1.
Iron Mountain, Michigan
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Iron Mountain is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 7,624 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Dickinson County, in the states Upper Peninsula. Iron Mountain was named for the iron ore found in the vicinity. Iron Mountain is the city of the Iron Mountain, MI-WI Micropolitan Statistical Area. It shares Woodward Avenue with the town, Kingsford. In addition, Iron Mountain is known for its pasties, Bocce Ball Tournaments, World Cup Ski Jumps, Iron Mountain was also named a Michigan Main Street community by Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm in 2006. It is one of thirteen such communities in the State of Michigan in 2008. It is also the hometown of Michigan State University mens basketball coach Tom Izzo and former NFL head coach Steve Mariucci. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.04 square miles. Indian Trails provides daily intercity bus service between St. Ignace and Ironwood, Michigan, US2 runs east to Escanaba and west to Ironwood. US141 merges with US2 just east of the city and heads northward toward Crystal Falls, southbound it continues on to Green Bay, m-95 connects with Kingsford just to the south and with M-69 east at Randville about 14 miles north. The Iron Mountain area is served by Ford Airport, commercial air travel is provided by SkyWest Airlines, providing jet service as Delta Connection. Located three miles west of the city, the airport handles approximately 7,600 operations per year, with roughly 27% commercial service, 57% air taxi and 16% general aviation. The airport has a 6,501 foot asphalt runway with approved ILS, GPS and NDB approaches, as of the census of 2010, there were 7,624 people,3,362 households, and 2,025 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,034.5 inhabitants per square mile, there were 3,784 housing units at an average density of 513.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 3% White,0. 5% African American,0. 6% Native American,0. 7% Asian,0. 3% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 6% of the population. 34. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.83. The median age in the city was 42.4 years
Iron Mountain, Michigan
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Iron Mountain City Hall
Iron Mountain, Michigan
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Dickinson County Courthouse and Jail, listed on the
National Register of Historic Places.
Iron Mountain, Michigan
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Carnegie library
2.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
Michigan
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Père Marquette and the Indians (1869), Wilhelm Lamprecht
Michigan
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Flag
Michigan
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Approximate area of Michigan highlighted in
Guillaume de L'Isle 's 1718 map
Michigan
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Lumbering pines in the late 1800s
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
4.
Dummerston, Vermont
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Dummerston is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States. The population was 1,915 at the 2000 census and it is home to the longest covered bridge still in use in Vermont. Its borders include three main villages, Dummerston Center, West Dummerston, and East Dummerston, Dummerston was part of the Equivalent lands, part of a large tract of land given to settlers at the turn of the century. It lies on a given to the Connecticut Colony about 1715 by the Province of Massachusetts Bay as compensation for land mistakenly awarded by the latter to its settlers. In 1716, the town was auctioned to a consortium, on December 26,1753, the town was chartered as a New Hampshire grant and renamed Fulham by Governor Benning Wentworth. But when the grant was renegotiated, it reverted to Dummerston, the many brooks and streams flowing into the West River provided the area with water power. Dummerston had five gristmills, five sawmills, one slate manufacturer, raising sheep across the many hills was an important occupation. By 1859, the town had a population of 1,645, the Vermont Valley Railroad passed through Dummerston. A house built in Dummerston in 1892, Naulakha, was home to author Rudyard Kipling and this is where he wrote several of his novels, including The Jungle Books and Captains Courageous. There was a bridge that was built in 1812. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 30.8 square miles. Dummerston is bounded by the Connecticut River, and the West River flows through the town, the town is crossed by Interstate 91, U. S. Route 5 and Vermont Route 30. It is bordered by Brattleboro to the south, Marlboro and Newfane to the west, with Putney, chesterfield, New Hampshire lies across the Connecticut River from it. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,915 people,796 households, the population density was 62.6 people per square mile. There were 893 housing units at a density of 29.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 33% White,0. 05% African American,0. 63% Asian,0. 05% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 57% of the population. Of all households 25. 4% were made up of individuals and 6. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.89. In the town, the population was out with 23. 1% under the age of 18,5. 1% from 18 to 24,26. 8% from 25 to 44,31. 1% from 45 to 64
Dummerston, Vermont
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West Dummerston Covered Bridge
Dummerston, Vermont
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East Dummerston in 1913
Dummerston, Vermont
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Built in 1872, the
West Dummerston Covered Bridge has a floor length of 267 feet (81 m)
5.
Vermont
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Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the other U. S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermonts western border with the state of New York, Vermont is the 2nd-least populous of the U. S. states, with nearly 50,000 more residents than Wyoming. The capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the U. S, the most populous municipality, Burlington, is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state. As of 2015, Vermont continued to be the producer of maple syrup in the U. S. It was ranked as the safest state in the country in January 2016, for thousands of years inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Mohawk, much of the territory that is now Vermont was claimed by Frances colony of New France. France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years War, for many years, the nearby colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area. Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, ultimately, those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for 14 years, aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies, Vermont is one of only four U. S. states that were previously sovereign states. Vermont was also the first state to join the U. S. as its 14th member state after the original 13, while still an independent republic, Vermont was the first of any future U. S. state to partially abolish slavery. It played an important geographic role in the Underground Railroad, Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles, making it the 45th-largest state. It is the state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet. Land comprises 9,250 square miles and water comprises 365 square miles, making it the 43rd-largest in land area, in total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti. The west bank of the Connecticut River marks the eastern border with New Hampshire. 41% of Vermonts land area is part of the Connecticut Rivers watershed, Lake Champlain, the major lake in Vermont, is the sixth-largest body of fresh water in the United States and separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles long and its greatest width, from east to west, is 89 miles at the Canada–U. S. Border, the narrowest width is 37 miles at the Massachusetts line, the states geographic center is approximately three miles east of Roxbury, in Washington County. There are fifteen U. S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada, the origin of the name Vermont is uncertain, but likely comes from the French les Verts Monts, meaning the Green Mountains
Vermont
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Vermont State House in
Montpelier
Vermont
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Flag
Vermont
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The Hancock Overlook, on Route 100 in
Hancock, Vermont.
Vermont
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Burlington, Vermont's largest city
6.
Ethnomusicology
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Ethnomusicology is the study of music from the cultural and social aspects of the people who make it. Stated broadly, ethnomusicology may be described as an investigation of music in its cultural contexts. When the field first came into existence, it was limited to the study of non-Western music—in contrast to the study of Western art music. Over time, the definition broadened to study of all the musics of the world according to certain approaches. While there is not a single, authoritative definition for ethnomusicology, Musical fieldworkers often also collect recordings and contextual information about the music of interest. Thus, ethnomusicological studies do not rely on printed or manuscript sources as the source of epistemic authority. Oskar Kolberg is regarded as one of the earliest European ethnomusicologists as he first began collecting Polish folk songs in 1839, comparative musicology, the primary precursor to ethnomusicology, emerged in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The International Musical Society in Berlin in 1899 acted as one of the first centers for ethnomusicology, the International Council for Traditional Music and the Society for Ethnomusicology are the primary international academic organizations for advancing the discipline of ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicologists have offered varying definitions of the field, more specifically, scholars debate what constitutes ethnomusicology. Bruno Nettl distinguishes between discipline and field, believing ethnomusicology is the latter, there are multiple approaches to and challenges of the field. Some approaches reference musical areas like musical synthesis in Ghana while others emphasize a study of culture through the avenue of music, the multifaceted and dynamic approaches to ethnomusicology allude to how the field has evolved. The primary element that distinguishes ethnomusicology from musicology is the expectation that ethnomusicologists engage in sustained, there are many individuals and groups who can be connected to ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology has evolved both in terminology and ideology since its inception in the late 19th century. While studying in Berlin at Frederick William University and attending the International Music Society, in his notes, he emphasized cultural and religious elements as well as social aspects of music and poetry. Inspired by these thoughts, many Western European nations began to transcribe and categorize music based on ethnicity, inspired by these thoughts, many Western European nations began to put many ethnic and cultural pieces of music onto paper and separate them. In 1956 the hyphen was removed with ideological intent to signify the discipline’s validity and these changes to the field’s name paralleled its internal shifts in ideological and intellectual emphasis. Kolinski also urged the field to move beyond ethnocentrism even as the term grew in popularity as a replacement for what was once described by comparative musicology. In the 1970s, ethnomusicology was becoming well known outside of the small circle of scholars who had founded and fostered the early development of the field
Ethnomusicology
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Ethnomusicologist
Frances Densmore recording
Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief for the
Bureau of American Ethnology in 1916.
