting underway on 5 March to join the 5th Fleet at Ulithi. She entered the lagoon of that atoll in the Western Carolines on 16 March, the Mine Flotilla, of which Aaron Ward was a unit, arrived off Okinawa late on 22 March. The following day, the minelayer got her first glimpse of the enemy when some of his planes approached the sweep group. More came in later, but the gunfire of the group dissuaded them from approaching close enough to harm the American ships. The first actual air raid occurred on 26 March, and Adams knocked the intruder out of the sky, Aaron Ward supported minesweeping operations around Kerama Retto and Okinawa until the time of the first landings. During that period, she accounted for three enemy aircraft, on 1 April, the day of the initial assault on Okinawa, the destroyer minelayer began screening the heavy warships providing gunfire support for the troops ashore. That duty lasted until 4 April when she departed the Ryūkyūs and she arrived at Saipan on 10 April but shifted to Guam later that day. After several days of repairs, Aaron Ward headed back to Okinawa to patrol in the area around Kerama Retto. During that patrol period, she came under frequent air attack, on 27 April, she shot down one enemy plane, and the next day, accounted for one more and claimed a probable kill in addition. Then she returned to Kerama Retto to replenish her provisions and fuel, while she was there, a kamikaze scored a hit on Pinkney. Aaron Ward moved alongside the stricken evacuation transport to help fight the inferno blazing amidships, while so engaged, she also rescued 12 survivors from Pinkney. On 30 April, the destroyer returned to sea to take up position on radar picket station number 10. That night, she helped repulse several air attacks, but, for the most part, when the weather began to clear, the probability of air attacks rose. At about dusk, Aaron Wards radar picked up bogies at 27 miles distance, two of the planes in the formation broke away and began runs on Aaron Ward. The warship opened fire on the first from about 7,000 yards, at that point, he dipped over into his suicide dive but crashed about 100 yards off the destroyer minelayers starboard quarter
48.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
United States Navy
Turkish Navy
