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United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
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Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
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William Jennings Bryan
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He served two terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Nebraska and was United States Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson. He resigned because of his pacifist position on World War I. Bryan was a devout Presbyterian, an advocate of popular democracy, and an enemy of the banks. He demanded Free Silver because he believed it undermined the evil Money Power and he was a peace advocate, a supporter of Prohibition, and an opponent of Darwinism on religious and humanitarian grounds. With his deep, commanding voice and wide travels, he was perhaps the best-known orator, because of his faith in the wisdom of the common people, he was called The Great Commoner. In the intensely fought 1896 and 1900 elections, he was defeated by William McKinley, with over 500 speeches in 1896, Bryan invented the national stumping tour in an era when other presidential candidates stayed home. President Wilson appointed him Secretary of State in 1913, after the Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915, Wilson made strong demands on Germany that Bryan disagreed with, resigning in protest as a pacifist. After 1920, he turned to Christian fundamentalism, he supported Prohibition and attacked Darwinism and evolution, five days after the conclusion of the Scopes case, Bryan died in his sleep. William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois, on March 19,1860, to Silas Lillard Bryan, Bryans mother was of English heritage. Mary Bryan joined the Salem Baptists in 1872, so Bryan attended Methodist services on Sunday morning with his father, at this point, William began spending his Sunday afternoons at the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. At age 14, Bryan attended a revival, was baptized, in later life, Bryan said the day of his baptism was the most important day in his life, but at the time it caused little change in his daily routine. In 1906, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church joined the larger Presbyterian Church in the United States of America and his father, Silas Bryan, of Scots-Irish and English ancestry, was an avid Jacksonian Democrat. Silas won election to the Illinois State Senate, but was defeated for re-election in 1860. He won election as a circuit judge, and in 1866 moved his family to a 520-acre farm north of Salem. Until age ten, Bryan was home-schooled, as children were. The Bible and McGuffey Readers shaped his views that gambling and liquor were evil, to attend Whipple Academy, which was attached to Illinois College, Bryan was sent to Jacksonville, Illinois, in 1874. Following high school, he entered Illinois College, graduating as valedictorian in 1881, during his time at Illinois College, Bryan was a member of the Sigma Pi literary society. He studied law at Union Law College in Chicago, while preparing for the bar exam, he taught high school and met Mary Elizabeth Baird, a cousin of William Sherman Jennings, the latter was also his own first-cousin. Bryan and Mary Elizabeth Baird married on October 1,1884, and they settled in Jacksonville, Mary also became a lawyer, and collaborated with Bryan on all his speeches and writings
4.
Bainbridge Colby
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Bainbridge Colby was an American lawyer, a political progressive, a co-founder of the United States Progressive Party and Woodrow Wilsons last Secretary of State. Colby was a Republican until he helped co-found the National Progressive Party in 1912, he ran for multiple offices as a member of that party, Wilsons appointment of Colby was bizarre says historian John Milton Cooper, for Colby had no diplomatic experience or skills. Editorial responses from leading newspapers ranged from puzzlement to outrage, Colby was chosen because he was totally loyal to Wilson, he left no notable achievements in the office. Bainbridge Colby was born in St. Louis, Missouri on December 22,1869 and he graduated from Williams College, then attended Columbia Law School and New York Law School. He was admitted to the New York bar, and served as a member of the New York State Assembly in 1902 and he spoke at the Colby College commencement on June 19,1933, at which time he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree. His first wife was Nathalie Sedgwick, who became a novelist, Colby decided to divorce his wife while he was in Paris in 1928. The divorce was finalized in Reno, Nevada later that year, the marriage apparently was very contentious and Colby felt the need to include in his divorce decree a monthly payment of $1,500.00 to stop Nathalie from ridiculing him in her writings. Less than a later, he married Anne Ahlstrand Ely. When Bainbridge Colby died in 1950, his widow donated much memorabilia to the local library and she never remarried and died in 1963. At the New York state election,1914, Colby ran on the Progressive ticket for U. S, senator from New York, but was defeated by Republican James W. Wadsworth, Jr. At the New York state election,1916, he ran again, this time on the Progressive and Independence League tickets, during World War I, Colby was a member of the United States Shipping Board. Colby was an assistant to the United States Attorney General in an anti-trust action in 1917. Wilson appointed him Secretary of State on March 23,1920, after firing his predecessor, in December 1920, Colby embarked on the battleship Florida for an official goodwill cruise to South America. He served until Wilson left office on March 4,1921, Colby advocated his policies firmly even as Wilson suffered the debilitating side effects of a series of strokes. Colby supported the League of Nations and established a precedent for not recognizing newly-Communist Russia, after leaving office as secretary of state, Colby continued to practice law for the remainder of his career. As an attorney, Colby accepted Woodrow Wilson as a partner after the latters presidency, earlier in his career, Colbys most notable client was Mark Twain. At the time of his death, Colby was the last surviving member of the Wilson Cabinet, aftermath of war, Bainbridge Colby and Wilsonian diplomacy, 1920-1921 Bainbridge Colby at Find a Grave
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Counselor of the United States Department of State
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The Counselor conducts special international negotiations and consultations, and also undertakes special assignments from time to time, as directed by the Secretary. Currently, the Counselor holds under law a rank equivalent to that of Under Secretary of State, the Secretary of State created the position of Counselor for the Department of State in 1909 as part of a general Department reorganization. In 1912, the became a Presidential appointment. Between 1913 and 1919, the Counselor served as the Departments second-ranking officer, in 1919, the newly created position of Under Secretary of State subsumed the duties of the Counselor. An Act of Congress, May 18,1937, re-established the position of Counselor of the Department of State, between 1961 and 1965, the Counselor also served as the Chairman of the Policy Planning Council. On April 30,1994, the title was changed to Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs when Counselor Timothy E. Wirth was appointed to that position, but another Counselor was appointed in 1997. The most recent Counselor was Ambassador Kristie A. Kenney, who served from February 12,2016 to February 17,2017
6.
