1.
Firth of Forth
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The Firth of Forth is the estuary of the River Forth in Scotland, where it flows into the North Sea, between Fife to the north and Lothian to the south. It was known as Bodotria in Roman times, in the Norse sagas it was known as the Myrkvifiörd. Geologically, the Firth of Forth is a fjord, formed by the Forth Glacier in the last glacial period, the Kincardine Bridge, the Clackmannanshire Bridge, the Forth Road Bridge and the Forth Bridge carry traffic across the firth. Queensferry Crossing, alongside the Forth Road Bridge, was expected to open in 2016 but has since been delayed until May 2017. From 1964 to 1982, a tunnel existed under the Firth of Forth, the shafts leading into the tunnel were filled and capped with concrete when the tunnel was closed, and it is believed to have filled with water or collapsed in places. In July,2007, a passenger service completed a two-week trial between Portobello, Edinburgh and Kirkcaldy, Fife. The trial of the service was hailed as an operational success. It was estimated the service would decrease congestion for commuters on the Forth road, despite the initial success, the project was cancelled in December,2011. Historic villages line the Fife shoreline, Limekilns, Charlestown and Culross, established in the 6th century, the firth is important for nature conservation and is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The Firth of Forth Islands SPA is home to more than 90,000 breeding seabirds every year, there is a bird observatory on the Isle of May. The youngest person to swim across the Firth of Forth was 13-year-old Joseph Feeney, in 2008, a controversial bid to allow oil transfer between ships in the firth was refused by Forth Ports. SPT Marine Services had asked permission to transfer 7.8 million tonnes of oil per year between tankers, but the proposals were met with determined opposition from conservation groups
2.
Fife
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Fife is a council area and historic county of Scotland. It is situated between the Firth of Tay and the Firth of Forth, with boundaries to Perth and Kinross. By custom it is held to have been one of the major Pictish kingdoms, known as Fib. It is an area, and was a county of Scotland until 1975. It was very occasionally known by the anglicisation Fifeshire in old documents, a person from Fife is known as a Fifer. Fife was a government region divided into three districts, Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy and North-East Fife. Since 1996 the functions of the councils have been exercised by the unitary Fife Council. Fife is Scotlands third largest local authority area by population and it has a resident population of just under 367,000, over a third of whom live in the three principal towns of Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy and Glenrothes. The historic town of St Andrews is located on the northeast coast of Fife and it is well known for the University of St Andrews, one of the most ancient universities in the world and is renowned as the home of golf. Fife, bounded to the north by the Firth of Tay, the earliest known reference to the common epithet The Kingdom of Fife dates from only 1678, in a proposition that the term derives from the quasi-regal privileges of the Earl of Fife. The notion of a kingdom may derive from a misintrepretation of an extract from Wyntoun, the name is recorded as Fib in A. D.1150 and Fif in 1165. It was often associated with Fothriff, the hill-fort of Clatchard Craig, near Newburgh, was occupied as an important Pictish stronghold between the sixth and eighth centuries AD. Fife was an important royal and political centre from the reign of King Malcolm III onwards, Malcolm had his principal home in Dunfermline and his wife Margaret was the main benefactor of Dunfermline Abbey. The Abbey replaced Iona as the resting place of Scotlands royal elite. The Earl of Fife was until the 15th century considered the principal peer of the Scottish realm, wool, linen, coal and salt were all traded. Salt pans heated by local coal were a feature of the Fife coast in the past, the distinctive red clay pan tiles seen on many old buildings in Fife arrived as ballast on trading boats and replaced the previously thatched roofs. This endeavour lasted until 1609 when the colonists, having been opposed by the population, were bought out by Kenneth Mackenzie. Fife became a centre of industry in the 19th century
3.
Lothian
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Lothian is a region of the Scottish Lowlands, lying between the southern shore of the Firth of Forth and the Lammermuir Hills. The principal settlement is the Scottish capital, Edinburgh, while other significant towns include Livingston, Linlithgow, Queensferry, Dalkeith, Musselburgh, North Berwick, Dunbar, historically, the term Lothian referred to a province encompassing most of what is now southeastern Scotland. Lothian was annexed to the Kingdom of Scotland around the 10th century, subsequent Scottish history saw the region subdivided into three shires—Mid, East, and West Lothian—leading to the popular term the Lothians. The origin of the name is debated and it perhaps comes from the British *Lugudūniānā meaning country of the fort of Lugus, the latter being the Celtic God of commerce. Alternatively it may take its name from a watercourse which flows through the region, now known as the Lothian Burn, a popular legend is that the name comes from King Lot, who is king of Lothian in the Arthurian legend. The usual Latin form of the name is Laudonia, Lothian was settled by Angles at an early stage and formed part of the Kingdom of Bernicia, which extended south into present-day Northumberland. Many place names in the Lothians and Borders demonstrate that the English language became firmly established in the region from the century onwards. In due course Bernicia united with Deira to form the Kingdom of Northumbria, little is recorded of Lothians history specifically in this time. After the Norse settled in what is now Yorkshire, Northumbria was effectively cut in two, how much Norse influence spread to the English north of the River Tees is uncertain. Bernicia continued as a territory, sometimes described as having a king. Roger of Wendover wrote that Edgar, King of the English granted Laudian to the King of Scots in 973 on condition that he come to court whenever the English king or his successors wore his crown. It is widely accepted by historians that this marks the point at which Lothian came under Scottish control. The River Tweed became the de facto Anglo-Scottish border following the Battle of Carham in 1018, william the Conqueror invaded Lothian and crossed over the River Forth but did not re-annex it. At this time Lothian appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as Loðen or Loþen, in the post-Roman period, Lothian was dominated by British speakers whose language is generally called Cumbric and was closely related to Welsh. In Welsh tradition Lothian is part of the Old North, reminders exist in British place-names like Tranent, Linlithgow and Penicuik. The presence of a landowning Gaelic-speaking aristocracy and their followers for something like 150–200 years, over time and due to various factors, the language of Lothian and Northumbria, a northern variety of Middle English, came to displace Gaelic as the language of the Lowlands. The dialects of the modern Lothians are sometimes considered to be part of Central Scots, the Local Government Act 1973 abolished the ancient counties and burghs, replacing them with regions and districts. Lothian Regional Council formally took responsibility from the old county councils in May 1975
4.
Kingdom of Scotland
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The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I it fought a war of independence. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, in 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. The Crown was the most important element of government, the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace, the continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. Scots law developed into a system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, in 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage, Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from about 1300 their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was fixed at only one-twelfth the value of the English pound, the Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union, Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area, but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geographically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands, the Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had grown to a million, following the plague and it expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century, in the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, there were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century, and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown
5.
Scots language
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Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster. It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language which was restricted to most of the Highlands. The language developed during the Middle English period as a distinct entity, although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do exist, these often render contradictory results. Broad Scots is at one end of a linguistic continuum. Scots is often regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, alternatively, Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish. In the 2011 Scottish census, a question on Scots language ability was featured, native speakers sometimes refer to their vernacular as braid Scots or use a dialect name such as the Doric, or the Buchan Claik. The old-fashioned Scotch, an English loan, occurs occasionally, especially in Northern Ireland, the term Lallans, a variant of the Modern Scots word lawlands, is also used, though this is more often taken to mean the Lallans literary form. Scots in Ireland is known in circles as Ulster-Scots or Ullans. Scots is a contraction of Scottis, the Older Scots and northern version of late Old English Scottisc, before the end of the 15th century, English speech in Scotland was known as English, whereas Scottish referred to Gaelic. From 1495 the term Scottis was increasingly used to refer to the Lowland vernacular and Erse, meaning Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland is now usually called Scottish Gaelic. Northumbrian Old English had been established in what is now southeastern Scotland as far as the River Forth by the seventh century and it remained largely confined to this area until the thirteenth century, continuing in common use while Gaelic was the language of the Scottish court. Scots also includes loan words resulting from contact with Gaelic, Early medieval legal documents include a body of Gaelic legal and administrative loans. Contemporary Gaelic loans are mainly for geographical and cultural features, such as ceilidh, loch, from the thirteenth century Early Scots spread further into Scotland via the burghs, proto-urban institutions which were first established by King David I. The growth in prestige of Early Scots in the century. By the sixteenth century Middle Scots had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England, from 1610 to the 1690s during the Plantation of Ulster large numbers of Scots-speaking Lowlanders, some 200,000, settled there. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, Modern Scots is used to describe the language after 1700 when southern Modern English was generally adopted as the literary language though Scots remained the vernacular. In Scotland, Scots is spoken in the Scottish Lowlands, the Northern Isles, Caithness, Arran, in Ulster it is spoken in the Counties of Down, Antrim, Londonderry and Donegal. Dialects include Insular Scots, Northern Scots, Central Scots, Southern Scots, many speakers are either diglossic and/or able to code-switch along the continuum depending on the situation in which they find themselves
6.