7.
New media
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New media most commonly refers to content available on-demand through the Internet, accessible on any digital device, usually containing interactive user feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new media websites such as online newspapers, blogs, wikis, video games. A defining characteristic of new media is dialogue, New Media transmit content through connection and conversation. It enables people around the world to share, comment on, unlike any of past technologies, New Media is grounded on an interactive community. Most technologies described as new media are digital, often having characteristics of being manipulated, networkable, dense, compressible, some examples may be the Internet, websites, computer multimedia, video games, virtual reality, augmented reality, CD-ROMS, and DVDs. New media does not include television programs, feature films, magazines, books, Facebook is an example of the social media model, in which most users are also participants. Wikitude is an example for augmented reality and it displays information about the users surroundings in a mobile camera view, including image recognition, 3D modeling and location-based approach to augmented reality. In the 1950s, connections between computing and radical art began to grow stronger, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, we seem to witness a different kind of parallel relationship between social changes and computer design. Although causally unrelated, conceptually it makes sense that the Cold War, writers and philosophers such as Marshall McLuhan were instrumental in the development of media theory during this period. Until the 1980s media relied primarily upon print and analog broadcast models, such as those of television, the last twenty-five years have seen the rapid transformation into media which are predicated upon the use of digital technologies, such as the Internet and video games. However, these examples are only a representation of new media. The use of computers has transformed the remaining old media, as suggested by the advent of digital television. Andrew L. Shapiro argues that the emergence of new, digital technologies signals a potentially radical shift of who is in control of information, experience and resources. W. Russell Neuman suggests that whilst the new media have technical capabilities to pull in one direction, economic, Neuman argues that new media will, Alter the meaning of geographic distance. Allow for an increase in the volume of communication. Provide the possibility of increasing the speed of communication, allow forms of communication that were previously separate to overlap and interconnect. Scholars, such as Lister et al, New Media as Computer Technology Used as a Distribution Platform – New Media are the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and exhibition. E. g. Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, the problem with this is that the definition must be revised every few years
New media
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Topics and terminology
8.
Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas encompasses the visual artistic traditions of the indigenous peoples of the Americas from ancient times to the present. These include works from South America, Mesoamerica, North America including Greenland, in North America, the Lithic stage or Paleo-Indian period is defined as approximately 18, 000–8000 BCE. The period from around 8000–800 BCE is generally referred to as the Archaic period, the production of bannerstones, Projectile point, Lithic reduction styles and pictographic cave paintings are some of the art that remains from this time period. The bone was found early in the 21st century near Vero Beach, Florida, the bone is too mineralized to be dated, but the carving has been authenticated as having been made before the bone became mineralized. The oldest known painted object in North American is the Cooper Bison Skull from 10, 900–10,200 BCE, Lithic age art in South America includes Monte Alegre culture rock paintings created at Caverna da Pedra Pintada dating back to 9250–8550 BCE. Guitarrero Cave in Peru has the earliest known textiles in South America, the southwestern United States and certain regions of the Andes have the highest concentration of pictographs and Petroglyphs from this period. Both pictographs and petroglyphs are known as rock art, the Yupik of Alaska have a long tradition of carving masks for use in shamanic rituals. Indigenous peoples of the Canadian arctic have produced objects that could be classified as art since the time of the Dorset culture. While the walrus ivory carvings of the Dorset were primarily shamanic, with European contact the historic period of Inuit art began. In this period, which reached its height in the late 19th century, Inuit artisans created souvenirs for the crews of whaling ships and explorers. Modern Inuit art began in the late 1940s, when with the encouragement of the Canadian government they began to produce prints and serpentine sculptures for sale in the south. Greenlandic Inuit have a unique textile tradition intregrating skin-sewing, furs, Women create elaborate netted beadwork collars. They have strong mask-making tradition and also are known for an art form called tupilaq or a spirit object. Traditional art making practices thrive in the Ammassalik, sperm whale ivory remains a valued medium for carving. Inuit art from Alaska, Canada, and Greenland Cultures of interior Alaska, while humans have lived in the region far longer, the oldest known surviving Subarctic art is a petroglyph site in northwest Ontario, dated to 5000 BCE. Caribou, and to a lesser extent moose, are major resources, providing hides, antlers, sinew, porcupine quillwork embellishes hides and birchbark. After European contact with the influence of the Grey Nuns, moosehair tufting, famous examples include totem poles, transformation masks, and canoes. In addition to woodwork, two dimensional painting and silver, gold and copper engraved jewelry became important after contact with Europeans, the Eastern Woodlands, or simply woodlands, cultures inhabited the regions of North America east of the Mississippi River at least since 2500 BCE
Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Haida totem pole, Thunderbird Park, British Columbia
Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas
Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Dresden Codex, Maya, circa 11th or 12th century
Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas
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A petroglyph of a caravan of
bighorn sheep near
Moab, Utah, United States; a common theme in glyphs from the southwestern
desert
9.
Indigenous Australian art
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Indigenous Australian art or Australian Aboriginal art is art made by the Indigenous peoples of Australia and in collaborations between Indigenous Australians and others. It includes works in a range of media including painting on leaves, wood carving, rock carving, sculpting, ceremonial clothing. This article discusses works that pre-date European colonisation as well as contemporary Indigenous Australian art by Aboriginal Australians and these have been studied in recent years and have gained much international recognition. There are several types of art, and ways of making art, including rock painting, dot painting, rock engravings, bark painting, carvings, sculptures. Australian Indigenous art is the oldest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dated at 28,000 years, it is one of the oldest known pieces of rock art on Earth with a confirmed date. Rock art, including painting and engraving or carving, can be found at sites throughout Australia, rock paintings appear on caves in the Kimberley region of Western Australia known as Bradshaws. They are named after the European, Joseph Bradshaw, who first reported them in 1891, to Aboriginal people of the region they are known as Gwion Gwion or Giro Giro. Other painted rock art sites include Laura, Queensland, Ubirr, in the Kakadu National Park, Uluru, examples have been found that are believed to depict extinct megafauna such as Genyornis and Thylacoleo as well as more recent historical events such as the arrival of European ships. Rock engraving depends on the type of rock being used, many different methods are used to create rock engravings. The Sydney engravings, depicting carved animals and humans, have their own peculiar style not found elsewhere in Australia, the rock art at Murujuga is said to be the worlds largest collection of petroglyphs and includes images of extinct animals such as the thylacine. Activity prior to the last ice age until colonisation is recorded, Papunya art consists of various paint colours like yellow, brown, red and white. Papunya paintings can be painted on anything though traditionally they were painted on rocks, in caves, the paintings were mostly images of animals or lakes, and the Dreamtime. Stories and legends were depicted on caves and rocks to represent the artists religion, on modern artwork, dots are generally applied with bamboo satay sticks. The larger flat end of bamboo sticks are more commonly used for single application of dots to paintings. To create superimposed dotting, artists may take a bunch of satay sticks, dip the pointy ends into the paint, bark paintings are regarded as fine art, and today the finest art commands high prices on the international art markets. The best artists are recognized annually in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award, from ancient times, Australian aboriginal culture also produced a genre of aerial landscape art, often titled simply country. It is a kind of maplike, birds-eye view of the desert landscape, in the distant past, the common media for such artwork were rock, sand or body painting, but the tradition continues today in the form of coloured drawings with liquid based colour on canvas. See Aboriginal stone arrangements for more details, carved shells – Riji Mimih small man-like carvings of mythological impish creatures
Indigenous Australian art
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Bradshaw rock paintings found in the north-west
Kimberley region of Western Australia
Indigenous Australian art
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Aboriginal pictographs known as
Wondjina in the Wunnumurra Gorge,
Barnett River,
Kimberley, Western Australia
Indigenous Australian art
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Aboriginal
Namadgi National Park featuring a
Kangaroo,
Dingoes,
Echidna or
Turtles,
totems and stories are created using dots.