John Bassett Moore
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John Bassett Moore was an authority on international law, who was a member of the Hague Tribunal and the first American judge to serve on the Permanent Court of International Justice. Moore was born in Smyrna, Delaware, graduated from the University of Virginia in 1880, from 1885 to 1886 he was a law clerk at the Department of State, then an Assistant Secretary of State. In 1891 he took the first full professorship of law at Columbia University. During his service with the Department of State he acted as secretary to the Conference on Samoan Affairs, while holding the chair of international law and diplomacy at Columbia, Professor Moore was frequently granted leave of absence to accept appointments in the public interest. For part of 1898 he served as Assistant Secretary and Acting Secretary of State, in 1901, he served as professor of International Law at the Naval War College, where he initiated that colleges long series of International Law Blue Book publications. He was on the Hague Tribunal from 1912 to 1938, and was a judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice from 1920 to 1928, Moore was a proponent of neutrality, believing that the post-World War I system of alliances would tend to broaden wars into global conflicts. Moore was honored on a U. S. definitive postage stamp issued December 3,1966, in 1922, a new school was dedicated to Moore in his hometown of Smyrna, Delaware. The John Bassett Moore Intermediate School now serves as a school for the fifth and sixth grades. Moore is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in New York City, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. Works by or about John Bassett Moore at Internet Archive
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Frank Polk
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Frank Lyon Polk was a prominent United States lawyer and a name partner of the law firm today known as Davis Polk & Wardwell, and for some years held prominent diplomatic positions. He graduated from Yale College and Columbia University Law School and he was a member of the Scroll and Key Society. In 1897, Polk began his law practice in New York City and he served on a variety of City boards and commissions. He was member of the civil service commission of New York from 1907 to 1909, confirmed by the Senate on December 17,1915. He served in the Department of State as Counselor until 1919, Polk headed the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, and after President Wilsons and Secretary Lansings departure from Paris in 1919, he represented the United States at the peace conference. He managed the 1924 Democratic presidential convention campaign of John W. Davis, Polk was married to Elizabeth Sturgis Potter. Elizabeth was the daughter of James Potter, the Cunard Line representative in Philadelphia, the Polks lived at 6 East Sixty-eighth Street in New York City, had a home in Syosset on Long Island and in Boca Grande, Florida. Together they had five children, John Metcalfe Polk, who married Virginia Brand, daughter of Robert Brand, 1st Baron Brand and niece of Lady Astor, Elizabeth Potter Polk, who married Raymond R. Guest, the son of Frederick Guest, in 1935. Frank Lyon Polk, Jr. who married Katherine H. Salvage, James Potter Polk, who married Margaret S. Salvage, another daughter of Samuel Agar Salvage, in 1937. Alice Polk, who married Winthrop Rutherfurd, in 1940 and his portrait was painted by Sir Oswald Birley in 1923. Polk served on a variety of New York City boards and commissions and he also served in the Department of State as Counselor, Acting Secretary of State, and Under Secretary of State. Polk headed the American Mission to Negotiate Peace and managed the 1924 Democratic presidential convention campaign of John W. Davis, Frank Lyon Polk died on February 7,1943, in New York City. Frank Lyon Polk Papers, 1883-1942 Davis Polk & Wardwell Frank Polk at Find a Grave
8.
Watertown (city), New York
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Watertown is a city in the state of New York and the county seat of Jefferson County. It is situated approximately 20 miles south of the Thousand Islands, as of the 2010 census, it had a population of 27,023, an increase of 1. 2% since 2000. The U. S. Army post Fort Drum is near the city, named after the many falls located on the Black River, the city developed early in the 19th century as a manufacturing center. From years of generating wealth, in the early 20th century the city was said to have more millionaires per capita than any other city in the nation. Geographically, Watertown is located in the part of Jefferson County. It lies 72 miles northeast of Syracuse, New York and 31 miles south of the Ontario border, the city is served by Watertown International Airport. The city claims to be the birthplace of the five and dime store and the safety pin and it manufactured the first portable steam engine. It has the longest continually operating county fair in the United States and holds the Red and Black football franchise and these pioneers chose the area due to the Black River. The pioneers vision was for a center that would draw power from the Black River. All the land was rough and unclear, the western end of the town was 12 to 15 feet higher than the eastern end, with a large depression in the middle. A small stream also passed through the town, within a few years, the center of town was cleared for the ambitious Public Square. Together with the 19th century structures that created a streetscape around it, as industry and businesses flourished, residents built substantial retail buildings, churches and private residences. The Paddock Arcade, built in 1850 according to European and US models, is the oldest continuously operating enclosed mall in the United States and it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as are several significant churches and private mansions. The drop in the Black River at Watertowns location provided abundant water power for early industry, by the mid-19th century, entrepreneurs had built paper mills and major industries, including the first portable steam engine in 1847. In 1851, the city was joined to the state by the railroad, other mills rapidly joined the business base and generated revenue to support early public works projects like the water system and illuminating gas works in 1853, and a telephone system in 1879. Watertown claims that Rodman native Frank W. Woolworth conceived the idea of his mercantile chain while working there in 1878, Woolworth, employed as a clerk in Moores Store, set up a successful clearance display of low-priced items. This led to his idea of a store specializing in fixed-price, Woolworth left Watertown and opened his first store in Utica, New York in 1879. Among the many manufacturing businesses was the Davis Sewing Machine Company and it was predecessor to George P. Huffmans Huffy Corporation, now an American maker of bicycles and other sporting goods
9.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
10.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
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Amherst College
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Amherst College is a private liberal arts college located in Amherst, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1821 as an attempt to relocate Williams College by its president, Zephaniah Swift Moore, the institution was named after the town, which in turn had been named after Lord Jeffery Amherst. Amherst was established as a college and became coeducational in 1975. Amherst is an exclusively undergraduate four-year institution and enrolled 1,849 students in the fall of 2016, students choose courses from 38 major programs in an open curriculum. Students are not required to study a curriculum or fulfill any distribution requirements. Freshmen may take advanced courses, and seniors may take introductory ones, for the class of 2020, Amherst received 8,406 applications and accepted 1,161 yielding a 13. 8% acceptance rate. Amherst was ranked as the second best liberal arts college in the country by U. S. News & World Report, Amherst competes in the New England Small College Athletic Conference. Amherst has historically had close relationships and rivalries with Williams College, the college is a member of the Five College Consortium, which allows its students to attend classes at four other Pioneer Valley institutions. These include Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, Hampshire College, founded in 1821, Amherst College developed out of the secondary school Amherst Academy. The college was originally suggested as an alternative to Williams College, although Williams remained open, Amherst was formed and diverged from its Williams roots into an individual institution. In 1812, funds were raised in Amherst for a school, Amherst Academy. This required an investment from benefactors. During the fundraising for the project, it clear that without larger designs. This led the committee overseeing the project to conclude that a new institution should be created, on August 18,1818, the Amherst Academy board of trustees accepted this conclusion and began building a new college. At its opening, Amherst had forty-seven students, fifteen of these had followed Moore from Williams College. Those fifteen represented about one-third of the number at Amherst. President Moore died on June 29,1823, and was replaced with a Williams College trustee, Williams alumni are fond of an apocryphal story ascribing the removal of books from the Williams College library to Amherst College, but there is no contemporaneous evidence to verify the story. In 1995, Williams president Harry C. Payne declared the story false, Amherst grew quickly, and for two years in the mid-1830s it was the second largest college in the United States, second only to Yale
12.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
13.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
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New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
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Bar association
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A bar association is a professional body of lawyers. In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, the bar association comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates in particular, membership in bar associations may be mandatory or optional for practicing attorneys, depending on jurisdiction. The use of the bar to mean the whole body of lawyers. In the early 16th century, a railing divided the hall in the Inns of Court, with students occupying the body of the hall, students who officially became lawyers crossed the symbolic physical barrier and were admitted to the bar. Later, this was assumed to mean the wooden railing marking off the area around the judges seat in a courtroom, where prisoners stood for arraignment. In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, including in England and Wales, the bar association comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates, while the law society comprises solicitors. These bodies are sometimes mutually exclusive, while in other jurisdictions, in Canada, one is called to the bar after undertaking a post-law-school training in a provincial law society program, and undergoing an apprenticeship or taking articles. Legal communities are called provincial law societies, except for Nova Scotia, where it is called the Nova Scotia Barristers Society, and Quebec and it does not play a part in the regulation of the profession, however. In India under the framework set established under the Advocates Act,1961. The process of enrollment is delegated by the Bar Council of India to the state Bar Councils wherein almost each state has a Bar Council of its own. Once enrolled with a State Bar Council, the law graduate is recognized as an Advocate, once advocate clears the test, then they are entitled to appear and practice before any court within that Bar councils area. There is no requirement for further membership of any Bar Association. However Advocates do become members of local or national bar associations for reasons of recognition. Besides the Bar Council of India, other known Bar Associations in India are National Bar Association of India, All India Bar Association and Supreme Court Bar Association. Each State and local court generally also has a Bar Association of its own, in Pakistan, a person becomes a licensee of a Provincial Bar Council after fulfilling certain requirements. They must have a law degree LL. B from a recognized university, must offer certain undertakings. Further he may join any bar association as member, Bar associations work under Provincial Bar councils, such as khyber pakhtunkhwa Bar Council, Punjab Bar Council, Sindh Bar Council etc. To become an advocate, one must first complete six months pupillage with an advocate of High Court
16.