Makar
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A makar is a term from Scottish literature for a poet or bard, often thought of as a royal court poet. The Makars have often referred to by literary critics as Scots Chaucerians. In the more general application of the term which is current today the word can be applied to poets of the Scots revival in the 18th century, such as Allan Ramsay, middle Scots makar is the equivalent of English maker. The word functions as a translation of Greek term ποιητής maker. The term is applied to poets writing in Scots although it need not be exclusive to Scottish writers. William Dunbar for instance referred to the English poets Chaucer, Lydgate, the quality of extant work generally, both minor and major, demonstrates a thriving poetic tradition in Scotland throughout the period. A high point in cultural patronage was the Renaissance Court of James IV now principally associated in literary terms with William Dunbar. The pinnacle in writing from this time was in fact Douglass Eneados, douglas is one of the first authors to explicitly identify his language as Scottis. This was also the period when use of Scots in poetry was at its most richly and successfully aureate. Dunbars Lament for the Makaris contains a leet of makars, not exclusively Scottish, some of whom are now known through his mention. Qualities in verse especially prized by many of these included the combination of skilful artifice with natural diction, concision. The king composed a treatise, the Reulis and Cautelis, which proposed a formalisation of Scottish prosody, the Makars have often been referred to by literary critics as Scots Chaucerians. In the more general application of the term which is current today the word can be applied to poets of the Scots revival in the century, such as Allan Ramsay. In 2002 the City of Edinburgh, Scotlands capital, instituted a post of makar, each term lasts for three years and the first three incumbents were Stewart Conn, Valerie Gillies, and Ron Butlin. The current incumbent is Christine De Luca, other cities to create Makar posts include Glasgow, Stirling, Aberdeen and Dundee. A position of national laureate, entitled The Scots Makar, was established in 2004 by the Scottish Parliament, the first appointment was made directly by the Parliament in that year when Edwin Morgan received the honour to become Scotlands first ever official national poet. He was succeeded in 2011 by Liz Lochhead, jackie Kay was announced as the third holder of this post in 2016. In 2011, the community of Craigmillar in Edinburgh instituted the first Community Makar and it is currently held by Diane Heron, until 2014
7.
Royal burgh
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A royal burgh was a type of Scottish burgh which had been founded by, or subsequently granted, a royal charter. Although abolished in law in 1975, the term is used by many former royal burghs. Most royal burghs were created by the Crown, or upgraded from another status. As discrete classes of burgh emerged, the royal burghs—originally distinctive because they were on royal lands—acquired a monopoly of foreign trade, an important document for each burgh was its burgh charter, creating the burgh or confirming the rights of the burgh as laid down by a previous monarch. Each royal burgh was represented in the Parliament of Scotland and could appoint bailies with wide powers in civil, by 1707 there were 70 royal burghs. The Royal Burghs Act 1833 reformed the election of the councils that governed royal burghs. Those qualified to vote in elections under the Reform Act 1832 were now entitled to elect burgh councillors. Before the reign of David I Scotland had no towns, the closest thing to towns were the larger than average population concentrations around large monasteries, such as Dunkeld and St Andrews, and regionally significant fortifications. Scotland, outside Lothian at least, was populated by scattered hamlets, David I established the first burghs in Scotland, initially only in Middle-English-speaking Lothian. The earliest burghs, founded by 1124, were Berwick and Roxburgh, however, by 1130, David had established burghs in Gaelic areas, Stirling, Dunfermline, Perth and Scone, as well as Edinburgh. The conquest of Moray in that year led to the establishment of burghs at Elgin. Before David was dead, St Andrews, Montrose, and Aberdeen were also burghs. In the reigns of Máel Coluim IV and William, burghs were added at Inverness, Banff, Cullen, Auldearn, Nairn, Inverurie, Kintore, Brechin, Forfar, Arbroath, Dundee, Lanark, Dumfries and Ayr. New Lothian burghs also came into existence, at Haddington and Peebles, by 1210, there were 40 burghs in the Scottish kingdom. Rosemarkie, Dingwall and Cromarty were also burghs by the Scottish Wars of Independence, David I established the first burghs, and their charters and Leges Burgorum were copied almost verbatim from the customs of Newcastle upon Tyne. He essentially imported the burgh into his Scottish dominions from his English ones, Burghs were for the most part populated by foreigners, rather than native Scots or even Lothianers. The predominant ethnic group were the Flemings, but early burgesses were also English, French and German. The burghs vocabulary was composed totally of either Germanic terms such as croft, rood, gild, gait and wynd, or French ones such as provost, bailie, vennel, port, the councils that governed individual burghs were individually known as lie doussane, meaning the dozen
8.
Dunfermline
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Dunfermline is a town and former Royal Burgh, and parish, in Fife, Scotland, on high ground 3 miles from the northern shore of the Firth of Forth. The earliest known settlements in the area around Dunfermline likely date as far back as the Neolithic period, the area was not regionally significant until at least the Bronze Age. The town was first recorded in the 11th century, with the marriage of Malcolm III, King of Scotland, as his Queen consort, Margaret established a new church dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which evolved into an Abbey under their son, David I in 1128. Following the burial of Alexander I in 1160, the abbey graveyard confirmed its status as the place of Scotlands kings and queens up to. The town is a service centre for west Fife. Dunfermline retains much of its significance, as well as providing facilities for leisure. Employment is focused in the sector, with the largest employer being Sky UK. Other large employers in the area include Amazon, Best Western, CR Smith, FMC Technologies, Lloyds, there have been various interpretations of the name, Dunfermline. The first element, dun translated from Gaelic, has accepted as a hill. The rest of the name is problematic, the first record of a settlement in the Dunfermline area was in the Neolithic period. This evidence includes finds of an axe, some flint arrowheads. A cropmark which is understood to have used as a possible mortuary enclosure has been found at Deanpark House. By the time of the Bronze Age, the area was beginning to some importance. Important finds included an axe in Wellwood and a gold torc from the Parish Churchyard. The first historic record for Dunfermline was made in the 11th century, following her marriage to King Malcolm III, Queen Margaret encouraged her husband to convert the small culdee chapel into a church for Benedictine monks. The founding of new church of Dunfermline was inaugurated around 1072. The foundations of the church evolved into an Abbey in 1128, under the reign of their son, Dunfermline Abbey would play a major role in the general romanisation of religion throughout the kingdom. At the peak of its power the abbey controlled four burghs, Dunfermline had become a burgh between 1124 and 1127, if not before this time
9.
Northern Renaissance
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The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. Before 1497, Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy, from the late 15th century, its ideas spread around Europe. In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Venetian artists, writers and humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe composed works of lasting influence, the Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance. In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power, while Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states, most of Europe began emerging as nation-states or even unions of countries. Feudalism had dominated Europe for a thousand years, but was on the decline at the beginning of the Renaissance, as in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in Europe. Finally, the Renaissance in Europe would also be kindled by a weakening of the Roman Catholic Church, the slow demise of feudalism also weakened a long-established policy in which church officials helped keep the population of the manor under control in return for tribute. Consequently, the early 15th century saw the rise of secular institutions. Among the most significant of these, humanism, would lay the grounds for much of Renaissance art, music. Desiderius Erasmus, for example, was important in spreading humanist ideas in the north, forms of artistic expression which a century ago would have been banned by the church were now tolerated or even encouraged in certain circles. The velocity of transmission of the Renaissance throughout Europe can also be ascribed to the invention of the printing press and its power to disseminate knowledge enhanced scientific research, spread political ideas and generally impacted the course of the Renaissance in northern Europe. As in Italy, the press increased the availability of books written in both vernacular languages and the publication of new and ancient classical texts in Greek and Latin. Furthermore, the Bible became widely available in translation, a factor often attributed to the spread of the Protestant Reformation, one of the most important technological development of the Renaissance was the invention of the caravel. This combination of European and African ship building technologies for the first time made extensive trade and these states all began to conduct extensive trade with Africa and Asia, and in the Americas began extensive colonisation activities. This period of exploration and expansion has become known as the Age of Discovery, eventually European power spread around the globe. The detailed realism of Early Netherlandish painting was greatly respected in Italy, around the same time, Albrecht Dürer made his two trips to Italy, where he was greatly admired for his prints. Dürer, in turn, was influenced by the art he saw there, Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and travelled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism that were in vogue had a impact on their work
10.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
11.