Indigenous Australian art
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This photo shows the painting of Baiame made by an unknown Wiradjuri artist in "Baiame's cave", near Singleton, NSW. Notice the length of his arms which extend to the two trees either side.
10.
Oceanic art
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Oceanic art or Oceanian art comprises the creative works made by the native peoples of the Pacific Islands and Australia, including areas as far apart as Hawaii and Easter Island. Specifically it comprises the works of the two groups of people who settled the area, though during two different periods and they would in time however, come to interact and together reach even more remote islands. The area is broken down into four separate regions, Polynesia, Micronesia, Australasia. The former two share a common culture of the Lapita, while the latter two comprise settlers of the first wave of people into the area. All of the regions in later times would be affected by western influence. In more recent times, the people of Oceania have found an appreciation of their regions artistic heritage. The artistic creations of people varies greatly throughout the cultures. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural, Art such as masks were used in religious ceremonies or social rituals. Petroglyphs, Tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia, New Zealand, Pacific Island and Lebanon Dahia. The ancestors of the people of these came from Southeast Asia by two different groups at separate times. The first, an Australoid people and the ancestors of modern-day Melanesians and Australian Aboriginals, came to New Guinea, the Melanesians expanded as far as the northern Solomon Islands by 38,000 BC. The second wave, from Southeast Asia, would not come for another 30,000 years and they would come to interact and together reach even the most remote Pacific islands. These early peoples lacked a system, and made works on perishable materials. By 1500 BC the Lapita culture, descendants of the wave, would begin to expand. At around the time, art began to appear in New Guinea. The period from 1000 BC on, the Lapita people would consolidate and begin to create the contemporary Polynesian cultures of Samoa, Tonga and they would from there venture further out into the Pacific and settle the Marquesas and northern Cook Islands between 200 BC and 1 AD. Starting around 1100 AD, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 moai. At about 1200 AD, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands
Oceanic art
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Moai at
Rano Raraku,
Rapa Nui (Easter Island)
Oceanic art
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Split gong figures from
Vanuatu
Oceanic art
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Modern
Maori tiki pendant
Oceanic art
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Birdmen (
Tangata manu) paintings in a cave at the foot of
Rano Kau,
Rapa Nui (Easter island).
11.
Nanook of the North
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In the tradition of what would later be called salvage ethnography, Flaherty captured the struggles of the Inuk man named Nanook and his family in the Canadian Arctic. The film has been considered the first feature-length documentary. Some have criticized Flaherty for staging several sequences, but the film is viewed as standing alone in its stark regard for the courage. The documentary follows the lives of an Inuk, Nanook, and his family as they travel, search for food, Nanook, his wife, Nyla, and their family are introduced as fearless heroes who endure rigors no other race could survive. The audience sees Nanook, often with his family, hunt a walrus, build an igloo, go about his day, in 1910 Flaherty was hired as an explorer and prospector along the Hudson Bay for the Canadian Pacific Railway. By 1916, Flaherty had enough footage that he began test screenings and was met with wide enthusiasm, however, in 1916, Flaherty dropped a cigarette onto the original camera negative and lost 30,000 feet of film. With his first attempt ruined, Flaherty decided to not only return for new footage, spending four years raising money, Flaherty was eventually funded by French fur company Revillon Frères and returned to the North and shot from August 1920 to August 1921. As a main character, Flaherty chose the celebrated hunter of the Itivimuit tribe, the full collaboration of the Inuit was key to Flahertys success as the Inuit were his film crew and many of them knew his camera better than he did. Flaherty has been criticized for deceptively portraying staged events as reality, Nanook was in fact named Allakariallak, while the wife shown in the film was not really his wife. According to Charles Nayoumealuk, who was interviewed in Nanook Revisited, on the other hand, while Flaherty made his Inuit actors use spears instead of guns during the walrus and seal hunts, the prey shown in the film were genuine, wild animals. The building of the igloo is one of the most celebrated sequences in the film, building an igloo large enough for a camera to enter resulted in the dome collapsing, and when they finally succeeded in making the igloo it was too dark for photography. In the Trade Post of the White Man scene, Nanook and his family arrive in a kayak at the trading post and one family member after another emerge from a small kayak, akin to a clown car at the circus. Going to trade his hunt from the year, including the skins of foxes, seals, the trader plays music on a gramophone and tries to explain how a man cans his voice. Bending forward and staring at the machine, Nanook puts his ear closer as the trader cranks the mechanism again, the trader removes the record and hands it to Nanook who at first peers at it and then puts it in his mouth and bites it. The scene is meant to be a one as the audience laughs at the naivete of Nanook. In truth, the scene was scripted and Allakariallak knew what a gramophone was. The film is not technically sophisticated, how could it be, with one camera, no lights, freezing cold, but it has an authenticity that prevails over any complaints that some of the sequences were staged. If you stage a walrus hunt, it still involves hunting a walrus, what shines through is the humanity and optimism of the Inuit
Nanook of the North
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Nanook of the North
Nanook of the North
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Nyla, wife of Nanook.
Nanook of the North
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Nanook (Allakariallak), 1920
12.
Centro Cultural Mexiquense
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Centro Cultural Mexiquense is a cultural center located on the western edge of the city of Toluca in central Mexico. The complex is located on part of the former San José de la Pila Hacienda and this hacienda was one of the largest in the Valley of Toluca with large pasture for cattle and a fresh water spring which only recently has been open to the public. The hacienda came into the hands of the state in 1976, part of the land,177,989 hectares, was dedicated to the cultural center. The main architect of the project was Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, who designed the museums, the center was inaugurated in 1987 the three major museums and a collection of art and cultural objects donated by regional centers, museums, libraries, arts festival and individual families. Much of the grounds remain open and contain some of the hacienda buildings along with about seventy sculptures of iron, bronze. The center hosts a number of exhibits in its museums as well as cultural events on its grounds. The Tianguis de Arte is held annually at the center and it sells art by state artists as well as books. In 2005, the center held an event inviting about 400 graffiti artists to create mural son fifty meters of screens located in the parking lot. To serve the section of the State of Mexico, a new cultural center in Texcoco called the Centro Cultural Mexiquense Bicentenario was inaugurated in 2011. The three main museums are the Anthropology and History Museum, the Museum of Popular Culture and the Modern Art Museum, the Anthropology and History Museum is divided into several halls. One is dedicated to ecology, exhibiting the flora and fauna of the State of Mexico, other halls are dedicated to the pre Hispanic period, the colonial period and Mexico since Independence. There are pre Hispanic tombs and ceramics from different cultural that inhabited the State of Mexico, there is also a sculpture of a serpent with an image of Mictlantecuhtli at its base. From the colonial period, there are mills, and steel armor along with religious items. In 2004, the museum was remodeled, the Museum of Popular Cultures is located in the former main house of the La Pila Hacienda, which originally was a monastery built at the end of the 17th century. In 1986 it was remodeled by the government with architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez. The museum deals with the ethnography, handcrafts and folk art and it contains a selection of handcrafts from the State of Mexico dating from the pre Hispanic period to the present. This includes a double sided Tree of Life measuring 5.2 meters tall, much of the ceramic ware is from Metepec. There is also a collection of items called El Tapanco
Centro Cultural Mexiquense
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View of the mall and Museum of Modern Art at the complex
Centro Cultural Mexiquense
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Museum director Thelma Morales with artisan
Ana Karen Allende and Sinhué Lucas at opening of exhibition
Centro Cultural Mexiquense
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Facade of the Museum of Popular Cultures
13.