Bering Sea Arbitration
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The Bering Sea Arbitration of 1893 arose out of a fishery dispute between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the United States in the 1880s. The United States Revenue Cutter Service, today known as the United States Coast Guard and this led to the U. S. claiming exclusive jurisdiction over the sealing industry in the Bering Sea, and that led to negotiations outside of the courts. The award was given in favor of the British, however, the British were awarded compensation for the damage that had been inflicted on their vessels, and the American sealing zone remained as it was prior to the conflict. In 1867 the United States government purchased from Russia all her rights in Alaska. This portion included the Pribilof Islands, the principal breeding-grounds of the seals in those seas, by Acts of Congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the killing of seals was prohibited on the Pribilof Islands and in the waters adjacent thereto except upon certain specified conditions. This created a large swathe of friction between the executive and legislative branches of the US government with the presidential veto employed by Ulysses S. Grant on two notable occasions, no definition of the meaning of the words waters adjacent was given in the act. In March 1886 this letter was communicated to the San Francisco customs by Daniel Manning, U. S. Secretary of the Treasury, for publication. Beginning in about 1886, it became the practice of certain Canadian vessels to intercept passing seals in the ocean and shoot them in the water. The great drawback of pelagic sealing lies in the fact that nursing seal mothers wander far in search of food, while the males do not take food during the breeding season, but remain on the islands. Consequently, practically all the seals taken by pelagic sealers are nursing females, as a result of this practice, the real possibility of the destruction of the seal fisheries became apparent, together with industries valuable to both the United States and Great Britain. In the summer of 1886, three British Columbian sealers, the Carolena, Onward, and Thornton, were captured by an American revenue cutter, the Corwin,60 miles from land. They were condemned by the judge because they had been sealing within the limits of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations followed and an order for release was issued but, in 1887, the British imperial government repudiated the claim, but was willing to negotiate on the question of international regulation. America had seal nurseries on the Pribilof Islands and Russia on the Komandorski group, neither Britain, nor the Dominion of Canada, had land access to the Bering Sea or seal breeding grounds. Thus, to prohibit pelagic sealing would have been to exclude Britain from the industry, Britain contended that in all known cases the extermination of seals had been the result of operations upon land, and had never been caused exclusively by sealing in the pelagic zone. The negotiations came to nothing, and the United States fell back upon their claim of right, in June 1890, it was reported that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered to proceed to the Bering Sea. There followed a controversy, in the course of which the United States developed the contentions which were afterwards laid before the tribunal of arbitration. The American answer was that the Pacific Ocean did not include the Bering Sea and they also claimed an interest in the fur seals, involving the right to protect them outside the three-mile limit
17.
Alaska boundary dispute
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The Alaska boundary dispute was a territorial dispute between the United States and the United Kingdom, which then controlled Canadas foreign relations. It was resolved by arbitration in 1903, the dispute had been going on between the Russian and British Empires since 1821, and was inherited by the United States as a consequence of the Alaska Purchase in 1867. The final resolution favored the American position, and Canada did not get an outlet from the Yukon gold fields to the sea. The disappointment and anger in Canada was directed less at the United States, in 1825 Russia and Britain signed a treaty to define the borders of their respective colonial possessions, the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1825. Shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten leagues from the ocean. Shall be formed by a parallel to the winding of the coast. This part of the treaty language was an agreement on principles for establishing a boundary in the area in the future. Signed in 1839, the RAC-HBC Agreement created an understanding between the Russian-American Company and the Hudsons Bay Company, the lease was renewed until the end of Russian America. This lease was later brought up by the Province of British Columbia as bearing upon its own interests in the region. The United States bought Alaska in 1867 from Russia in the Alaska Purchase, in 1871, British Columbia united with the new Canadian Confederation. In 1898, the governments agreed on a compromise. U. S. President McKinley proposed a permanent lease to Canada of a port near Haines, in 1897–98 the Klondike Gold Rush in Yukon, Canada, enormously increased the population of the general area, which reached 30,000, composed largely of Americans. Some 100,000 fortune seekers moved through Alaska to the Klondike gold region, the presence of gold and a large new population greatly increased the importance of the region and the desirability of fixing an exact boundary. Canada wanted a route from the gold fields to a seaport. There are claims that Canadian citizens were harassed by the U. S. as a deterrent to making any land claims, the head of Lynn Canal was the main gateway to the Yukon, and the North-West Mounted Police sent a detachment to secure the location for Canada. This was based on Canadas assertion that that location was more than ten leagues from the sea. A massive influx of American prospectors through Skagway very quickly forced the Canadian police to retreat and they set up posts on the desolate summits of Chilkoot and White Passes, complete with a mounted Gatling gun at each post. This was still disputed territory, as many Americans believed that the head of Lake Bennett, another 12 miles north, to back up the police in their sovereignty claim, the Canadian government also sent the Yukon Field Force, a 200-man Army unit, to the territory
18.
The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
19.
Solicitor General of the United States
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The United States Solicitor General is the third-highest-ranking official in the U. S. Department of Justice. The United States Solicitor General is the appointed to represent the federal government of the United States before the Supreme Court of the United States. The current Acting Solicitor General, Jeffrey Wall, took office on March 10,2017, the Solicitor General determines the legal position that the United States will take in the Supreme Court. In the federal courts of appeal, the Office of the Solicitor General reviews cases decided against the United States and determines whether the government will seek review in the Supreme Court. The Office of the Solicitor General also reviews cases decided against the United States in the district courts. The Solicitor General is assisted by four Deputy Solicitors General and seventeen Assistants to the Solicitor General, three of the deputies are career attorneys in the Department of Justice. The remaining deputy is known as the Principal Deputy, sometimes called the deputy and, like the Solicitor General. The current Principal Deputy is Jeffrey B, Wall, who succeeded Noel J. Francisco after Francisco was nominated to be Solicitor General in March 2017. The other deputies currently are Michael Dreeben, Edwin Kneedler, the Solicitor General or one of the deputies typically argues the most important cases in the Supreme Court. Cases not argued by the Solicitor General may be argued by one of the assistants or another government attorney, the Solicitors General tend to argue 6–9 cases per Supreme Court term, while deputies argue 4–5 cases and assistants each argue 2–3 cases. As the most frequent advocate before the Court, the Office of the Solicitor General generally argues dozens of each term. As a result, the Solicitor General tends to remain particularly comfortable during oral arguments that other advocates would find intimidating, other than the justices themselves, the Solicitor General is among the most influential and knowledgeable members of the legal community with regard to Supreme Court litigation. Five Solicitors General have later served on the Supreme Court, William Howard Taft, Stanley Forman Reed, Robert H. Jackson, Thurgood Marshall, some who have had other positions in the office of the Solicitor General have also later been appointed to the Supreme Court. Only one former Solicitor General has been nominated to the Supreme Court unsuccessfully, eight other Solicitors General have served on the United States Courts of Appeals. Within the Justice Department, the Solicitor General exerts significant influence on all appeals brought by the department, the Solicitor General is the only U. S. officer that is statutorily required to be learned in law. Whenever the DOJ wins at the stage and the losing party appeals. However, if the DOJ is the party at the trial stage. For example, should the tort division lose a jury trial in district court
20.