Liberal arts education
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Grammar, logic, and rhetoric were the core liberal arts, while arithmetic, geometry, the theory of music, and astronomy also played a part in education. In modern times, liberal arts education term that can be interpreted in different ways and it can refer to academic subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics, and social and physical sciences, or it can also refer to overall studies in a liberal arts degree program. For example, Harvard University offers a Bachelor of Arts degree, for both interpretations, the term generally refers to matters not relating to the professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. The four scientific artes – music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy – were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the Quadrivium. After the 9th century, the three arts of the humanities – grammar, logic, and rhetoric – were classed as well as the Trivium. It was in that form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university. During the Middle Ages, logic gradually came to take predominance over the parts of the Trivium. In the Renaissance, the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts, despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages, the ideal of a liberal arts, or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature, persisted until the middle of the twentieth century. Some subsections of the arts are in the trivium—the verbal arts, grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and in the quadrivium—the numerical arts, arithmetic, geometry, music. Analyzing and interpreting information is also included, the liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a liberal arts education often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some liberal arts education provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro is equivalent to pre. In the United States, liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts, in most parts of Europe, liberal arts education is deeply rooted. In Germany, Austria and countries influenced by their education system, the term is not to be mixed up with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording. Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a Gymnasium and they aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education in order to form personality with regard to a pupils own humanity as well as his/her innate intellectual skills. Going back to the tradition of the liberal arts in Europe, education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking. In particular, Wilhelm von Humboldt played a key role in that regard, universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities, but do not make such activities part of the universitys curriculum
12.
Dunfermline Abbey
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Dunfermline Abbey is a Church of Scotland Parish Church located in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland. The minister is the Reverend MaryAnn R. Rennie, the church occupies the site of the ancient chancel and transepts of a large medieval Benedictine abbey, which was sacked in 1560 during the Scottish Reformation and permitted to fall into disrepair. Part of the old church continued in use at that time and some parts of the abbey infrastructure still remain to this day. Dunfermline Abbey is one of Scotlands most important cultural sites, Malcolm III or Malcolm Canmore, and his queen, St Margaret of Scotland. At its head was the Abbot of Dunfermline, the first of which was Geoffrey of Canterbury, former Prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the Kent monastery that probably supplied Dunfermlines first monks. At the peak of its power it controlled four burghs, three courts of regality, and a portfolio of lands from Moray in the north south to Berwickshire. The foundations of the earliest church, namely the Church of the Holy Trinity, are under the superb Romanesque nave built in the 12th century. During the winter of 1303 the court of Edward I of England was held in the Abbey, during the Scottish Reformation, the abbey church was sacked in March 1560. Some parts of the infrastructure still remain, principally the vast refectory. The nave was also spared and it was repaired in 1570 by Robert Drummond of Carnock and it served as the parish church till the 19th century, and now forms the vestibule of a new church. Also of the monastery there still remains the south wall of the refectory, next to the abbey is the ruin of Dunfermline Palace, also part of the original abbey complex and connected to it via the gatehouse. Dunfermline Abbey, one of Scotlands most important cultural sites, has received more of Scotland’s royal dead than any place in the kingdom. One of the most notable names to be associated with the abbey is the northern renaissance poet. The tomb of Saint Margaret and Malcolm Canmore, within the walls of the Lady chapel, was restored and enclosed by command of Queen Victoria. The current building on the site of the choir of the old Abbey church is a Parish Church of the Church of Scotland, in 2002 the congregation had 806 members. The minister is the Reverend Mary Ann R. Rennie, the old building was a fine example of simple and massive Romanesque, as the nave testifies, and has a beautiful doorway in its west front. Another rich Romanesque doorway was exposed in the wall in 1903. A new site was found for this monument in order that the ancient, the venerable structure is maintained publicly, and private munificence has provided several stained-glass windows
13.
University of Glasgow
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The University of Glasgow is the fourth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands four ancient universities. Along with the University of Edinburgh, the University was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century and it is currently a member of Universitas 21, the international network of research universities, and the Russell Group. Glasgow University served all of students by preparing them for professions, the law, medicine, civil service, teaching. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science, originally located in the citys High Street, since 1870 the main University campus has been located at Gilmorehill in the West End of the city. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and it is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, as one of the Ancient Universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow University is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate masters degrees in certain disciplines. The University has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century, in 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the Cathedral and the University, including the Mace, although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. If they had not been lost by time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris, the Bull remains the authority by which the University awards degrees. Teaching at the University began in the chapterhouse of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, the University was given 13 acres of land belonging to the Black Friars on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old site and is now attached to the Main Building. To continue this work in his will he founded Andersons College, in 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first woman professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology. In October 2014, the university court voted for the University to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fuel industry. The University is currently spread over a number of different campuses, the main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. The University has also established joint departments with the Glasgow School of Art, the Universitys initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the Nova Erectio, over the following centuries, the Universitys size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotlands first public museum and it was a centre of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained
14.
The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian
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The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian is a work of Northern Renaissance literature composed in Middle Scots by the fifteenth century Scottish makar, Robert Henryson. It is a cycle of thirteen connected narrative poems based on fables from the European tradition, the drama of the cycle exploits a set of complex moral dilemmas through the figure of animals representing a full range of human psychology. As the work progresses, the stories and situations become increasingly dark, all the expansions are rich, wry and highly developed. The central poem of the cycle takes the form of a vision in which the narrator meets Aesop in person. Aesop tells the fable The Lion and the Mouse within the dream, five of the six poems in the two beast epic sections of the cycle feature the Reynardian trickster figure of the fox. Henryson styles the fox — in Scots the tod — as Lowrence, the two beast epic sections of the poem also explore a developing relationship between Lowrence and the figure of the wolf. The wolf features in a number of different guises, including that of a Friar, the wolf then makes a sixth and final appearance towards the end, stepping out of the beast epic section to intrude most brutally in the penultimate poem of the Aesopic sections. Henryson fully exploited the fluid aspects of the tradition to produce an unusually sophisticated moral narrative, unique of its kind, internal evidence might suggest that the work was composed in or around the 1480s. Fable stories were a common trope in medieval and renaissance literature and they were told with the didactic intent of drawing moral lessons which could be either secular or spiritual. Many different versions of the stories were created but writers frequently followed understood conventions, one such convention was the inclusion of the didactic moral lesson in a moralitas inserted after the fable. Henryson follows and develops this convention, by todays standards most surviving fable literature is gey dreich, partly because fable writing was a common classroom exercise. In this light, the Morall Fabillis can be viewed technically as a work of maximal modo latius. A similar trick with the genre is found in Chaucers Nuns Priests Tale, however, Henrysons sustained blending and blurring of the secular and the spiritual strands of the genre goes much further than Chaucers largely secular example. The strong likelihood that Henryson employed Christian numerology in composing his works has been discussed in recent years. The table below outlines the stanza count for each of the thirteen Fabillis in order, all thirteen of the fabillis has a taill and a moralitas. Four of the fabillis also have a prolog, the number of stanzas in each of these structural sections, as they apply, is shown in the table. In addition, six of the fabillis in the cycle are tales based on Reynardian beast epic sources and these are denoted by the lighter colour. Many commentators observe the position of the taill in Fabill 7
15.
World view
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A comprehensive world view or worldview is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or societys knowledge and point of view. A world view can include natural philosophy, fundamental, existential, and normative postulates, or themes, values, emotions, the term is a calque of the German word Weltanschauung, composed of Welt and Anschauung. The German word is used in English. It is a fundamental to German philosophy and epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. Additionally, it refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs forming a global description through which an individual, group or culture watches and interprets the world, Worldview remains a confused and confusing concept in English, used very differently by linguists and sociologists. It is for this reason that Underhill suggests five subcategories, world-perceiving, world-conceiving, cultural mindset, personal world, and perspective. However, core worldview beliefs are often rooted, and so are only rarely reflected on by individuals. The founder of the idea that language and worldview are inextricable is the Prussian philologist, Humboldt argued that language was part of the creative adventure of mankind. Culture, language and linguistic communities developed simultaneously, he argued, human beings take their place in speech and continue to modify language and thought by their creative exchanges. Edward Sapir also gives an account of the relationship between thinking and speaking in English, the hypothesis was well received in the late 1940s, but declined in prominence after a decade. The theory has gained attention through the work of Lera Boroditsky at Stanford University. One of the most important concepts in philosophy and cognitive sciences is the German concept of Weltanschauung. The term Weltanschauung is often attributed to Wilhelm von Humboldt the founder of German ethnolinguistics. As Jürgen Trabant points out, however, and as Underhll reminds us in his Humboldt, Worldview and Language, Weltansicht was used by Humboldt to refer to the overarching conceptual and sensorial apprehension of reality shared by a linguistic community. But Humboldt maintained that the human being was the core of language. Worldviews are not prisons which contain and constrain us, they are the spaces we develop within, create and resist creatively in speaking together. A worldview can be expressed as the cognitive, affective, and evaluative presuppositions a group of people make about the nature of things. If the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is correct, the map of the world would be similar to the linguistic map of the world
16.