Museum of Anthropology at UBC
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As well as being a major tourist destination, MOA is a research and teaching museum, where UBC courses in art, anthropology, archaeology, conservation, and museum studies are given. MOA houses 38,000 ethnographic objects, as well as 535,000 archaeological objects in its building alone, the museum is at 6393 NW Marine Dr, on the campus of the University of British Columbia. MOA and UBC lie on the University Endowment Lands, which are not officially part of the City of Vancouver, the museum was founded in 1947 when the items in UBCs ethnographic collection were put on display in the basement of the Main Library. Dr. Harry Hawthorn served as the first director of the new museum, with his wife, Dr. Audrey Hawthorn, in 1971, the museum received funds from the Government of Canada and UBC to begin construction of a building. In 1976, the new building, designed by renowned Canadian architect Arthur Erickson, opened under new director Michael M. Ames, Walter and Marianne Koerners 1975 donation of their extensive collection of Northwest Coast First Nations art to the museum formed a large part of the buildings contents. In 1997, Dr. Ruth Phillips became Museum director, in 2002, Ames returned as acting director. Dr. Anthony Shelton became director in 2004, on January 23,2010, MOA celebrated the completion of its multi-year, multimillion-dollar renovation and expansion project, A Partnership of Peoples. The new facilities were developed with MOA by UBC Properties Trust and designed by Arthur Erickson, the Museum is affiliated with CHIN, CMA, and Virtual Museum of Canada. The 46¢ stamps are perforated 13.5 and were printed by the Canadian Bank Note Company, Arthur Ericksons building, designed in 1976, was inspired by the post-and-beam architecture of northern Northwest Coast First Nations people. Like much of Ericksons work, the building is made out of concrete. The building takes advantage of second world war gun emplacements, with the famous Bill Reid Raven sculpture located on a gun battery. In September 2010, a pool was added to the front, funded by Yosef Wosk. Pools had been installed temporarily three times in MOA’s history, for a shoot in 1993, for the APEC leaders’ summit in 1997. The most iconic object in the museum is probably the yellow cedar sculpture The Raven and the First Men by Bill Reid, which was depicted on the Canadian twenty-dollar bill from 2004 to 2012. Other notable Bill Reid works include his Bear and Wasco sculptures, some of his gold jewellery, the museums Great Hall contains many fragments of totem poles from Haida and other First Nations villages along British Columbias coast. The MOA has a collection from the South Pacific. There are about 6000 textiles in the collection, about half of these come from Asia, of particular note are the Cantonese opera costumes that are considered some of the worlds finest. There are excellent holdings from the Northwest Coast, Oceania, Africa, the Audrey & Harry Hawthorn Library and Archives is open to the public
Museum of Anthropology at UBC
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Museum of Anthropology
Museum of Anthropology at UBC
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The multi-media Presentation Circle at the UBC Museum of Anthropology.
Museum of Anthropology at UBC
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2010 UBC MOA sign.
14.
Museum of Indian Arts and Culture
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The Museum of Indian Arts and Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology is a museum of Native American art and culture located in Santa Fe, New Mexico. It is one of eight museums in the operated by the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums as part of the Museum of New Mexico system. The museum and its programs are supported by the Museum of New Mexico Foundation. The Museum of Indian Arts and Culture is dedicated to the accurate and its mission statement emphasizes its intention to work closely with the Native communities of the region. Several years later, in 1927, John D. Rockefeller founded the renowned Laboratory of Anthropology with a mission to study the Southwests indigenous cultures. In 1947 the two merged, bringing together the most inclusive and systematically acquired collection of New Mexican. The Laboratorys collection continued to expand but was unavailable to the general public for lack of adequate exhibition facilities. In 1977, the New Mexico legislature appropriated $2.7 million for the design of a new Museum of Indian Arts & Culture. The MIAC opened ten years later in 1987, immediately adjacent to the Laboratory, as the 31 and this groundbreaking permanent exhibition, developed by a core curatorial team composed of Southwest Indian peoples and museum professionals, incorporates the voices of more than 75 Native Americans. Here, Now & Always tells the rich, complex and diverse stories of Native Americans in the Southwest through their own words, as the state repository for archaeological materials, the Museum has the responsibility to care for and maintain all artifacts excavated on state-owned land. Its Archaeological Research Collection contains artifacts numbering between 5 and 10 million, (As these artifacts are stored as bulk collections, and not catalogued individually, an exact count is unknown. The Museum has a regularly changing schedule of exhibitions, which draw on the strengths of its collection. Objects on display range from those created near the inception of pottery-making in the Southwest up to the present, here, Now & Always, a major exhibition that documents the Southwest’s indigenous communities and their challenging landscapes. Here, Now and Always includes more than 1,300 objects from the Museum’s collection accompanied by poetry, story, song and scholarly discussion. National Register of Historic Places listings in Santa Fe County, New Mexico Museum of Indian Arts and Culture Museum of New Mexico New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs
Museum of Indian Arts and Culture
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Museum of Indian Arts and Culture
15.
Robert Hull Fleming Museum
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The Fleming Museum of Art is a museum of art and anthropology located at the University of Vermont in Burlington, Vermont. The museums collection includes some 25,000 objects from a variety of eras. Until 2014, the museum was known as the Robert Hull Fleming Museum, according to the Vermont Encyclopedia, the museum is a cultural center for the community and attracts a diverse audience from UVM, area colleges, and the general public. The current director of the museum is Janie Cohen, among the museums initial collections were fossils, stuffed birds, a sperm whale tooth, and a cannon ball that a local resident found while gardening. When the collection outgrew its Old Mill space, it was relocated to Torrey Hall in 1862, less than ten years later a third story was built at Torrey Hall for the universitys fine arts collection, and the space became known as the Park Gallery of Fine Arts. The collection remained at Torrey Hall in the late 1920s, although it was outgrowing its space, Wolcott met with university president Guy Bailey, who proposed a new museum building in memory of Fleming. Wolcott accepted Baileys proposal and donated $150,000 for the construction of the Fleming Museum and these two gifts funded the $300,000 cost of construction the museum, and Wolcott donated an additional $150,000 for an endowment soon after. The museum states that in the mid-1930s between 25, 000–30,000 people visited the Fleming Museum annually, at a time when the population of Burlington was estimated at 27,000, the museum also affected the University of Vermont. The universitys studio art and art history began at the Fleming Museum of Art, and in the 1950s. A $1.4 million renovation to the museum was completed in 1984, the Fleming Museum includes several collections, African. The museums African collection consists mainly of West and Central African sculpture, the museums collection includes a number of objects dating from antiquity, with artifacts in the collection coming from Ancient Egypt, the Near East, the Mediterranean, and prehistoric Vermont. Notable pieces include an Assyrian bas-relief from the palace of Ashurnasirpal II, other objects in the collection include Sumerian cuneiform tablets, Greek pottery, Coptic textiles, and more than 400 Egyptian objects, including a late Dynastic mummy and coffin. The highlight of the museums Japanese print collection is a set of Hiroshiges Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō. Sculpture and decorative art pieces from Thailand, Cambodia, and Burma, acquired from the Doris Duke Collection, are represented in the collection. The museums European collection includes a variety of works, with an emphasis on Northern European paintings and prints of the 16th and 17th centuries, the museum also hold a complete edition of the Description de lÉgypte, the result of Napoleons campaign in Egypt. Among the oldest items in the collection are 13th-century illuminated manuscripts, the museums indigenous peoples of the Americas collection is housed in the James B. Petersen Gallery of Native American Cultures, which reopened in 2006 following renovation. The collection includes some 2,000 objects dating from c.800 CE, notable items include the Ogden B. The museum also holds the Colchester Jar, a ceramic vessel dated to around the year 1500 and representative of the St. Lawrence Iroquoian style, which was found in Vermont in the early 19th century
Robert Hull Fleming Museum
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Rickshaw driver picking up two clients, circa 1909. This is a photo-postcard from a trip to Japan that Katherine Wolcott and her uncle, Robert Hull Fleming, made in 1909.