John W. Davis
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John William Davis was an American politician, diplomat and lawyer. He served as a United States Representative from West Virginia from 1911 to 1913, then as Solicitor General of the United States, the culmination of his political career came when he ran for President in 1924 under the Democratic Party ticket, losing to Republican incumbent Calvin Coolidge. Over a 60-year legal career, Davis argued 140 cases before the US Supreme Court and he famously argued the winning side in Youngstown Steel. He also represented the side in Briggs v. Elliott. Daviss great-grandfather, Caleb Davis, was a clockmaker in the Shenandoah Valley, in 1816, his grandfather, John Davis, moved to Clarksburg in what would later become West Virginia, which had a population of 600–700 at the time, and ran a saddle and harness business. John J. John W. Daviss mother Anna Kennedy was from Baltimore and his maternal grandparents were William Wilson Kennedy and his wife Catherine Esdale Martin. Catherine was the daughter of Tobias Martin, dairy farmer and amateur poet, and his wife, the Esdales were members of the Religious Society of Friends, settled near Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. They had reportedly helped provide for the Continental Army under George Washington which had camped there in the winter of 1777–1778, Daviss Sunday school teacher recalled John W. Davis had a noble face even when small. His biographer went on to say that e used better English, kept himself cleaner, Davis education began at home, as his mother taught him to read before he had even memorized the alphabet. She then had him read poetry and other literature throughout the home library, after he turned ten, he was put in a class with older students to prepare him for the state teachers examination. A few years later, he was enrolled in a previously all-female seminary that doubled as a private boarding, there he received nothing less than a 94 for grades. Davis entered Washington and Lee University at the age of sixteen and he graduated in 1892 with a major in Latin. He joined the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, participated in intramural sports and he would have started law school directly after graduation, but he lacked funds. Instead, he became a teacher for Major Edward H. McDonald of Charles Town, West Virginia, Davis taught McDonalds nine children and his six nieces and nephews, one of whom, Julia, nineteen at the time, would become Daviss wife. He graduated with a law degree from Washington and Lee University School of Law in 1895 and was elected Law Class Orator and his speech gave a glimpse of his advocacy skills, lawyer has been always the sentinel of the watchtower of liberty. Fellow classmates of 1895, shall we, Washington and Lee University School of Law has shown great pride in Davis. In 1947, W&L began awarding the John W. Davis Prize to the law student with the highest GPA
21.
RMS Lusitania
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RMS Lusitania was a British ocean liner that a German submarine sank in World War I, causing a major diplomatic uproar. The ship was a holder of the Blue Riband, and briefly the worlds largest passenger ship until the completion of her sister ship Mauretania, the Cunard Line launched Lusitania in 1906, at a time of fierce competition for the North Atlantic trade. She made a total of 202 trans-Atlantic crossings, German shipping lines were aggressive competitors in the transatlantic trade, and Cunard responded by trying to outdo them in speed, capacity, and luxury. Both Lusitania and Mauretania were fitted with new turbine engines. They were equipped with lifts, wireless telegraph, and electric light, and provided 50% more passenger space than any other ship, the Royal Navy had blockaded Germany at the start of World War I. When RMS Lusitania left New York for Britain on 1 May 1915, on the afternoon of 7 May, a German U-boat torpedoed Lusitania,11 mi off the southern coast of Ireland and inside the declared war zone. A second, unexplained, internal explosion sent her to the seabed in 18 minutes, with the deaths of 1,198 passengers, because the Germans sank, without warning, what was officially a non-military ship, many accused them of breaching the internationally recognized Cruiser Rules. It was no longer possible, however, for submarines to give warning due to the British introduction of Q-ships in 1915 with concealed deck guns, the sinking caused a storm of protest in the United States as 128 American citizens were among the dead. The sinking helped shift public opinion in the United States against Germany, after World War I, successive British governments maintained there were no munitions on board the Lusitania and the Germans were not justified in treating the ship as a naval vessel. In 1897 the NDL liner Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse captured the Blue Riband from Cunards Campania, NDL soon wrested the prize back in 1903 with the new Kaiser Wilhelm II and Kronprinz Wilhelm. Cunard saw their passenger numbers affected as a result of the so-called Kaiser-class ocean liners, in 1902, IMM, NDL, and HAPAG entered into a Community of Interest to fix prices and divide among them the transatlantic trade. The partners also acquired a 51% stake in the Dutch Holland America Line, IMM made offers to purchase Cunard which, along with the French CGT, were now their principal rivals. Cunard declined the offer, even though they lacked the resources to respond with new ships. Cunard chairman Lord Inverclyde thus approached the British government for assistance, by an agreement signed in June 1903, Cunard was given a loan of £2.6 million to finance two ships, repayable over 20 years at a favourable interest rate of 2. 75%. The ships would receive an operating subsidy of £75,000 each plus a mail contract worth £68,000. In return the ships would be built to Admiralty specifications so that they could be used as cruisers in wartime. Cunard established a committee to decide upon the design for the new ships, of which James Bain, parsons maintained that he could design engines capable of maintaining a speed of 25 knots, which would require 68,000 shaft horsepower. Turbines offered the advantages of generating less vibration than the engines and greater reliability in operation at high speeds
22.
SM U-20 (Germany)
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SM U-20 was a German Type U19 U-boat built for service in the Imperial German Navy. She was launched on 18 December 1912, and commissioned on 5 August 1913, during World War I, she took part in operations around the British Isles. U-20 became infamous following her sinking of the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915, on 7 May 1915, U-20 was patrolling off the southern coast of Ireland under the command of Kapitänleutnant Walther Schwieger. Three months earlier, on 4 February, the Germans had established a U-boat blockade around Great Britain, at about 13,40 Schwieger was at the periscope and saw a vessel approaching. From a distance of about 700 metres Schwieger noted she had four funnels and he recognised her as the Lusitania, a vessel in the British Fleet Reserve, and fired a single torpedo. It hit on the side, almost directly below the bridge. Following the torpedos explosion, the liner was shattered by an explosion, possibly caused by either coal dust or a boiler explosion. In 18 minutes, Lusitania sank with 1,198 casualties, the wreck lies in 300 feet of water. Fifteen minutes after he had fired his torpedo, Schwieger noted in his war diary, dive to 25 metres and leave the area seawards. I couldnt have fired another torpedo into this mass of humans desperately trying to save themselves, there was at the time and remains now a great controversy about the sinking, over whether Lusitania was smuggling contraband war material to England and over the number of torpedoes Schwieger fired. Before he got back to the docks at Wilhelmshaven for refuelling and resupply, nevertheless, to keep America out of the war, in June the Kaiser was compelled to rescind unrestricted submarine warfare and require all passenger liners be left unmolested. On 4 September 1915 Schwieger was back at sea with U-20,85 nautical miles off the Fastnet Rock in the south Irish Sea. This rock held one of the key navigational markers in the ocean, the Fastnet Lighthouse. RMS Hesperian was now beginning a new run outward bound from Liverpool to Quebec and Montreal, with a cargo, also doubling as a hospital ship. She was attacked off the Fastnet, an islet in the north Atlantic. The History of the Great War, The Merchant Navy, Vol and this time, Schwieger was received with official disgust upon his return to Wilhelmshaven. Ordered to report to Berlin to explain himself, he was required to apologise for having sunk another passenger liner in defiance of an order not to do so again. He complained about his treatment in Berlin thereafter, after his death in 1917, Schwieger was forgiven in Berlin
23.