The Testament of Cresseid
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The Testament of Cresseid is a narrative poem of 616 lines in Middle Scots, written by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson. It is his best known poem and it imagines a tragic fate for Cressida in the medieval story of Troilus and Criseyde which was left untold in Geoffrey Chaucers version. After wandering for a while amongst the Greek soldiers, seeking their company, she returns to the home of her father Calchas and they remove her youth and good looks, leaving her ill and ugly. Her symptoms being similar to those of leprosy, she is considered a social outcast. There she laments her fate until a fellow leper woman encourages her not to sigh over things which cannot be changed, in time, however, cold and hunger wears her down and she is forced to beg for a living. One day, whilst she is begging, Troilus and the garrison of Troy pass by, recognising Cresseid, Troilus is greatly moved, and he gives up a great deal of wealth to the lepers before riding off, almost fainting for grief when he reaches Troy. Upon finding out her benefactors identity, Cresseid is also overcome with emotion and she berates herself for her treatment of him, before sitting down to write her will, dying soon after. A modern English translation by Seamus Heaney, which included seven of his fables from The Morall Fabillis, was published in 2009. Cresseid, daughter of Calchas, who is punished for breaking her vow of love to Troilus Troilus, one of the sons of Trojan king Priam, in the Testament, he is a priest of Venus and Cupid. The gods Cupid, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Phoebus, Venus, Mercury, throughout the poem, Henryson makes use of the rhyme royal, a rhyme scheme introduced and popularised by Geoffrey Chaucer, and set out as follows- ABABBCC. The stanzas are seven lines each in length, and in iambic pentameter. However, in the section in which Cresseid laments her fate from the colony, the stanzas are nine lines in length. Kalamazoo, Michigan, Medieval Institute Publications,1997, the Testament of Cresseid and Seven Fables. Bloomsbury House, London, Faber and Faber Ltd,2009 Gray, English Writers of the Late Middle Ages, no.9. Kindrick, Robert L. Monarchs and Monarchy in the Poetry of Henryson, in Actes du 2e Colloque de Langue et de Littérature Ecossaisses. McDiarmid, Matthew P. Robert Henryson in his Poems, adam J. Aitken, Matthew P. McDiarmid, and Derick S. Thompson. Patterson, Lee W. Christian and Pagan in The Testament of Cresseid, in The Learned and the Lewed. The seiknes incurabill in Henrysons Testament of Cresseid, the Testament of Cresseid and the High Concise Style
17.
Humanitarianism
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Humanitarianism is a moral of kindness, benevolence, and sympathy extended to all human beings. Humanitarianism has been an evolving concept historically, but universality is a theme in its evolution. No distinction is to be made on the grounds of gender, sexual orientation, race, caste, age, religion, ability, the historian G. M. Trevelyan viewed humanitarianism as the product of rationalism upon Puritanism. The idea that mankind could be improved by deliberate social change distinct from the conferring of charity was relatively new, reform distinguished the humanitarian movement from philanthropy. Christian philanthropy tended to reform as political. In contrast, the movement thought reform essential to remove abuses. European individualism can be traced to the Greeks and it was the stoics, who like Aristotle, attributed significance to the human soul, but who, unlike Aristotle, considered all human beings equal in that significance. Natural law, as the stoics conceived it, was based upon this principle of spiritual equality, positive law was subject to the law of nature and, hence, uniquely to the ancient world, the stoics opposed slavery. In 18th century Enlightenment Europe, the idea of the equal moral significance of the individual in this world re-emerged grounded upon reason. Prevention of cruelty to animals involved extension of the principle to non-humans, the stoics had grounded moral significance on capacity to reason. In the 18th century, conflicting religious belief became tolerated to a degree unthinkable a century earlier, in England, pressure on Parliament led to regulation of working hours and amelioration of working conditions. An international dimension was added to humanitarian reform with the founding of the International Red Cross, finally, cruelty to animals became punishable. In contrast, social action in the 19th century was influenced by feeling and, in some instances. The initiative remained with small groups of reformers, which set about influencing public opinion, one reason for the change was the advent of democracy - limited though it was until well into the 19th century. The industrial proletariat crowding into cities made it feasible to hold mass meetings, Political pamphlets had first circulated in England during the civil war. In fiction, novels like Uncle Toms Cabin and those of Charles Dickens drew attention to social wrongs and this led to a change in approach which became less philosophical and more emotive, fastening on the inhumanity to which social action was directed. In 1503, the Spanish Governor in the Indies, Nicolás de Ovando, las Casas, who accompanied him, observed the toll of the work, and suggested the Indians be replaced by Negroes, thus beginning the transatlantic slave trade. Some 900,000 slaves were landed in the Americas by 1600, from the 17th century, demand for African labour expanded greatly with the increased importation of sugar into Europe
18.
Rhetoric
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Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of study and a productive civic practice. Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it the faculty of observing in any case the available means of persuasion. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome, invention, arrangement, style, memory, along with grammar and logic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a part of Western education. Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times, although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful, Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins, however, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists—disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic and this method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth, in Gorgias, one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. Rhetoric, in Platos opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic, when one considers that rhetoric included torture, it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic was viewed as the basis of rhetoric, however, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric, yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice
19.
Realism (arts)
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Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
20.
Flemish painting
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Flemish painting flourished from the early 15th century until the 17th century. These painters were invited to work at foreign courts and had a Europe-wide influence, since the end of the Napoleonic era, Flemish painters had again been contributing to a reputation that had been set by the Old Masters. The Franco-Flemish School of musical composition flourished at the same time, the so-called Flemish Primitives were the first to popularize the use of oil paint. Their art has its origins in the painting of the late Gothic period. Chief among them were Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, Hugo van der Goes, Robert Campin, the court of the Duchy of Burgundy was an important source of patronage. From the early 16th century, the Italian Renaissance started to influence the Flemish painters, the result was very different from the typical Italian Renaissance painting. The leading artist was Pieter Brueghel the Elder, who avoided direct Italian influence, after the Siege of Antwerp, the Southern Provinces of the Netherlands remained under Spanish rule and were separated from the independent Dutch Republic. Following the deaths of major artists like Rubens in 1640 and the end of the Eighty Years War in 1648, a revival of painting in this region came in the advent of the Belgian Revolution of 1830 and work around that time is often considered Flemish. The painters, who flourished in the aftermath of this period, are usually referred to as Belgian rather than Flemish. That kingdom comprising Flanders, often influences also more recent artistss categorization, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Moderne Vlaamse schilderkunst van 1850 tot 1950 van Leys tot Permeke, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Liedtke, Walter A. Flemish paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
21.
John Barbour (poet)
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John Barbour was a Scottish poet and the first major named literary figure to write in Scots. He is known to have written a number of other works, Barbour was latterly Archdeacon of the Kirk of St Machar in Aberdeen. He also studied in Oxford and Paris, although he was a man of the church, his surviving writing is strongly secular in both tone and themes. His principal patron was Robert II and evidence of his promotion and he died in 1395, probably in Aberdeen. John Barbour may have been born around 1320 if the record of his age in 1375 as 55 is correct and his birthplace is not known, though Aberdeenshire and Galloway have made rival claims. Barbours first appearance in the record comes in 1356 with promotion to the archdeaconry of Aberdeen from a post he had held for less than a year in Dunkeld Cathedral. It is inferred from this that he was present in Avignon in 1355. In 1357, when David II returned to Scotland from exile and was restored to active kingship and he subsequently appears to have left the country in other years coincidental with periods when David II was active king. After the death of David II in 1371, Barbour served in the court of Robert II in a number of capacities. It was during this time that he composed, The Brus, receiving for this in 1377 the gift of ten pounds Scots and he held various posts in the kings household. In 1372 he was one of the auditors of exchequer and in 1373 a clerk of audit, the only biographical evidence for his closing years is his signature as a witness to sindry deeds in the Register of Aberdeen in 1392. According to the obit-book of St Machars Cathedral, Aberdeen he died on 13 March 1395, Barbour made provision for a mass to be sung for himself and his parents, an instruction that was observed in the Kirk of St Machar until the Reformation. The Brus, Barbours major surviving work, is a narrative poem written while he was a member of the kings household in the 1370s. Its subject is the success of the prosecution of the First War of Scottish Independence. Its principal focus is Robert the Bruce and Sir James Douglas, Barbours purpose in the poem was partly historical and partly patriotic. He celebrates The Bruce and Douglas throughout as the flowers of Scottish chivalry, the poem opens with a description of the state of Scotland at the death of Alexander III and concludes with the death of Douglas and the burial of the Bruces heart. Its central episode is the Battle of Bannockburn, patriotic as the sentiment is, this is expressed in more general terms than is found in later Scottish literature. Barbours style in the poem is vigorous, his line generally fluid and quick, the most quoted part is Book 1, lines 225-228, A. fredome is a noble thing
22.