16.
Salvage ethnography
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Salvage ethnography is the recording of the practices and folklore of cultures threatened with extinction, including as a result of modernization. It is generally associated with the American anthropologist Franz Boas, he, since the 1960s, anthropologists have used the term as part of a critique of 19th-century ethnography and early modern anthropology. A great number of problems in physiology, illustrative of the history of the species. The psychology of these races has been but little studied in a manner, and yet this is wanting in order to complete the history of human nature. How can this be obtained when so many tribes shall have become extinct, frances Densmore, an influential ethnomusicologist, worked in the tradition of salvage ethnography. Densmore recorded the songs and lyrics of Native Americans in an attempt to preserve them permanently, many of her original recordings, preserved on wax cylinders, are archived at the Library of Congress. Artists compounded the work of professional anthropologists during this time period, photographer Edward S. Curtis was preceded by painter George Catlin in attempting to capture indigenous North American traditions that they believed to be disappearing. Both Curtis and Catlin have been accused of taking artistic license by embellishing a scene or making something appear more authentically Native American, Edward S. Curtis notes in the introduction to his series on the North American Indian, The information that is to be gathered. Respecting the mode of life of one of the races of mankind. This statement reflects the artists paternalistic concern for documenting the culture of American Indians and is representative of both the popular and academic sentiment of the time. Salvage ethnography is often taught in film and media courses as a style of filmmaking that captures a civilization or peoples former way of living. The best example of this would be Robert Flahertys Nanook of the North, in Nanook, Flaherty staged incidents and scenes that did not fairly represent the Inuit tribes current way of life, but rather their former majesty. Historys Shadow, Native Americans and Historical Consciousness in the Nineteenth Century, reimagining Indians, Native Americans Through Anglo Eyes, 1880-1940. Surveying the Record, North American Scientific Exploration to 1930
Salvage ethnography
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A
Hupa fisherman—In the early 20th century,
Edward Curtis traveled across America recording photographs of the disappearing lifestyle of
American Indian tribes.
17.
Tribal art
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Tribal art is the visual arts and material culture of indigenous peoples. The term primitive is criticized as being Eurocentric and pejorative, Tribal art is often ceremonial or religious in nature. Typically originating in rural areas, tribal art refers to the subject, in the 19th century, non-western art was not seen by mainstream Western art professional as being as art at all. The art world perception of tribal arts is becoming less paternalistic, major exhibitions of tribal arts in the late 19th through mid-20th centuries exposed the Western art world to non-Western art. Major exhibitions included the Museum of Modern Arts 1935 Africa Negro Art and 1941 Indian Art of the United States, exposure to tribal arts provide inspiration to many modern artists, notably Expressionists, Cubists, and Surrealists, notably Surrealist Max Ernst. The Anthropology of Art, A Reader, edmund Snow Carpenter, The Tribal Terror of Self-Awareness. In Paul Hockings, Principles of Visual Anthropology,1975, pages 451–461, denis Dutton, Tribal Art and Artefact. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,51, 13–21, Winter 1993, denis Dutton, Mythologies of Tribal Art. Herbert E. Roese, African Wood Carvings - the sculptural art of West Africa,2011, Cardiff ISBN 978-0-9560294-2-3 Ralph T. Coe, the responsive eye, Ralph T. Coe and the collecting of American Indian art. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Tribal Art Magazine Paleobree — Tribal Art Information Service Art Tribal Newsletter Tribal art forgeries Oceanic Art Society
Tribal art
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A Punu tribe mask. Gabon West Africa
Tribal art
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Artwork in the
Museum of Indian Terracotta, New Delhi, India.
Tribal art
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Congolese Nkisi Nkondi, a female power figure, with nails, collection BNK, Royal Tribal Art
18.
Folk art
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Folk art encompasses art produced from an indigenous culture or by peasants or other laboring tradespeople. In contrast to fine art, folk art is primarily utilitarian, Folk Art is characterized by a naïve style, in which traditional rules of proportion and perspective are not employed. The varied geographical and temporal prevalence and diversity of folk art make it difficult to describe as a whole, though some patterns have been demonstrated. On the other hand, many 18th- and 19th-century American folk art painters made their living by their work, including itinerant portrait painters, some of whom produced large bodies of work. Terms that might overlap with folk art are naïve art, tribal art, primitive art, popular art, outsider art, traditional art, tramp art and working-class art/blue-collar art. As one might expect, these terms can have multiple and even controversial connotations but are used interchangeably with the term folk art. Folk art expresses cultural identity by conveying shared community values and aesthetics and it encompasses a range of utilitarian and decorative media, including cloth, wood, paper, clay, metal and more. If traditional materials are inaccessible, new materials are often substituted, Folk art reflects traditional art forms of diverse community groups — ethnic, tribal, religious, occupational, geographical, age- or gender-based — who identify with each other and society at large. Folk artists traditionally learn skills and techniques through apprenticeships in informal community settings, antique folk art is distinguished from traditional art in that, while collected today based mostly on its artistic merit, it was never intended to be art for art’s sake at the time of its creation. Many folk art traditions like quilting, ornamental picture framing, and decoy carving continue to thrive, contemporary folk artists are frequently self-taught as their work is often developed in isolation or in small communities across the country. Folk artworks, styles and motifs have inspired various artists, for example, Pablo Picasso was inspired by African tribal sculptures and masks, while Natalia Goncharova and others were inspired by traditional Russian popular prints called luboks. In music, Igor Stravinskys seminal The Rite of Spring was inspired by religious rites. CIOFF, International Council of Organizations of Folklore Festivals and Folk Arts
Folk art
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"Gran calavera eléctrica" by
José Guadalupe Posada, Mexico, 1900–1913
Folk art
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Island of Salvation Botanica, Piety Street,
Bywater, New Orleans
Folk art
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Darrel Mortimer holding 8' tattooed bamboo
chillum; photograph by Sally Larsen, 2009
Folk art
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House in
New Orleans
19.