Bureau of Secret Intelligence
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The Bureau of Secret Intelligence was founded in 1916. The U. S. Department of States Bureau of Secret Intelligence, later known as the Office of Security, Diplomatic Security Service, was also known as U-1, an off-the-books adjunct to the Division of Information. The origins of the U. S. State Departments Diplomatic Security Service goes back to 1916 with a handful of agents assigned special duties directly by the Secretary of State, Robert Lansing. President Wilson allowed Lansing and Frank Polk quietly and informally to channel the flow of military, Lansing moved to create this inter-agency secret service for the Department of State. Many German and Austrian acts of fraud, propaganda, sabotage, to rectify this, Lansing proposed creating an office under the Department of State’s Office of the Counselor to review investigation reports from several law enforcement agencies. As Robert Lansing recalled in his memoirs, The Secret Service of the Department of State was an organization of slow growth during the period when this country was neutral, prior to that time the Department had no Secret Service. It was found necessary for the Department to conduct investigations of highly confidential character. Agents were also employed in the other countries, headed by a Chief Special Agent, who was also called Special Assistant to the Secretary, these agents worked in Washington, D. C. and New York City. This group of agents would sometimes be referred to as the office of the Chief Special Agent and they were operated with private funds from the Secretarys office. Conducting sensitive investigations, they focused mainly on foreign agents and their activities in the United States, Leland Harrison and William Yale The thirty-four-year-old Harrison enjoyed a similar Yankee blueblood background to Yale’s. After being educated at Eton and Harvard, he’d joined the U. S. diplomatic corps and his swift rise had been cemented when Secretary of State Robert Lansing brought him to Washington in 1915, where Harrison quickly gained a reputation as Lansing’s most trusted lieutenant. Both fierce Anglophiles, Lansing and Harrison had shared a deepening disenchantment with Woodrow Wilson’s commitment to American neutrality in the war, another source of Lansing’s favor for Harrison was undoubtedly his subordinate’s profound sense of discretion. One State Department staffer would say of Leland Harrison that he was positively the most mysterious, … He was almost a human sphinx, and when he did talk, his voice was so low that I had to strain my ears to catch the words. Just how secretive was indicated by Lansings creation of something called the Bureau of Secret Intelligence in 1916, the solution was to bring Yale in under the umbrella of the Bureau of Secret Intelligence, to that end, he was summoned to the State Department in early August. At that meeting, Harrison put forward a proposition, Yale would return to the Middle East as a special agent for the State Department. From his base in Cairo, Yale would send weekly dispatches through the American embassy’s diplomatic pouch to Washington, unsurprisingly, Yale quickly accepted the offer. On August 14, and under Secretary Lansings signature, he was named the State Departments special agent for the Middle East. After a brief home to see his family in Alder Creek
24.
Central Powers
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The Central Powers, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria – hence also known as the Quadruple Alliance – was one of the two main factions during World War I. It faced and was defeated by the Allied Powers that had formed around the Triple Entente, the Powers origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun, the Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginning of the war. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in 1914, in 1915, the Kingdom of Bulgaria joined the alliance. The name Central Powers is derived from the location of these countries, finland, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania joined them in 1918 before the war ended and after the Russian Empire collapsed. When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative, the Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the events between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war. On August 1, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, a state of war existed between the two countries. After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war, on 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France. This plan was hoped to gain victory against the French. Belgium was a country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris, europe Upon its founding in 1871, the German Empire controlled Alsace-Lorraine as an imperial territory incorporated from France after the Franco-Prussian War. It was held as part of Germanys sovereign territory, Africa Germany held multiple African colonies at the time of World War I. All of Germanys African colonies were invaded and occupied by Allied forces during the war, cameroon, German East Africa, and German Southwest Africa were German colonies in Africa. Togoland was a German protectorate in Africa, Asia The Kiautschou Bay concession was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898. It was occupied by Japanese forces following the Siege of Tsingtao, Pacific German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in 1914, German Samoa was a German protectorate following the Tripartite Convention. It was occuiped by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914, Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as being orchestrated with the assistance of Serbia
25.
Diplomatic Security Service
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The United States Diplomatic Security Service is the federal law enforcement and security arm of the United States Department of State. The DSS is the lead U. S. law enforcement organization abroad, the DSS most notably provides protection for US diplomatic missions, US diplomats, and visiting foreign dignitaries. DSS Special Agents are federal agents with the power to arrest, carry firearms, serve arrest warrants, when not at an overseas assignment, agents serve in field offices and HQ positions. A small percentage of DS special agents are members of the State Departments civil service and these special agents focus on criminal work and dignitary protection within the United States. When assigned to field offices, DSS Special Agents investigate passport fraud and visa fraud. When assigned to US embassies abroad, DSS Special Agents perform law enforcement duties at US missions, provide security assistance, protect senior diplomats, the ranking DSS officer at an embassy or consulate holds the title Regional Security Officer, and is often known as the security attaché. There are approximately 2,400 DSS special agents, Special Agents are sometimes referred to as DS Agents, or DSS Agents. Both terms are used interchangeably within the agency and other organizations, DSS is technically the correct term. The DSS Special Agent hiring process is regarded as one of the most difficult. A final suitability review and vote by a Foreign Service panel evaluates a candidates ability to represent the interests of the United States abroad. All DSS special agents have at least a bachelors degree. Agent candidates must be under the age of 37 at the time of commissioning, a new training facility that will consolidate DS far-flung training venues is currently under development, but currently agents are trained at DS interim training facility in Winchester, VA. However, agents may be called overseas much earlier depending on the needs of DS, as members of the Foreign Service, agents are expected to spend most of their career living and working overseas, often in hazardous environments or less developed countries throughout the world. Basic Special Agent Course,9 months Basic Regional Security Office Course,3 months High Threat Operations Course,12 weeks, the largest permanent dignitary protection detail carried out by DSS agents is on the Secretary of State. DSS also has a protection detail on the United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Most other details are on visiting foreign dignitaries and diplomats, and are on a basis for the duration of a dignitarys visit. Foreign ministers from important nations, as well as those with threats, are covered by DSS. The Bureau of Diplomatic Securitys Office of Foreign Missions is responsible for the protection of foreign embassies and consulates on U. S. soil
26.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
27.