Geoffrey Chaucer
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Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first poet to be buried in Poets Corner of Westminster Abbey, among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales, Chaucers work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and his father and grandfather were both London vintners, several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffreys father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure. In the City Hustings Roll 110,5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the Kings Works. In 1359, in the stages of the Hundred Years War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeths husband. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released. After this, Chaucers life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward IIIs queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford and it is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had a career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France. Thomass daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk, thomass great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffreys other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IVs coronation, Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple at this time and he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment and he travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, two other literary stars of the era were in attendance, Jean Froissart and Petrarch
23.
West
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West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the direction from east. The word West is a Germanic word passed into some Romance languages, as is apparent in the Gothic term vasi, it stems from the same Indo-European root that gave the Sanskrit vas-ati and vesper in Latin. To go west using a compass for navigation, one needs to set a bearing or azimuth of 270°, West is the direction opposite that of the Earths rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set. Moving continuously west is following a circle of latitude, the phrase the West is often spoken in reference to the Western world, which includes the European Union, the Americas, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in the Western Roman Empire, during the Cold War the West was often used to refer to the NATO camp as opposed to the Warsaw Pact and non-aligned nations. The expression survives, with an ambiguous meaning. In Chinese Buddhism, the West represents movement toward the Buddha or enlightenment, the ancient Aztecs believed that the West was the realm of the great goddess of water, mist, and maize. In Ancient Egypt, the West was considered to be the portal to the netherworld, Ancient Egyptians also believed that the Goddess Amunet was a personification of the West. The Celts believed that beyond the sea off the edges of all maps lay the Otherworld. According to the Bible, the Israelites crossed the Jordan River westward into the Promised Land, in Islam, while in India, people pray facing towards the west as in respect to India, Mecca is in the West-ward direction. In American literature moving West has sometimes symbolized gaining freedom, perhaps as an association with the settling of the Old West, the dictionary definition of west at Wiktionary
24.
Abbot House, Dunfermline
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Abbot House is a former heritage centre located on the Maygate in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland. It lies in the shadow of Dunfermlines great abbey church, located in a building with a 16th-century core, Abbot House offers a view of Scotlands history from early beginnings through the 19th century, provided to visitors by guided tour. The heritage centre closed in August 2015 after attempts, by Abbot House Heritage Centre Trust, the earliest phase of the house was a two-story rectangular block of at least two storeys, built into the existing precinct wall. This house incorporated a small Z-plan tower house, trial excavations were begun in the garden of the house in 1988, followed by further work in 1992, and again in 1993 and 1994, excavating eleven separate areas in total. Excavations within the garden in the 1990s revealed various finds, including a large dog, likely a deer or wolfhound. Other finds included a selection of medieval glazed and unglazed pottery sherds, costume fittings and personal accessories, two ceramic counters, associated with medieval and early modern games and gambling, and a selection of clay pipes, were found on site. Early coinage, from the 14th to the 17th century, was also discovered, the front of the house bears the motto Sen vord is thrall and thocht is fre, Keip veill thy tonge I coinsell the. The motto was set there for Robert Pitcairn, Commendator of Dunfermline, the facility includes a shop and a cafe. It also offers activities for children and families on the third Saturday of each month. All closed as of August 2015, official website 56. 070395°N3. 463143°W /56.070395, -3.463143
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Aesop
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Aesop was a Greek fabulist and story teller credited with a number of fables now collectively known as Aesops Fables. Many of the tales are characterized by animals and inanimate objects that speak, solve problems, scattered details of Aesops life can be found in ancient sources, including Aristotle, Herodotus, and Plutarch. Older spellings of his name have included Esop and Isope, depictions of Aesop in popular culture over the last 2500 years have included many works of art and his appearance as a character in numerous books, films, plays, and television programs. The name of Aesop is as known as any that has come down from Graeco-Roman antiquity it is far from certain whether a historical Aesop ever existed. In the latter part of the fifth century something like a coherent Aesop legend appears, the earliest Greek sources, including Aristotle, indicate that Aesop was born around 620 BCE in Thrace at a site on the Black Sea coast which would later become the city Mesembria. A number of writers from the Roman imperial period say that he was born in Phrygia. The 3rd-century poet Callimachus called him Aesop of Sardis, and the later writer Maximus of Tyre called him the sage of Lydia. Before this fatal episode, Aesop met with Periander of Corinth, where Plutarch has him dining with the Seven Sages of Greece, sitting beside his friend Solon, whom he had met in Sardis. Like The Alexander Romance, The Aesop Romance became a folkbook, a work that belonged to no one, multiple, sometimes contradictory, versions of this work exist. Scholars long dismissed any historical or biographical validity in The Aesop Romance, in The Aesop Romance, Aesop is a slave of Phrygian origin on the island of Samos, and extremely ugly. After interpreting a portent for the people of Samos, Aesop is given his freedom, later he travels to the courts of Lycurgus of Babylon and Nectanabo of Egypt – both imaginary rulers – in a section that appears to borrow heavily from the romance of Ahiqar. The story ends with Aesops journey to Delphi, where he angers the citizens by telling insulting fables, is sentenced to death and, Aesop may not have written his fables. Scholars speculate that there existed in the fifth century a written book containing various fables of Aesop. Sophocles in a poem addressed to Euripides made reference to Aesops fable of the North Wind, Socrates while in prison turned some of the fables into verse, of which Diogenes Laertius records a small fragment. The early Roman playwright and poet Ennius also rendered at least one of Aesops fables in Latin verse, the body of work identified as Aesops Fables was transmitted by a series of authors writing in both Greek and Latin. Demetrius of Phalerum made a collection in ten books, probably in prose for the use of orators, next appeared an edition in elegiac verse, cited by the Suda, but the authors name is unknown. Phaedrus, a freedman of Augustus, rendered the fables into Latin in the 1st century CE, at about the same time Babrius turned the fables into Greek choliambics. A 3rd-century author, Titianus, is said to have rendered the fables into prose in a now lost
26.
Long poem
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The long poem is a literary genre including all poetry of considerable length. Though the definition of a poem is vague and broad. The long poem traces its origins to the ancient epics, such as Homers Iliad, with more than 220000 verses and about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem in the world. It is roughly ten times the size of the Iliad and Odyssey combined, roughly five times longer than Dantes Divine Comedy, in English, Beowulf and Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde are among the first important long poems. The long poem thrived and gained new vitality in the hands of experimental Modernists in the early 1900s and has continued to evolve through the 21st century. The long poem has evolved into a term, encompassing many subgenres, including epic, verse novel, verse narrative, lyric sequence, lyric series. Lynn Keller describes the poem as being a poem that is simply book length, but perhaps the simplest way to define long poem is this. Susan Stanford Friedman describes the poem as a genre in which all poems that are not considered to be short can be a considered a part. Only a broad definition can apply to the genre as a whole, in general, a poem is a long poem when its length enhances and expands upon the thematic, creative, and formal weight of the poem. Though the term long poem may be elusive to define, the term is now getting the attention it deserves. The poem is about how long, and thee length. The genre has gained importance both as a form, and as a means of collective expression. A long poem often functions to tell a tale of the tribe, or a story encompasses a whole cultures values. Ezra Pound coined the phrase, referring to his own long poem The Cantos, the long poems length and scope can contain concerns of a magnitude that a shorter poem cannot address. The poet may also serve as a poet-prophet with special insight for his or her own tribe, in Modern and Contemporary long poems the tale of the tribe has frequently been retold by culturally, economically, and socially marginalized persons. Various poets have undertaken a revisionary mythopoesis in the long poem genre, since the genre has roots in forms that traditionally exclude poets who have minimal cultural authority, the long poem can be a fundamental re-vision, and function as a discourse for those poets. These re-visions may include neglected characters, deflation of traditionally celebrated characters, and this revision is noted especially by feminist critical work that analyzes how women are given a new voice and story through the transformation of a previously masculine form. Lynn Keller notes that the long poem enabled modernists to include sociological, anthropological, many long poems deal with history not in the revisionary sense but as a simple re-telling in order to prove a point. Then there are those who go a step further and recite a places or peoples history in order to teach, like revisionary mythopoesis, they may attempt to make a point or demonstrate a new perspective by exaggerating or editing certain parts of a history
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Orpheus