Gregory Bateson
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Gregory Bateson was an English anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, visual anthropologist, semiotician, and cyberneticist whose work intersected that of many other fields. In the 1940s he helped extend systems theory and cybernetics to the social and behavioral sciences and he spent the last decade of his life developing a meta-science of epistemology to bring together the various early forms of systems theory developing in different fields of science. His writings include Steps to an Ecology of Mind and Mind, angels Fear was co-authored by his daughter Mary Catherine Bateson. Bateson was born in Grantchester in Cambridgeshire, England, on 9 May 1904 and he was the third and youngest son of Beatrice Durham and the distinguished geneticist William Bateson. He was named Gregory after Gregor Mendel, the Austrian monk who founded the science of genetics. The younger Bateson attended Charterhouse School from 1917 to 1921, obtained a Bachelor of Arts in biology at St. Johns College, Cambridge, in 1925, Bateson lectured in linguistics at the University of Sydney in 1928. From 1931 to 1937 he was a Fellow of St. Johns College, Cambridge, spent the years before World War II in the South Pacific in New Guinea, during 1936–1950 he was married to Margaret Mead. At that time he applied his knowledge to the war effort before moving to the United States, in Palo Alto, California, Bateson and his colleagues Donald Jackson, Jay Haley and John H. Weakland developed the double-bind theory. Batesons interest in theory and cybernetics forms a thread running through his work. He was one of the members of the core group of the Macy conferences in Cybernetics, and the later set on Group Processes. Bateson was interested in the relationship of these fields to epistemology and his association with the editor and author Stewart Brand helped to widen his influence. From the 1970s until his last years, an audience of university students. In 1956 he became a citizen of the United States. Bateson was a member of William Irwin Thompsons Lindisfarne Association, in the 1970s, he taught at the Humanistic Psychology Institute in San Francisco, and in 1972 joined the faculty of Kresge College at the University of California, Santa Cruz. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1976, California Governor Jerry Brown appointed Bateson to the Board of Regents of the University of California, in which position he served until his death. He died on Independence Day,1980, in the guest house of the San Francisco Zen Center, Batesons life, according to Lipset, was greatly affected by the death of his two brothers. After this event, which transformed a private family tragedy into public scandal, all William and Beatrices ambitious expectations fell on Gregory, Batesons first marriage, in 1936, was to American cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead. Bateson and Mead had a daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson, who became an anthropologist
Gregory Bateson
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Rudolph Arnheim (L) and Bateson (R) speaking at the
American Federation of Arts 48th Annual Convention, 1957 Apr 6 / Eliot Elisofon, photographer.
American Federation of Arts records,
Archives of American Art,
Smithsonian Institution.
20.
Franz Boas
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Franz Uri Boas was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the Father of American Anthropology. His work is associated with the movement of anthropological historicism, studying in Germany, Boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography. He then participated in an expedition to northern Canada where he became fascinated with the culture. He went on to do work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest. Through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, Boas profoundly influenced the development of American anthropology. Among his most significant students were Manuel Gamio, A. L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Edward Sapir, Margaret Mead, Melville Herskovits, and Zora Neale Hurston. In this way, Boas introduced culture as the concept for describing differences in behavior between human groups, and as the central analytical concept of anthropology. Franz Boas was born in Minden, Westphalia, although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society. Boass parents were educated, well-to-do, and liberal, they did not like dogma of any kind, due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests. Early in life he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences, Boas vocally opposed anti-Semitism and refused to convert to Christianity, but he did not identify himself as a Jew. This is disputed however by Ruth Bunzel, a protégée of Boas, according to his biographer, He was an ethnic German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America. In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote, The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the revolution of 1848 were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in affairs, my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma and my father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom. From kindergarten on, Boas was educated in history, a subject he enjoyed. In gymnasium, he was most proud of his research on the distribution of plants. In 1879, he hoped to transfer to Berlin University to study physics under Hermann von Helmholtz, the combination of physics and geography also may have been accomplished through a major in physics and a minor in geography. Boas, due to deafness, encountered difficulties studying tonal languages such as Laguna
Franz Boas
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Franz Boas
Franz Boas
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Boas' dissertation: Beiträge zur Erkenntniss der Farbe des Wassers (Faculty of Philosophy,
University of Kiel 1881)
Franz Boas
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"Franz Boas posing for figure in US Natural History Museum exhibit entitled "Hamats'a coming out of secret room" 1895 or before. Courtesy of National Anthropology Archives. (
Kwakiutl culture)
Franz Boas
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Drawing of a
Kwakiutl mask from Boas's The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (1897). Wooden skulls hang from below the mask, which represents one of the cannibal bird helpers of Bakbakwalinooksiwey.
21.
Pierre Bourdieu
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Pierre Bourdieu was a French sociologist, anthropologist, philosopher, and renowned public intellectual. Another notable influence on Bourdieu was Blaise Pascal, after whom Bourdieu titled his Pascalian Meditations, Bourdieus best known book is Distinction, A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. The book was judged the sixth most important sociological work of the century by the International Sociological Association. In it, Bourdieu argues that judgments of taste are related to social position, in the process, he tried to reconcile the influences of both external social structures and subjective experience on the individual. Pierre Felix Bourdieu was born in Denguin, in southern France on 1 August 1930, to a postal worker, the household spoke Béarnese, a Gascon dialect. Bourdieu married Marie-Claire Brizard in 1962, the couple had three sons, Jérôme, Emmanuel, and Laurent, Bourdieu was educated at the lycée in Pau before moving to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. From there he gained entrance to the École Normale Supérieure, also in Paris, after getting his agrégation, Bourdieu worked as a lycée teacher at Moulins for a year before his being conscription into the French Army in 1955. His biographers write that he not to enter the Reserve Officers College like many of his fellow ENS graduates as he wished to stay with people from his own modest social background. Deployed to Algeria in October 1955 during its war of independence from France, after his year-long military service, Bourdieu stayed on as a lecturer in Algiers. The result was his first book, Sociologie de lAlgérie, which became a success in France and was published in America in 1962. He later drew heavily on this fieldwork in his 1972 book Outline of a Theory of Practice, in 1960 Bourdieu returned to the University of Paris before gaining a teaching position at the University of Lille, where he remained until 1964. From 1964 onwards Bourdieu held the position of Professor in the VIe section of the École Pratique des Hautes Études, in 1968, Bourdieu took over the Centre de Sociologie Européenne, founded by Aron, which he directed until his death. In 1993 he was honored with the Médaille dor du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, in 1996 he received the Goffman Prize from the University of California, Berkeley and in 2001 the Huxley Medal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. Bourdieu died of cancer at the age of 71, Bourdieus work is influenced by much of traditional anthropology and sociology which he undertook to synthesize into his own theory. And of the need to develop social theory from social practice. The class-based nature of artistic taste had already firmly established by Arnold Hauser in The Social History of Art. However, Bourdieu critically diverged from Durkheim in emphasizing the role of the agent in enacting, through the embodiment of social structures. He furthermore emphasized that the reproduction of social structures does not operate according to a functionalist logic, maurice Merleau-Ponty and, through him, the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl played an essential part in the formulation of Bourdieus focus on the body, action, and practical dispositions
Pierre Bourdieu
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Pierre Bourdieu
22.
John Collier (anthropologist)
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John Collier Jr. son of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs with the same name, was an American anthropologist and an early leader in the fields of visual anthropology and applied anthropology. His emphasis on analysis and use of photographs in ethnography led him to significant contributions in other subfields of anthropology. His book, Visual Anthropology, Photography as a Research Method is one of the earliest textbooks in the field and is still in use today and he is also notable as someone who overcame significant learning and hearing impairments to succeed on a larger stage. John Collier Jr. born May 22,1913 in Sparkill, New York, was the son of Lucy Wood Collier and his father is famous as the head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the New Deal. John Jr. grew up largely in Taos, New Mexico, when it became evident that he could not perform in school, his family permitted to him spend considerable time, when in New Mexico, living with family friends in the Taos Indian Pueblo. During the periods he was in California, he came under the influence of Capt, Leighton Robinson, a retired English master in sail, who provided seamanship training to John. He was also apprenticed to the Western painter, Maynard Dixon. He spent considerable time in the Dixon / Lange household in San Francisco during his early and mid teens and was trained in a range of painting techniques. When in Taos he also received training from the artist Nicolai Fechin. In 1943, he married Mary Elizabeth Trumbull, who became a long term partner in his photographic and their son, Malcolm Collier, also became an anthropologist who eventually collaborated with his father on a new edition of Visual Anthropology. Other sons include Robin Collier, Vian Collier, and Aran Collier, only after a brief, unproductive enrollment at the California School of Fine Arts, where he took more painting classes, did he turn to photography. He was largely self trained, except for some instruction in studio techniques from Sara Higgins Mack, in 1939, after working for a period in San Francisco, he opened a photographic studio in Taos, using what had been Paul Strands darkroom and studio. After leaving Standard Oil at the end of 1946, Collier worked as a free lance photographer in New Mexico, in 1950 he was hired by Alexander H. Leighton of Cornell University as part of a multi-disciplinary team investigation of community mental health in the Maritimes of Canada. Leighton challenged Collier to formalize methodologies for the use of photography in social science research, the work with Leighton laid the intellectual foundation for the later development of the methodologies for visual anthropology for which Collier is known. Collier later worked for Cornell in the Southwest and independently recorded the Cornell Vicos project in Peru during 1954 and 1955. He then free lanced out of New Mexico before moving to California in 1959, where he began a career as a teacher at San Francisco State University. Colliers work in the field of anthropology was influenced by Roy Stryker and Alexander H. Leighton. George Spindler, the founder of anthropology, chose Colliers book Visual Anthropology for early inclusion in his series of basic books in anthropology
John Collier (anthropologist)
–
John Collier Jr.