Czechs
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Ethnic Czechs were called Bohemians in English until the early 20th century, referring to the late Iron Age tribe of Celtic Boii and the land Bohemia. The Czech diaspora is found in numbers in the United States, Canada, Israel, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Switzerland, Italy. The Czech ethnic group is part of the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group, the West Slavs have origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period. The West Slavic tribe of Bohemians settled in the area of Bohemia during the migration period and they formed an independent principality in the 9th century, the Duchy of Bohemia, under the Přemyslid dynasty. According to mythology, the father of the Czech people were Forefather Čech. The Czech are closely related to the neighbouring Slovaks, the Czech–Slovak languages form a dialect continuum rather than being two clearly distinct languages. Czech cultural influence in Slovak culture is noted as having much higher than the other way around. Czech people have a history of coexistence with Germanic people. The Czech National Revival took place in the 18th and 19th centuries aiming to revive Czech language, culture, the Czech were the initiators of Pan-Slavism. The Czech ethnonym was the name of a Slavic tribe in central Bohemia that subdued the tribes in the late 9th century. The origin of the name of the tribe itself is unknown, according to legend, it comes from their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia. Research regards Čech as a derivative of the root čel-, the Czech ethnonym was adopted by the Moravians in the 19th century. The name Bohemia is Germanic, English used that name until after the establishment of Czechoslovakia, the population of the Czech lands has been influenced by different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe over time. In their Y-DNA haplogroups, which are inherited along the male line,34. 2% of Czech males belong to R1a, which is particularly common in a large region extending from South Asia and Southern Siberia to Central Europe and Scandinavia. The population of the Czech Republic descends from diverse peoples of Slavic, Celtic and Germanic origin, presence of West Slavs in the 6th century during the Migration Period has been documented on the Czech territory. Slavs settled in Bohemia, Moravia and Austria sometime during the 6th or 7th centuries, according to a popular myth, the Slavs came with Forefather Čech who settled at the Říp Mountain. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century, in 880, Prague Castle was constructed by Prince Bořivoj, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty and the city of Prague was established. Vratislav II was the first Czech king in 1085 and the duchy was raised to a kingdom under Ottokar I in 1198
28.
Slovaks
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The Slovaks or Slovak people are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Slovakia who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Slovak language. Most Slovaks today live within the borders of the independent Slovakia, there are Slovak minorities in Czech Republic, Croatia, Poland, Hungary, Serbia and sizeable populations of immigrants and their descendants in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. The name Slovak is derived from *Slověninъ, plural *Slověně, the old name of the Slavs, in the Slovak language, only the masculine noun Slověninъ, Slověn changed to Slovän, Slovan and finally to Slovák around 1400. The older form Sloven is preserved in all words in the Slovak language – the adjective Slovak is still slovenský, the feminine noun Slovak is still Slovenka. In 1029 St. Emeric, ruler of the Nitrian principality is called Henricus dux Sclavonie, in 1113 Nestor calls the territory of Slovakia - Slověnskaja zemlja. The first written mention about usage of the new form Slovak in the territory of present-day Slovakia is from Bardejov – Nicoulaus Cossibor hauptman, Nicolaus Czech et Slowak, the mentions in Czech sources are older –1375 and 1385. The change is not related to ethnogenesis of Slovaks, but exclusively to linguistic changes in the West Slavic languages, the word Slovak was also used later as a common name for all Slavs in Czech, Polish and also Slovak language in parallel with other forms. The Slovaks and Slovenes are the only current Slavic nations that have preserved the original name, for Slovenes, the adjective is still slovenski and the feminine noun Slovene is still also Slovenka, but the masculine noun has since changed to Slovenec. The Slovak name for their language is slovenčina and the Slovene name for theirs is slovenščina, the Slovak term for the Slovene language is slovinčina, and the Slovenes call Slovak slovaščina. The name is derived from proto-Slavic form slovo word, talk, thus Slovaks as well as Slovenians would mean people who speak, i. e. people who understand each other. In Hungarian Slovak is Tót, an exonym and it was originally used to refer to all Slavs including Slovenes and Croats, but eventually came to refer primarily to Slovaks. Many place names in Hungary such as Tótszentgyörgy, Tótszentmárton, tóth is a common Hungarian surname. The Slovaks have also historically been referred to as Slovyenyn, Slowyenyny, Sclavus, Sclavi, Slavus, Slavi, Winde, Wende. The final three terms are variations of the Germanic term Wends, which was used to refer to any Slavs living close to Germanic settlements. The early Slavs came to the territory of Slovakia in several waves from the 5th and 6th centuries and were organized on a tribal level, original tribal names are not known due to the lack of written sources before their integration into higher political units. In the 7th century, Slavs founded larger tribal union, Samos empire, regardless of Samos empire, the integration process continued in other territories with various intensities. The final fall of the Avar Khaganate allowed new political entities to arise, the first such political unit documented by written sources is the Principality of Nitra, one of the foundations of later common ethnic consciousness. At this stage in history it is not yet possible to assume a common identity of all Slovak ancestors in the territory of eastern Slovakia, the Principality of Nitra become a part of Great Moravia, a common state of Moravians and Slovaks
29.
South Slavs
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The South Slavs are a subgroup of Slavic peoples who speak the South Slavic languages. The South Slavs include the Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and they are the main population of the Southeastern European countries of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. In the 20th century, the country of Yugoslavia united the regions inhabited by South Slavic nations – with the key exception of Bulgaria – into a single state. The concept of Yugoslavia, a state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century. Little is known about the Slavs before the 5th century and their history prior to this can only be tentatively hypothesized via archeological and linguistic studies. Much of what we know about their history after the 6th century is from the works of Byzantine historians, in his work De Bellis, Procopius portrays the Sclavini as unusually tall and strong, with a tan complexion and reddish-blonde hair, living a rugged and primitive life. They lived in huts, often distant from one another and often changed their place of abode and they were not ruled by a single leader, but for a long time lived in a democracy. John of Ephesus, in his Ecclesiastical History portrays the Slavs as extremely violent people and they probably believed in many Gods, but Procopius suggests they believed in one, perhaps supreme god. He has often been identified as Perun, the creator of lightning, the Slavs went into battle on foot, charging straight at their enemy, armed with spears and small shields, but they did not wear armour. The lack of understanding may be attributed to matrilineal succession practiced among Southern Slavs and they made their homes in forests, by rivers and wetlands. Jordanes states that the Slavs have their homelands on the Danube, scholars have traditionally placed the Slavic Urheimat in the Pripet marshes of Ukraine, or alternatively between the Bug and the Dniepr. In the 5th century Slavs are mentioned as living north of the Danube in the sources from that era. From the 5th century, they supposedly spread outward in all directions, the Balkans was one of the regions which lay in the path of the expanding Slavs. Regarding the Slavs mentioned by 6th-century Byzantine chroniclers, Florin Curta states that their homeland was north of the Danube and he clarifies that their itinerant form of agriculture may have encouraged mobility on a micro regional scale. Material culture from the Danube suggests that there was an evolution of Slavic society between the early 7th century and the 8th century, as the Byzantines re-asserted the Danubian defences in the mid 6th century, the Slavs yield of pillaged goods dropped. As a reaction to this isolation, and external threats, political. As community elites rose to prominence, they came to embody a collective interest, if that group identity can be called ethnicity, and if that ethnicity can be called Slavic, then it certainly formed in the shadow of Justinians forts, not in the Pripet marshes. The Byzantines broadly grouped the numerous Slav tribes into two groups, the Sclaveni and Antes and they are both first encountered in the lower Danube region
30.
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
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It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and this provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, the conference opened on 18 January 1919. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the five major powers controlled the Conference. Amongst the Big Five, in practice Japan played a small role, the four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations, the main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and her allies. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay, republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia were present, a central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice, Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence, Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category, they would be divided up between Britain and France, Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received Class C Mandates to the colonies they wanted, Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator. Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others, Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some clashes, with the most famous being, Wilson, But after all. Hughes, I represent sixty thousand dead, prior to Wilsons arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era, in doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged and he worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French and British delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East
31.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
32.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
33.