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Orpheus was a legendary musician, poet, and prophet in ancient Greek religion and myth. For the Greeks, Orpheus was a founder and prophet of the so-called Orphic mysteries and he was credited with the composition of the Orphic Hymns, a collection of which only two have survived. Shrines containing purported relics of Orpheus were regarded as oracles, some ancient Greek sources note Orpheus Thracian origins. The earliest literary reference to Orpheus is a fragment of the sixth-century BC lyric poet Ibycus. He is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod, most ancient sources accept his historical existence, Aristotle is an exception. Pindar calls Orpheus the father of songs and identifies him as a son of the Thracian king Oeagrus, Greeks of the Classical age venerated Orpheus as the greatest of all poets and musicians, it was said that while Hermes had invented the lyre, Orpheus had perfected it. Poets such as Simonides of Ceos said that Orpheus music and singing could charm the birds, fish and wild beasts, coax the trees and rocks into dance, and divert the course of rivers. Orpheus was one of the handful of Greek heroes to visit the Underworld and return, his music, Orpheus was an augur and seer, he practiced magical arts and astrology, founded cults to Apollo and Dionysus and prescribed the mystery rites preserved in Orphic texts. Pindar and Apollonius of Rhodes place Orpheus as the harpist and companion of Jason, Orpheus had a brother named Linus, who went to Thebes and became a Theban. He is claimed by Aristophanes and Horace to have taught cannibals to subsist on fruit, Horace believed, however, that Orpheus had only introduced order and civilization to savages. Bertrand Russell noted, The Orphics were a sect, wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later. The intoxication that they sought was that of enthusiasm, of union with the god and they believed themselves, in this way, to acquire mystic knowledge not obtainable by ordinary means. This mystical element entered into Greek philosophy with Pythagoras, who was a reformer of Orphism as Orpheus was a reformer of the religion of Dionysus, from Pythagoras Orphic elements entered into the philosophy of Plato, and from Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious. Strabo presents Orpheus as a mortal, who lived and died in a close to Olympus. Some, of course, received him willingly, but others, since they suspected a plot and violence, combined against him and killed him. He made money as a musician and wizard – Strabo uses agurteúonta, agúrtēs most often meant charlatan and always had a negative connotation. Pausanias writes of an unnamed Egyptian who considered Orpheus a mágeuse, according to Apollodorus and a fragment of Pindar, Orpheus father was Oeagrus, a Thracian king, or, according to another version of the story, the god Apollo. His mother was the muse Calliope, or, a daughter of Pierus and his birthplace and place of residence was in Pimpleia, Olympus
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Conceit
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In literature, a conceit is an extended metaphor with a complex logic that governs a poetic passage or entire poem. By juxtaposing, usurping and manipulating images and ideas in surprising ways, extended conceits in English are part of the poetic idiom of Mannerism, during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century. In English literature the term is associated with the 17th century metaphysical poets. The metaphysical conceit differs from an analogy in the sense that it does not have a clear-cut relationship between the things being compared. An example of the latter occurs in John Donnes A Valediction, Forbidding Mourning, the metaphysical conceit is often imaginative, exploring specific parts of an experience. John Donnes The Flea is a poem seemingly about fleas in a bed, when Sir Philip Sidney begins a sonnet with the conventional idiomatic expression My true-love hath my heart and I have his. He takes the metaphor literally and teases out a number of possibilities in the exchange of hearts. The result is a fully formed conceit, the Petrarchan conceit is a form of love poetry wherein a mans love interest is referred to in hyperbole. For instance, the lover is a ship on a stormy sea, the paradoxical pain and pleasure of lovesickness is often described using oxymoron, for instance uniting peace and war, burning and freezing, and so forth. But images which were novel in the sonnets of Petrarch became clichés in the poetry of later imitators, romeo uses hackneyed Petrarchan conceits when describing his love for Rosaline as bright smoke, cold fire, sick health. In the Renaissance, the term indicated any particularly fanciful expression of wit, within this critical sense, the Princeton Encyclopedia makes a distinction between two kinds of conceits, the Metaphysical conceit, described above, and the Petrarchan conceit. (1989} More than Cool Reason, A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor, Princeton, NJ, University of Chicago Press Preminger, Alex and T. V. F. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press George Herbert, Praise Shakespeares Sonnet 130, from Wikisource
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Flyting
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Flyting or fliting is a contest consisting of the exchange of insults, often conducted in verse, between two parties. Flyting is a ritual, poetic exchange of insults practised mainly between the 5th and 16th centuries, the root is the Old English word flītan meaning quarrel. Examples of flyting are found throughout Norse, Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, the exchanges would become extremely provocative, often involving accusations of cowardice or sexual perversion. Norse literature contains stories of the gods flyting, for example, in Lokasenna the god Loki insults the other gods in the hall of Ægir and the poem Hárbarðsljóð in which Hárbarðr engages in flyting with Thor. In the confrontation of Beowulf and Unferð in the poem Beowulf, in Anglo-Saxon England, flyting would take place in a feasting hall. The winner would be decided by the reactions of those watching the exchange, the winner would drink a large cup of beer or mead in victory, then invite the loser to drink as well. The 13th century poem The Owl and the Nightingale and Geoffrey Chaucers Parlement of Foules contain elements of flyting, Flyting became public entertainment in Scotland in the 15th and 16th centuries where makars would engage in verbal contests of provocative, often sexual and scatological but highly poetic abuse. Flyting was permitted despite the fact that the penalty for profanities in public was a fine of 20 shillings for a lord or a whipping for servant, James IV and James V encouraged court flyting between poets for their entertainment and occasionally engaged with them. The Flyting of Dumbar and Kennedie records a contest between William Dunbar and Walter Kennedy in front of James IV, which includes the earliest recorded use of the word shit as a personal insult. In 1536 the poet Sir David Lyndsay composed a ribald 60 line flyte to James V after the King demanded a response to a flyte, flytings appear in several of William Shakespeares plays. Margaret Galway analysed 13 comic flytings and several other exchanges in the tragedies. Flytings also appear in the Nicholas Udalls Ralph Roister Doister and John Stills Gammer Gurtons Needle from the same era, while flyting died out in Scottish writing after the Middle Ages, it continued for writers of Celtic background. Robert Burns parodied flyting in his poem, To a Louse, joyce played with the traditional two character exchange by making one of the characters society as a whole. Taunting songs are present in the Inuit culture, among many others, Flyting can also be found in Arabic poetry in a popular form called naqā’iḍ, as well as the competitive verses of Japanese Haikai. Echoes of the genre continue into modern poetry, hugh MacDiarmids poem A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle, for example, has many passages of flyting in which the poets opponent is, in effect, the rest of humanity. In Finnic Kalevala the hero Väinämöinen uses similar practice of kilpalaulanta to win opposing Joukahainen, for example, Mattaeus, ic þé onsecge þæt þín scofl is nú unscearp æfter géara ungebótes. Beot Slam poetry The Dozens Battle rap Flyting – britannica. com
30.
Mary, mother of Jesus
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Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
31.
History of Glasgow
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This article deals with the history of the city of Glasgow, Scotland. See also Timeline of Glasgow history, the area around Glasgow has hosted communities for millennia, with the River Clyde providing a natural location for fishing. Glasgow itself was founded by the Christian missionary Saint Mungo in the 6th century and he established a church on the Molendinar Burn, where the present Glasgow Cathedral stands, and in the following years Glasgow became a religious centre. By the 12th century Glasgow had been granted the status of what can now be called a city and the cathedral was the seat of the Bishops and the Archbishops of Glasgow. While there may have been buildings on the site, the first stone cathedral was consecrated in about 1136. Extensions and alterations to the buildings have continued ever since. The most recent addition was the Millennium Window unveiled on 3 June 1999, after the Reformation in 1560, the Catholic rituals ended and the Catholic statues and symbols were removed or painted over. The large Cathedral served three different Presbyterian parishes simultaneously, the choir was used by the Inner High parish. The nave was used by the Outer High parish, the crypt was used by Laigh parish. In 1451 the University of Glasgow was founded by Papal Bull, after 1870 the university attained international stature. The Universitys teaching quality was assessed in 2009 to be among the top 10 in Britain and its path to success was not to be easy, however, in 1651, the English Navigation Acts were passed, making it illegal for non-English ships to trade with English colonies. A second attempt at a Scottish colony, the Darien scheme, ended in disaster and they were not deterred, continuing small-scale smuggling with English colonies until the Act of Union in 1707. Access to the Atlantic Ocean allowed the import of such as American tobacco and cotton, and Caribbean sugar. These imports flourished after 1707, when union with England made the trade legal, by 1760, Glasgow had outstripped London as the main port for tobacco in the United Kingdom. The American War of Independence put an end to most American trade, leading to financial ruin for some, trade turned to sugar, Glasgows transformation from a provincial town to an international business hub was based originally on its control of the 18th-century tobacco trade with America. The trade was interrupted by the American Revolutionary War, and never recovered to even a fourth of its old trade, the tobacco merchants grew rich as their stocks of tobacco soared in value, they had diversified their holdings and were not badly hurt. Merchants turned their attention to the West Indies and to textile manufacture, the trade made a group of Tobacco Lords very wealth, they adopted the lifestyle of landed aristocrats, and lavished vast sums on great houses and splendid churches of Glasgow. The merchants constructed spectacular buildings and monuments that can still be seen today, as the citys wealth increased, its centre expanded westwards as the lush Victorian architecture of what is now known as the Merchant City area began to spring up
32.