23.
Frances Densmore
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Frances Theresa Densmore was an American anthropologist and ethnographer born in Red Wing, Minnesota. Densmore is known for her studies of Native American music and culture, as a child Densmore developed an appreciation of music by listening to the nearby Dakota Indians. She studied music at Oberlin College for three years and she helped preserve their culture in a time when government policy was to encourage Native Americans to adopt Western customs. Densmore began recording music officially for the Smithsonian Institutions Bureau of American Ethnology in 1907, in her fifty-plus years of studying and preserving American Indian music, she collected thousands of recordings. Many of the recordings she made on behalf of the BAE now are held in the Library of Congress, while her original recordings often were on wax cylinders, many of them have been reproduced using other media and are included in other archives. The recordings may be accessed by researchers as well as tribal delegations, Densmore frequently was published in the journal American Anthropologist, contributing consistently throughout her career. She wrote The Indians and Their Music in 1926, between 1910 and 1957, she published fourteen book-length bulletins for the Smithsonian, each describing the musical practices and repertories of a different Native-American group. These were reprinted as a series by DaCapo Press in 1972 and she also was a part of A Ventriloquy of Anthros in the American Indian Quarterly along with James Owen Dorsey and Eugene Buechel. Frances Densmore page from Minnesota Public Radio Frances Densmore Minnesota Historical Society
Frances Densmore
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Frances Densmore
Frances Densmore
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Densmore with
Blackfoot chief, Mountain Chief, during a 1916
phonograph recording session for the
Bureau of American Ethnology.
24.
Robert Hugh Layton
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Robert H. Layton is a British anthropologist. He is Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Durham University and he has carried out fieldwork in rural France and in a number of Aboriginal communities in Australia, and recently on traditional craft in rural China. Robert Layton studied anthropology at University College London under the famous Australian anthropologist Phyllis Kaberry and he completed his DPhil under the supervision of F. G. Bailey at the University of Sussex and he is known for his eclectic approach to anthropology and diverse range of interests. He has written extensively about art, archaeology, the evolution of society and culture. Robert Laytons 1991 book, The Anthropology of Art, seeks to place the study of art within an anthropological framework. He rejects the use of the word primitive when discussing art because he argues that this implies that the origins, in his later theoretical work Robert Layton has also critically reflected on a theoretical approach outlined by Alfred Gell in Art and Agency. In particular, Layton focuses on Gells definition of art as defined by the function it performs in advancing social relationships through the abduction of agency. While studying Australian rock art Robert Layton helped prepare a number of Aboriginal Land Claims and this research has been published in his books Uluru, An Aboriginal history of Ayers Rock and Australian rock art, a new synthesis. He was the author of the Australian Governments successful renomination of the Uluru-Katatjuta National Park to the World Heritage List as an indigenous landscape of Universal Significance. This was only the indigenous landscape to be inscribed on the World Heritage List. His work on Australian Aboriginal Rock Art highlights the contrast between Western art and Aboriginal art, while individual expression of personal experiences and emotions is an important part of the former artistic tradition, it is not central, or indeed important, in traditional Aboriginal rock art. Robert Layton has promoted dialogue between Western archaeologists and indigenous communities through the World Archaeological Congress, Laytons 2006 book, Order and Anarchy, Civil Society, Social Disorder and War, examines the role of violence in human evolution. Layton argues that social systems come from interaction between agents using cultural strategies, Social disorder and war result when such cultural strategies are undermined by changes in economic and social landscapes such as those brought about by globalisation. Anthropology and history in Franche-Comté, A critique of social theory, oxford University Press The anthropology of art. Cambridge University Press Australian rock art, A new synthesis, cambridge University Press An introduction to theory in anthropology. Cambridge University Press Order and anarchy, Civil society, social disorder, cambridge University Press Uluru, An aboriginal history of Ayers Rock. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies The archaeology and anthropology of landscape, Shaping your landscape edited by Peter J. Ucko, routledge Conflict in the archaeology of living traditions
Robert Hugh Layton
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Robert Hugh Layton
25.
Alan Lomax
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Alan Lomax was an American field collector of folk music of the 20th century. He was also a folklorist, ethnomusicologist, archivist, writer, scholar, political activist, oral historian, and film-maker. Lomax produced recordings, concerts, and radio shows in the US and in England and he collected material first with his father, folklorist and collector John A. With the start of the Cold War, Lomax continued to out for a public role for folklore. He devoted much of the part of his life to advocating what he called Cultural Equity. In the 1970s and 1980s Lomax advised the Smithsonian Institutions Folklife Festival and produced a series of films about music, American Patchwork. In his late seventies, Lomax completed a memoir, The Land Where the Blues Began, linking the birth of the blues to debt peonage, segregation. Because of childhood asthma, chronic ear infections, and generally frail health, in Dallas, he entered the Terrill School for Boys. Lomax excelled at Terrill and then transferred to the Choate School in Connecticut for a year, because of his mothers declining health, however, rather than going to Harvard as his father had wished, Lomax matriculated at the University of Texas at Austin. The hardest thing Ive had to learn is that Im not a genius, at the University of Texas Lomax read Nietzsche and developed an interest in philosophy. He joined and wrote a few columns for the paper, The Daily Texan. At this time he also he began collecting records and taking his dates to black-owned night clubs. During the spring term his mother died, and his youngest sister Bess, Although the Great Depression was rapidly causing his familys resources to plummet, Harvard came up with enough financial aid for the 16-year-old Lomax to spend his sophomore year there. He enrolled in philosophy and physics and also pursued a long-distance informal reading course in Plato and he also became involved in radical politics and came down with pneumonia. His grades suffered, diminishing his financial aid prospects and he did his first field collecting without his father with Zora Neale Hurston and Mary Elizabeth Barnicle in the summer of 1935. He returned to the University of Texas that fall and was awarded a BA in Philosophy, summa cum laude, Alan Lomax married Elizabeth Harold Goodman, then a student at the University of Texas, in February 1937. They were married for 12 years and had a daughter, Anne, Elizabeth assisted him in recording in Haiti, Alabama, Appalachia, and Mississippi. Elizabeth also wrote radio scripts of folk operas featuring American music that were broadcast over the BBC Home Service as part of the war effort
Alan Lomax
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Lomax playing guitar on stage at the Mountain Music Festival,
Asheville, North Carolina, in the early 1940s.
26.