Thomas R. Marshall
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Thomas Riley Marshall was an American Democratic politician who served as the 28th Vice President of the United States under Woodrow Wilson. In office, he proposed a controversial and progressive state constitution, the Republican minority used the state courts to block the attempt to change the constitution. While he was president in the United States Senate, a number of anti-war senators kept it deadlocked by refusing to end debate. Marshalls vice presidency is most remembered for a crisis following a stroke that incapacitated Wilson in October 1919. Because of their dislike for him, Wilsons advisers and wife Edith sought to keep Marshall uninformed about the presidents condition to prevent him from easily assuming the presidency. Many people, including officials and Congressional leaders, urged Marshall to become acting president. Marshall is also the only known Vice President of the United States to have been targeted in an assassination attempt while in office. After his terms as president, he opened an Indianapolis law practice. He continued to travel and speak publicly, Marshall died while on a trip after suffering a heart attack in 1925. Thomas Marshalls paternal grandfather, Riley Marshall, immigrated to Indiana in 1817 and settled on a farm in present-day Whitley County. He became wealthy when a deposit of oil and natural gas was discovered on his farm. He was also able to send his child, Daniel. Marshalls mother, Martha Patterson, was orphaned at age thirteen while living in Ohio, Martha was known for her wit and humor, as her son later would be. Martha and Daniel met and married in 1848, Thomas Riley Marshall was born in North Manchester, Indiana, on March 14,1854. Two years later, a sister was born, but she died in infancy, Martha had contracted tuberculosis, which Daniel believed to be the cause of their infant daughters poor health. While Marshall was still a boy, his family moved several times in search of a good climate for Daniel to attempt different outdoor cures on Martha. They moved first to Quincy, Illinois in 1857, the family moved to Osawatomie, Kansas, in 1859, but the frontier violence caused them to move to Missouri in 1860. Eventually, Daniel succeeded in curing Marthas disease, as the American Civil War neared, violence spread into Missouri during the Bleeding Kansas incidents
34.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
35.
John W. Foster
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John Watson Foster was an American diplomat and military officer, as well as a lawyer and journalist. His highest public office was U. S. Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison, Foster was born on March 2,1836 in Petersburg, Indiana and raised in Evansville, Indiana. He was the son of Matthew Watson, an Indiana farmer, and he graduated from the fledgling Indiana University in 1855, but decided not to become a preacher as his parents hoped. Instead, Foster attended and graduated from Harvard Law School, then moved to Cincinnati, in 1861, Foster volunteered in the Union Army in the American Civil War. Fosters troops became the first to enter Knoxville, Tennessee after the campaign by General Ambrose Burnside. Foster was a member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - a military society of officers who had served in the Union armed forces during the Civil War, after the war, Foster returned to Indiana and edited the Evansville Daily Journal. He used the paper to promote the Republican Party from 1865 to 1869, Foster moved to Washington, D. C. under Republican President Ulysses S. Grant, as well as had a summer home in Watertown, New York. Hayes and James A. Garfield appointed Foster the U. S. Ambassador to Mexico, President Chester A. Arthur made Foster the United States Ambassador to Spain. In Benjamin Harrisons administration, Foster served as a State Department trouble shooter before becoming Secretary of State for the six months of Harrisons term. As such, Foster replaced James Gillespie Blaine, who had succumbed to Brights disease, as Secretary of State, Foster helped direct the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. After leaving public office, Foster remained in Washington and invented a new type of practice, lobbying for large corporations seeking favors in Washington. Foster also used his government and political contacts to secure legal fees as counsel to foreign legations. He also continued to serve Presidents part-time on diplomatic missions, in 1903, Foster published American diplomacy in the Orient, followed in 1904 by Arbitration and the Hague Court. In 1906, he wrote The practice of diplomacy as illustrated in the relations of the United States. These are among the books written by John Watson Foster. Three of Fosters children never reached adulthood, Foster sent his son to Princeton. Foster doted on his daughters grandchildren, regaling them with tales of life on the frontier as well as in foreign lands and his daughter Edith Foster married Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles, and their children included John Foster Dulles and Allen Welsh Dulles. Fosters daughter Eleanor married State Department legal advisor Robert Lansing, their niece Eleanor Lansing Dulles became an economist, Foster is also the great-grandfather of the noted Catholic convert and theologian Cardinal Avery Dulles
36.
John Foster Dulles
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John Foster Dulles served as U. S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era and he negotiated numerous treaties and alliances that reflected this point of view. Born in Washington, D. C. he was one of five children and his paternal grandfather, John Welsh Dulles, had been a Presbyterian missionary in India. His maternal grandfather, John W. Foster doted on Dulles and his brother Allen, the brothers attended public schools in Watertown, New York. Dulles attended Princeton University and graduated as a member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1908, at Princeton, Dulles competed on the American Whig-Cliosophic Society debate team. He then attended the George Washington University Law School in Washington, both his grandfather Foster and his uncle Robert Lansing, the husband of Eleanor Foster, had held the position of Secretary of State. On June 26,1912, Dulles married Janet Pomeroy Avery and their older son John W. F. Dulles was a professor of history and specialist in Brazil at the University of Texas at Austin. Their daughter Lillias Dulles Hinshaw became a Presbyterian minister and their son Avery Dulles converted to Roman Catholicism, entered the Jesuit order, and became the first American theologian to be appointed a Cardinal. Upon graduating from law school and passing the bar examination, Dulles joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, after the start of World War I, Dulles tried to join the United States Army, but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an Army commission as Major on the War Industries Board, Dulles later returned to Sullivan & Cromwell and became a partner with an international practice. In 1915, Dulles uncle, Robert Lansing, then the U. S, in Panama, Dulles offered waiver of the US tax on the annual Canal fee, so long as Panama declared war on Germany. Dulles made an impression as a junior diplomat by clearly and forcefully arguing against imposing crushing reparations on Germany. Afterwards, he served as a member of the War Reparations Committee at Wilsons request, as a partner in Sullivan & Cromwell, Dulles expanded upon his late grandfather Fosters expertise, specializing in international finance. Under that compromise, the money was invested and the profits sent as reparations to Britain and France, in the 1920s Dulles was involved in setting up a billion dollars worth of these loans. Dulles, a religious man, attended numerous international conferences of churchmen during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1924, he was the counsel in the church trial of Rev. Harry Emerson Fosdick. The case settled when Fosdick, a liberal Baptist, resigned his pulpit in the Presbyterian Church congregation, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Dulles previous practice brokering and documenting international loans ended. After 1931 Germany stopped making some of its scheduled payments, in 1934 Germany unilaterally stopped payments on private debts of the sort that Dulles was handling
37.