The arts
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The arts represent an outlet of expression that is usually influenced by culture in society and which in turn helps to change culture. As such, the arts are a manifestation of peoples internal creative impulse. Some art forms combine a visual element with performance or artwork with the written word, from prehistoric cave paintings to modern day films, art serves as a vessel for storytelling and conveying humankinds relationship with its environment. A debate exists in the arts and video game cultures over whether video games can be counted as an art form. In its most basic definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view. The act itself of producing an expression can also be referred to as a certain art, or as art in general. If this solidified expression, or the act of producing it, is good or has value depends on those who access and rate it and this public rating is dependent on various subjective factors. Merriam-Webster defines the arts as painting, sculpture, music, theater, literature, etc. considered as a group of activities done by people with skill, and the study and application of the arts to the human environment. In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, thus, there was no distinction between the arts. Ancient Greek art brought the veneration of the form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features, in Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths. Eastern art has worked in a style akin to Western medieval art, namely a concentration on surface patterning. A characteristic of this style is that the colour is often defined by an outline. This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet, religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The Artes Mechanicae were practised and developed in guild environments, the modern distinction between artistic and non-artistic skills did not develop until the Renaissance. In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities, some subjects in the humanities are history, linguistics, literature, theology, philosophy, and/or logic. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colour pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers
33.
Canon law
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Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. The way that such law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was originally a rule adopted by a council, these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Greek kanon / Ancient Greek, κανών, Arabic Qanun / قانون, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, straight, a rule, code, standard, or measure, the root meaning in all these languages is reed. In the Fourth century the First Council of Nicaea calls canons the disciplinary measures of the Church, the canon, κανὠν, means in Greek. There is an early distinction between the rules enacted by the Church and the legislative measures taken by the State called leges. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, west Syrian Rite which includes the Maronite Church, Syriac Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Church. Armenian Rite Church which includes the Armenian Catholic Church, east Syrian Rite Churches which includes the Chaldean Church and Syro-Malabar Church. All of these groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods, the jus antiquum, the jus novum, the jus novissimum, in relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus and the jus novum. The academic degrees in law are the J. C. B. Because of its nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for the study of canon law. Much of the style was adapted from the Roman Law Code of Justinian. This is in contrast to the form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U. S. law. The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the development of much of Europe. Sampel explains that law has significant influence in contemporary society. Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal philosophy, each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part. In 1929 Pius XI informed the Eastern Churches of his intention to work out a Code for the whole of the Eastern Church, the publication of these Codes for the Eastern Churches regarding the law of persons was made between 1949 through 1958 but finalized nearly 30 years later
34.
Old University of Leuven
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The Old University of Leuven is the name historians give to the university, or studium generale, founded in Leuven, Brabant, in 1425. The university was closed in 1797, a week after the cession to the French Republic of the Austrian Netherlands and it is commonly referred to as the University of Leuven or University of Louvain, sometimes with the qualification old to distinguish it from the Catholic University of Leuven. This might also refer to a short-lived but historically important State University of Leuven, the immediate official and legal successor and inheritor of the old University, under the laws in force in 1797, was the École centrale de Bruxelles, which itself closed down in 1802. To shake off this reputation, the faculty of theology thrice declared its adherence to the condemnation of Jansenist beliefs in the papal bull Unigenitus. Pope Martin V issued a bull dated 9 December 1425 founding the University in Leuven as a Studium Generale. This university was institutionally independent of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. From the founding of the university to its abolition in 1797, in its early years, this university was modelled on those of Paris, Cologne and Vienna. After the French Revolutionary Wars, by the Treaty of Campo Formio, once formally integrated into the French Republic, a law dating to 1793 mandating that all universities in France be closed came into effect. The University of Leuven was abolished by decree of the Département of the Dyle on October 25,1797, what remained of the universitys movables and books were requisitioned for the École centrale in Brussels. This was the official and legal successor and inheritor of the old University. It was in turn closed down in 1802, the first attempt to found a successor university in the nineteenth-century was the State University of Leuven, 1817–1835, where a dozen professors of the old University taught. This was followed by a private Catholic university, the Catholic University of Leuven and this institution was founded with the intention of restoring the confessionally Catholic pre-Revolutionary traditions of learning in Leuven. In 1968 this split to form the two current institutions, the Dutch language Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and the French language Université catholique de Louvain, from the founding of the University in 1425 up until 1636, there was no official library of the university. Very likely the students had access to manuscripts and printed books preserved in the homes of their professors or colleges, in 1636, however, a university library was founded in the Cloth hall and was enlarged in 1725 in a baroque style. The library of the Central School of Brussels came to number about 80,000 volumes, which became part of the Library of Brussels. Also the rich archives of the old University of Leuven are always existing, indeed, the library burned in 1914 by the Germans was not the original library of the old University of Louvain, but the new library of the new Catholic University of Leuven. John of St. Ejus origo, incrementum, viri illustres, res gestae,1635, Valerius Andreas, Fasti academici Lovanienses, Louvain, edited by Jean Olivier et Corneille Coenesteyn,1635. 1829, Baron Frédéric de Reiffenberg, Mémoires sur les deux premiers siècles de lUniversité de Louvain, Brussels,1838, P. De Ram, Laforêt et Namêche, Analectes pour servir à lhistoire de lUniversité de Louvain, in, Annuaire de lUniversité de Louvain, 1838-65
35.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
36.
University of Bologna
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The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest university in continuous operation. It was the first place of study to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters which came to define the institution, located in Bologna, as of 2013, the Universitys crest carries the motto Alma mater studiorum and the date A. D.1088. The University has about 85,500 students in its 11 schools and it has campuses in Ravenna, Forlì, Cesena and Rimini and a branch center abroad in Buenos Aires. It also has a school of excellence named Collegio Superiore di Bologna, an associate publisher of the University of Bologna is Bononia University Press S. p. A. The date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088 and these students then hired scholars from the city to teach them. In time the various nations decided to form an association, or universitas—thus. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended, there was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses, the professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the Denouncers of Professors, kept tabs on them, Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming a College of Teachers, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues, until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate. Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community, nowadays the University offers 101 different Laurea or Laurea breve first-level degrees, followed by 108 Laurea specialistica or Laurea magistrale second-level degrees. After the Laurea one may attain 1st level Master, after second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to 2nd level Master, specialisation schools, or doctorates of research. A new department of Latin History was added in 2015, on 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, il Mulino became one of the most interesting points in Italy for the political and cultural debate. Editorial activities evolved along with the review, in 1954, the il Mulino publishing house was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects, that led, in 1964. In the 2016-17 THE World University Rankings the University of Bologna was ranked in the worlds top 250 universities
37.
Order of Saint Benedict
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Each community within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIIIs Brief Summum semper, individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials OSB after their names. The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529, was the first of the monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, there is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome that Augustine, the prior, at various stopping places during the journey, the monks left behind them traditions concerning their rule and form of life, and probably also some copies of the Rule. Lérins Abbey, for instance, founded by Honoratus in 375, probably received its first knowledge of the Benedictine Rule from the visit of St. Augustine, in Gaul and Switzerland, it supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually displaced the earlier codes. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire, Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium, as a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work. In the Middle Ages monasteries were founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910, the abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, one of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations, Augustine of Canterbury and his monks established the first English Benedictine monastery at Canterbury soon after their arrival in 597. Many of the sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak, the monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick. Germany was evangelized by English Benedictines, willibrord and Boniface preached there in the seventh and eighth centuries and founded several abbeys. In the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, during the 19th century they were able to return to England, including to Selby Abbey in Yorkshire, one of the few great monastic churches to survive the Dissolution. St. Mildreds Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent, currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns
38.