Margaret Mead
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Margaret Mead was an American cultural anthropologist who featured frequently as an author and speaker in the mass media during the 1960s and 1970s. She earned her bachelors degree at Barnard College in New York City and her M. A. Mead was a respected and often controversial academic who popularized the insights of anthropology in modern American and Western culture. Her reports detailing the attitudes towards sex in South Pacific and Southeast Asian traditional cultures influenced the 1960s sexual revolution and she was a proponent of broadening sexual mores within a context of traditional Western religious life. Margaret Mead, the first of five children, was born in Philadelphia and her father, Edward Sherwood Mead, was a professor of finance at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, and her mother, Emily Mead, was a sociologist who studied Italian immigrants. Her sister Katharine died at the age of nine months and this was a traumatic event for Mead, who had named the girl, and thoughts of her lost sister permeated her daydreams for many years. Her family moved frequently, so her early education was directed by her Grandmother until, at age 11, she was enrolled by her family at Buckingham Friends School in Lahaska and her family owned the Longland farm from 1912 to 1926. Born into a family of various religious outlooks, she searched for a form of religion that gave an expression of the faith that she had been acquainted with. In doing so, she found the rituals of the Episcopal Church to fit the expression of religion she was seeking, Margaret studied one year,1919, at DePauw University, then transferred to Barnard College where she earned her bachelors degree in 1923. She studied with professor Franz Boas and Dr. Ruth Benedict at Columbia University before earning her masters degree in 1924, Mead set out in 1925 to do fieldwork in Samoa. In 1926, she joined the American Museum of Natural History, New York City and she received her Ph. D. from Columbia University in 1929. Before departing for Samoa, Mead had an affair with the linguist Edward Sapir. But Sapirs conservative ideas about marriage and the role were anathema to Mead. Mead received news of Sapirs remarriage while living in Samoa, where, on a beach and her first husband was American Luther Cressman, a theology student at the time who eventually became an anthropologist. Mead dismissively characterized their union as my student marriage in Blackberry Winter and her second husband was New Zealander Reo Fortune, a Cambridge graduate and fellow anthropologist. Meads third and longest-lasting marriage was to the British anthropologist Gregory Bateson, with whom she had a daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson and she readily acknowledged that Gregory Bateson was the husband she loved the most. She was devastated when he left her, and she remained his friend ever after, keeping his photograph by her bedside wherever she traveled. Mead also had a close relationship with Ruth Benedict, one of her instructors. In her memoir about her parents, With a Daughters Eye, Mead never openly identified herself as lesbian or bisexual
Margaret Mead
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Margaret Mead in 1948.
Margaret Mead
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Samoan girl, c. 1896
Margaret Mead
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Mead, ca. 1950.
27.
Alan Merriam
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Alan Parkhurst Merriam was an American cultural anthropologist and ethnomusicologist. He is known for his studies of music in Native America and Africa, in his book The Anthropology of Music, he outlined and develops a theory and method for studying music from an anthropological perspective with anthropological methods. He was a co-founder of the Society for Ethnomusicology in 1952 and he edited the Newsletter of the Society for Ethnomusicology from 1952 to 1957, and he edited the journal Ethnomusicology from 1957 to 1958. Merriams initial work was based on fieldwork carried out in his native Montana and he undertook extensive field research among the Flathead Indians of Montana in 1950 and again in 1958. In Africa, he studied with the Basongye and Bashi people of Zaïre and Burundi in the 1950s, later, Merriam proposed a tripartite model for the study of ethnomusicology, centering on the study of music in culture. This model suggested that music should be studied on three levels, conceptualization about music, behavior in relation to music, and analysis of musics sounds. In later works, Merriam amended his original concept of music in culture to music as culture, Merriam died in the LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 catastrophe, on March 14,1980. Merriam, Alan P. Ethnomusicology of the Flathead Indians, an African world, the Basongye village of Lupupa Ngye
Alan Merriam
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Alan Merriam
28.
Hortense Powdermaker
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Hortense Powdermaker was an American anthropologist best known for her ethnographic studies of African Americans in rural America and of Hollywood. Born to a Jewish family, Powdermaker spent her childhood in Reading, Pennsylvania and she studied history and the humanities at Goucher College, graduating in 1921. She worked as an organizer for the Amalgamated Clothing Workers. She left the United States to study at the London School of Economics, where she met the eminent anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski, who convinced her to embark on a course of doctoral studies. While at the LSE, Powdermaker also worked under and was influenced by other well-known anthropologists such as A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Powdermaker completed her PhD on leadership in primitive society in 1928. Like her contemporaries, Powdermaker sought to identify her work with a primitive people. After returning to the United States, Powdermaker was given an appointment at the new, Rockefeller Foundation supported, director Edward Sapir encouraged her to apply ethnographic field methods to the study of communities in her own society. She remained at Yale between 1930 and 1937, during which time she conducted anthropological fieldwork in an African-American community in Indianola, Mississippi, in 1938 she began working at Queens College, where she founded the departments of Anthropology an Sociology during a career spanning three decades. Subsequent research yielded Hollywood, the Dream Factory, the first and she then worked documenting the mining industry and the consumption of American media in Northern Rhodesia. She died two years later of a heart attack, the building on the Queens College campus that houses the anthropology and sociology departments is named in her honor. This study was the source of her groundbreaking theory focusing on the psychological adaptation undergone by Blacks, most people outside of the field of anthropology know of Powdermaker from her study of Hollywood. Hollywood, the Dream Factory, published in 1950 remains the only serious anthropological study of Hollywood, in order to write Copper Town, Powdermaker had to overcome some difficulties. It has been criticized by social anthropologists who objected to her use of psychological concepts as well as her lack of “linguistic preparation”. Nevertheless, it is an important work regarding the effects of the cinema on African culture presented in an anthropological perspective and this work was published in 1962 in the United States. This book discusses the direct implication that the cinema, or the “bioscope” as it was called by Northern Rhodesians, had on the people who went to it, there were numerous studies on the effects of the cinema on African people, Powdermakers among them. Copper Town, Changing Africa was a study of the effects on Northern Rhodesia specifically. One of the points of her work was to explain the confusion many Africans experienced when viewing Western films. One was their understanding the concept of acting, some who attended were confused by the concept of a film being fictional
Hortense Powdermaker
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Powdermaker in 1950
29.
Social anthropology
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In the USA, social anthropology is commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology. Differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue, Social and cultural anthropologists, and some who integrate the two, are found in most institutes of anthropology. Thus the formal names of institutional units no longer necessarily reflect fully the content of the disciplines these cover, most retain the name under which they were founded. It is differentiated from sociology, both in its methods, and in its commitment to the relevance and illumination provided by micro studies. It extends beyond strictly social phenomena to culture, art, individuality, many social anthropologists use quantitative methods, too, particularly those whose research touches on topics such as local economies, demography, human ecology, cognition, or health and illness. The subject has been enlivened by, and has contributed to, approaches from other disciplines, such as philosophy, the history of science, psychoanalysis, the subject has both ethical and reflexive dimensions. An example of this is the effect, whereby those being studied may alter their behaviour in response to the knowledge that they are being watched and studied. Social anthropology has historical roots in a number of 19th-century disciplines, including ethnology, folklore studies, thus, savages from the colonies were displayed, often nudes, in cages, in what has been called human zoos. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology, at the time, the field was dominated by the comparative method. It was assumed that all societies passed through an evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were seen as evolutionary living fossils that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful and it was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced Polynesian migrations across the Pacific Ocean for instance - although some of them believed it originated in Egypt. Finally, the concept of race was actively discussed as a way to classify -, Tylor and James George Frazer are generally considered the antecedents to modern social anthropology in Britain. Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of uniformity of mankind, Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief. Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, were interested in fieldwork, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements. The Golden Bough was abridged drastically in subsequent editions after his first, the findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description. As a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire resident on a British colonial possession, theoretically, he advocated a functionalist interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs
Social anthropology
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The British Museum, London
Social anthropology
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E.B. Tylor, 19th-century British anthropologist
Social anthropology
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Bronislaw Malinowski, Anthropologist at the London School of Economics
Social anthropology
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The main LSE entrance