Christian pilgrimage
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Christianity has a strong tradition of pilgrimages, both to sites relevant to the New Testament narrative and to sites associated with later saints or miracles. The first pilgrimages were made to sites connected with the ministry of Jesus, the Itinerarium Burdigalense, the oldest surviving Christian itinerarium, was written by the anonymous Pilgrim of Bordeaux recounting the stages of a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in the years 333 and 334. Pilgrimage was encouraged by church fathers like Saint Jerome and established by Helena, pilgrimages also began to be made to Rome and other sites associated with the Apostles, Saints and Christian martyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions of the Virgin Mary. The Seljuk Turks now systematically disrupted Christian pilgrimage routes, which one of the major factors triggering the crusades later in the 11th century. Under the Ottoman Empire travel in Palestine was once again restricted, Rome has been a major Christian pilgrimage site since the middle ages. Pilgrimages to Rome can involve visits to a number of sites. The stairs were, reputedly, brought to Rome by St. Helena in the 4th Century, for centuries, the Scala Santa has attracted Christian pilgrims who wished to honour the Passion of Jesus. Traditionally, pilgrims in Rome visit the seven churches in 24 hours. This custom, mandatory for each pilgrim in the Middle Ages, was codified in the 16th century by Saint Philip Neri. The seven churches are the four major Basilicas, while the three are San Lorenzo fuori le mura, Santa Croce in Gerusalemme and San Sebastiano fuori le mura. At some point between 818 and 842, during the reign of Alfonso II of Asturias, bishop Theodemar of Iria claimed to have some remains which were attributed to Saint James the Greater. Around the place of the discovery a new settlement and centre of pilgrimage emerged, which was known to the author Usuard in 865, santiago would become in the course of the following century a main Catholic shrine second only to Rome and Jerusalem. In the 12th century, under the impulse of bishop Diego Gelmírez, Compostela became an archbishopric, attracting a large, marian apparitions are also responsible for tens of millions of Christian pilgrimages worldwide. The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima, in Cova da Iria, Fátima, Portugal, Latin America has a number of pilgrimage sites, which have been studied by anthropologists, historians, and scholars of religion. In Mesoamerica, some pre-date the arrival of Europeans and were transformed to Christian pilgrimage sites. One such is the Hill of Tepeyac with the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe outside Mexico City, HCPT – The Pilgrimage Trust List of Christian pilgrimage sites List of pilgrimage churches Brown, Peter. The Cult of the Saints, Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity, crumrine, N. Ross and E. Alan Morinis. Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture, Anthropological Perspectives, database of Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Netherlands Galilean Destinations for Christians Herbermann, Charles, ed
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St Andrews Cathedral
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The Cathedral of St Andrew is a ruined Roman Catholic cathedral in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It was built in 1158 and became the centre of the Medieval Catholic Church in Scotland as the seat of the Archdiocese of St Andrews and it fell into disuse and ruin after Catholic mass was outlawed during the 16th-century Scottish Reformation. It is currently a monument in the custody of Historic Scotland, the ruins indicate that the building was approximately 119m long, and is the largest church to have been built in Scotland. The cathedral was founded to supply more accommodation than the church of St. Regulus afforded. This older church, located on became the cathedral grounds, had been built in the Romanesque style. Today, there remains the square tower,33 metres high, on a plan of the town from about 1530, a chancel appears, and seals affixed to the city and college charters bear representations of other buildings attached. To the east is an older religious site, the Church of St Mary on the Rock. Work began on the new cathedral in 1158 and continued for over a century, the west end was blown down in a storm and rebuilt between 1272 and 1279. It was dedicated on 5 July 1318, in a ceremony before King Robert I. When intact it had, besides a central tower, six turrets, a fire partly destroyed the building in 1378, restoration and further embellishment were completed in 1440. The cathedral was served by a community of Augustinian Canons, the St Andrews Cathedral Priory, greyfriar and Blackfriar friars had properties in the town by the late 15th century and possibly as late as 1518. In 1559, during the Scottish reformation, the building was stripped of its altars and images, at about the end of the sixteenth century the central tower apparently gave way, carrying with it the north wall. Afterwards large portions of the ruins were taken away for building purposes, since then it has been tended with scrupulous care, an interesting feature being the cutting out of the ground-plan in the turf. The principal portions extant, partly Norman and partly Early Scottish, are the east and west gables, the part of the south wall of the nave. St Rules tower is located in the Cathedral grounds but predates it, the building was retained to allow worship to continue uninterrupted during the building of its much larger successor. Originally, the tower and adjoining choir were part of the built in the 11th century to house the relics of St Andrew. The nave, with twin turrets, and the apse of the church no longer stand. The churchs original appearance is illustrated in stylised form on some of the seals of the Cathedral Priory
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Notary public
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Any such act is known as a notarization. The term notary public only refers to common-law notaries and should not be confused with civil-law notaries, Notaries are appointed by a government authority, such as a court or lieutenant governor, or by a regulating body often known as a society or faculty of notaries public. For lawyer notaries, an appointment may be for life, while lay notaries are usually commissioned for a briefer term, in most common law countries, appointments and their number for a given notarial district are highly regulated. To these documents a notary affixes a notarial certificate which attests to the execution of the document, usually by the person who appears before the notary, originals or secondary originals are then filed and stored in the notarys archives, or protocol. Notaries are generally required to undergo training in the performance of their duties. Some must also first serve as an apprentice before being commissioned or licensed to practice their profession, however, notaries public in the U. S. Notarial practice is universally considered to be distinct and separate from that of an attorney. In England and Wales, there is a course of study for notaries which is conducted under the auspices of the University of Cambridge and the Society of Notaries of England and Wales. In bi-juridical jurisdictions, such as South Africa or Louisiana, the office of notary public is a profession with educational requirements similar to those for attorneys. Many even have institutes of learning that offer degrees in notarial law. Therefore, despite their name, notaries public in these jurisdictions are in civil law notaries. Notaries public hold an office which can trace its origins back to the ancient Roman Republic, the history of notaries is set out in detail in Chapter 1 of Brookes Notary, The office of a public notary is a public office. It has a long and distinguished history, the office has its origin in the civil institutions of ancient Rome. A writer who adopted the new method was called a notarius, originally, a notary was one who took down statements in shorthand using these notes, and wrote them out in the form of memoranda or minutes. Later, the title notarius was applied almost exclusively to registrars attached to government officials, including provincial governors. Notwithstanding the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century AD, the separate development of the common law in England, free from most of the influences of Roman law, meant that notaries were not introduced into England until later in the 13th and 14th centuries. At first, notaries in England were appointed by the Papal Legate, in 1279 the Archbishop of Canterbury was authorized by the Pope to appoint notaries. Not surprisingly, in early days, many of the notaries were members of the clergy. The Reformation produced no change in the position and functions of notaries in England
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History of education in Scotland
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The history of education in Scotland in its modern sense of organised and institutional learning, began in the Middle Ages, when Church choir schools and grammar schools began educating boys. By the end of the 15th century schools were also being organised for girls and universities were founded at St Andrews, Glasgow, in the seventeenth century, legislation enforced the creation and funding of schools in every parish, often overseen by presbyteries of the local kirk. The existence of this network of schools later led to the growth of the myth that poor boys had been able to use this system of education to rise to the top of Scottish society. However, Scotlands University system did help to make it one of the contributors to the Enlightenment in the 18th century, producing major figures such as David Hume. The reform of Scottish universities made them major centres of learning, in the 20th century Scottish secondary education expanded, particularly for girls, but the universities began to fall behind those in England and Europe in investment and expansion of numbers. The government of the system became increasingly centred on Scotland. In the Early Middle Ages, Scotland was overwhelmingly an oral society, much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century. The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly, in the High Middle Ages new sources of education arose, with song and grammar schools. These were usually attached to cathedrals or a church and were most common in the developing burghs. By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs, Early examples including the High School of Glasgow in 1124 and the High School of Dundee in 1239. There were also petty schools, more common in rural areas, some monasteries, like the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss, opened their doors to a wider range of students. The number and size of schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s. There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords, all this resulted in an increase in literacy, but which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite, with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period. After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence, with occasional exceptions under safe conduct, English universities were closed to Scots, some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities. At Paris this included John De Rate and Walter Wardlaw in the 1340s and 1350s, William de Tredbrum in the 1380s and Laurence de Lindores in the early 1500s. This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1451 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495. The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the sixteenth century. He had probably studied at a Scottish grammar school, then Cambridge, before moving to Paris, by 1497 the humanist and historian Hector Boece, born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris, returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen
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Territorial abbey
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Such an abbot is called a territorial abbot or abbot nullius diœceseos. A territorial abbot thus differs from an ordinary abbot, who exercises authority only within the walls or to monks or canons who have taken their vows there. A territorial abbot is equivalent to a bishop in Catholic canon law, the practice arose in part because abbeys served the spiritual needs of Catholics who lived near the monastery, especially in mission territories. The monasterys own chapel was a space of worship for the laity who had settled nearby. After the Second Vatican Council, more emphasis has been placed on the nature of the episcopacy. As such, abbeys nullius have been phased out in favor of the erection of new dioceses or the absorption of the territory into an existing diocese, a few ancient abbeys nullius still exist in Europe, and one in Korea. The Abbot of Waegwan is the present apostolic administrator of the Tŏkwon abbacy and it has not been united with any diocese throughout Korea due to the effective vacancy of the ones in North Korea and the lack of effective jurisdiction applied by the Church in South Korea. Cluny Abbey is the one in France. It became extremely rich and influential within and beyond the Church, Abbey of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. It was formally suppressed as an abbey in 1977. St. Peter-Muenster, which from 1921 until 1998 served an area of Saskatchewan. GCatholic. org - List of Current Territorial Abbacies Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