Allen Dulles
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Allen Welsh Dulles was an American diplomat and lawyer who became the first civilian Director of Central Intelligence and its longest-serving director to date. As head of the Central Intelligence Agency during the early Cold War, he oversaw the 1954 Guatemalan coup détat, Operation Ajax, the Lockheed U-2 aircraft program, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Dulles was one of the members of the Warren Commission. Between his stints of government service, Dulles was a lawyer and partner at Sullivan & Cromwell. His older brother, John Foster Dulles, was the Secretary of State during the Eisenhower Administration, Dulles was born on April 7,1893, in Watertown, New York, one of five children of Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles, and his wife, Edith F. His maternal grandfather was John W. Foster, who was Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison, while his uncle by marriage, Robert Lansing served as Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson. Dulles was uncle to Avery Dulles, a Jesuit priest, theologian, and cardinal of the Catholic Church, Dulles graduated from Princeton University, where he participated in the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, and entered the diplomatic service in 1916. In 1920, he married Clover Todd, according to his sister, Eleanor, Dulles had at least a hundred extramarital affairs, including some during his tenure with the CIA. In 1921, while at the US Embassy in Istanbul, he had involvement in exposing the infamous Protocols of the Elders of Zion as a forgery. Dulles unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the US State Department to publicly denounce the forgery, initially assigned to Vienna, he was transferred to Bern, Switzerland along with the rest of the embassy personnel shortly before the U. S. entered the First World War. Later in life Dulles claimed to have been telephoned by the then obscure Vladimir Lenin, after recovering from the 1918 flu pandemic he was assigned to the American delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, along with his older brother Foster. From 1922-6, he served five years as chief of the Near East division of the Department of State. In 1926, he earned a law degree from George Washington University Law School and took a job at Sullivan and Cromwell and he became a director of the Council on Foreign Relations in 1927, the first new director since the Councils founding in 1921. He was the Councils secretary from 1933 to 1944, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, he served as legal adviser to the delegations on arms limitation at the League of Nations. There he had the opportunity to meet with Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Maxim Litvinov, as a result of Dulles efforts, the Berlin office was closed and the firm ceased to conduct business in Nazi Germany. S. Dulles collaborated with Hamilton Fish Armstrong, the editor of Foreign Affairs magazine and they concluded that diplomatic, military, and economic isolation, in a traditional sense, were no longer possible in an increasingly interdependent international system. Dulles helped a number of German Jews, such as the banker Paul Kemper and he was assisted in intelligence-gathering activities by Gero von Schulze-Gaevernitz, a German emigrant. Dulles also received information from Fritz Kolbe, a German diplomat. Kolbe supplied secret documents regarding active German spies and plans regarding the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter, Dulles was involved in Operation Sunrise, secret negotiations in March 1945 to arrange a local surrender of German forces in northern Italy
38.
Director of Central Intelligence
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The DCI then ran the Central Intelligence Group, a predecessor of the CIA. The office of DCI thus predates the establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency, the CIA was created by the National Security Act of 1947, which formally defined the duties of the Director of Central Intelligence. This 1947 Act also created the National Security Council, until April 2005, the DCI was often referred to colloquially as the CIA Director, even though he was head of both the CIA and the broader Intelligence Community. After the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent investigation by the 9/11 Commission and that movement prompted the passage of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act in December 2004, which split the DCIs duties among two new offices. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence would serve as head of the Intelligence Community, the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency would serve as chief administrator of the CIA. The reorganization took effect on April 21,2005, the 19th and last DCI, Porter J. Goss became the first director of the CIA, while John Negroponte became the first DNI. Status Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter was the first Director of Central Intelligence who served as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and those operations, however, were initially conducted by other agencies such as the Office of Policy Coordination. During the first years of its existence, other branches of the U. S. Federal government did not exercise very much supervision over the Central Intelligence Agency and those Soviet organizations also had domestic responsibilities. The rapid expansion of the CIA, and a sense of independence under the Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles exacerbated the problem of the U. S. Intelligence Communitys freedom from independent review, after the armed landing of Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961, President Kennedy discharged and replaced Dulles. His autobiography is more noteworthy for giving insight into the mindset of key people in the field than it is in giving a description of the CIA. President John F. Kennedy exercised greater supervision, and he appointed a Republican with an engineering background. McCone, despite a lack of intelligence agency background, is considered one of the most competent DCIs. The agency stepped up its activity in Southeast Asia under President Lyndon Johnson, McCone resigned from his position of DCI in April 1965, believing himself to have been unappreciated by President Johnson. McCones final policy memorandum to Johnson argued that expansion of the War in Vietnam would arouse national and world discontent over the war, before it defeated the North Vietnamese regime. Raborn, a naval officer who directed the design and development of the entire Polaris ballistic missile submarine system, had a somewhat short. His background included no foreign relations experience, and intelligence experience only concerning naval operations, CIA historians have said Raborn did not take to the DCI job, in their opinion. Raborn resigned as the DCI on June 30,1966, having served for fourteen months
39.
Robert Lansing (state senator)
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Robert Lansing was an American lawyer and politician from New York. He was the son of Judge Sanders G. Lansing and Catherine Lansing and he attended Union College but did not graduate. In 1817, he removed to Watertown, studied law there with Egbert Ten Eyck and he was District Attorney of Jefferson County from 1826 to 1833. On December 22,1831, he married Maria Hubbard, and they had children, among them John Lansing. He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1832 to 1835, afterwards he practiced law in partnership with brother-in-law George C. On February 2,1841, Lansing married Cornelia Hubbard, a sister of his first wife and he was buried at the Brookside Cemetery in Watertown. Chancellor John Lansing, Jr. and State Treasurer Abraham G. Lansing were his uncles, Lansing was his first cousin, and Congressman Frederick Lansing was his nephew. The New York Civil List compiled by Franklin Benjamin Hough Lansing genealogy at RootsWeb Robert Lansing at Find a Grave
40.
John Lansing Jr.
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John Ten Eyck Lansing Jr. was an American lawyer and politician. He was the uncle of Gerrit Y, Lansing studied law with Robert Yates in Albany, NY and was admitted to practice in 1775. From 1776 until 1777 during the Revolutionary War Lansing served as a secretary to General Philip Schuyler. Afterwards he was a member of the New York State Assembly from 1780 to 1784, in 1785-86 and he served New York as a member of the Confederation Congress in 1785. In 1786, he was appointed Mayor of Albany and he represented New York as one of three representatives at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. His intentions at the convention were to follow the wishes of the New York Legislature which had elected him to attend and he was authorized only to amend the existing Articles of Confederation. As the convention progressed, Lansing became disillusioned because he believed it was exceeding its instructions, Lansing believed the delegates had gathered together simply to amend the Articles of Confederation and was dismayed at the movement to write an entirely new constitution. His desire was to see the Articles strengthened giving it a source of revenue, the power to regulate commerce and he joined other prominent Anti-Federalists that strongly opposed Alexander Hamilton, James Wilson and James Madisons notions of a strong centralized national government to replace the Articles. Both he and Robert Yates walked out after 6 weeks and explained their departure in a joint letter to New York Governor George Clinton, Lansing and Yates never signed the constitution. At the New York Ratifying Convention that followed, he along with Melancton Smith took the lead in the debates as the leaders of the Anti-Federalist majority and their attempts to prevent ratification ultimately failed by a narrow vote of 30 to 27. He was appointed a Justice of the New York State Supreme Court in 1790, in 1801, he also became the second Chancellor of New York, succeeding Robert R. Livingston. In 1814 he became a regent of the University of New York, on the evening of December 12,1829, he left his Manhattan hotel to mail a letter at a dock in New York City, never to be seen again. Lansing was 75 years old and was presumed drowned or perhaps murdered and his widow died in 1834 and is buried at Albany Rural Cemetery, New York. His fate was a mystery in New York State at the time, rivaled only by the disappearance of William Morgan. In the last century it has become rather forgotten, especially with the disappearance of New York State Justice Joseph Force Crater in 1930. There has been one major clue to Lansings disappearance that has appeared since his death. After his death in 1882 the memoirs of Thurlow Weed, former Republican political leader in New York State, were published by Weeds grandson T. W. Barnes. Weed wrote that Lansing had been murdered by several prominent political and social figures who found he was in the way of their projects
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Abraham G. Lansing
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Abraham Gerritse Lansing was an American politician. He was the son of Gerrit Jacobse Lansing and Jane Waters Lansing, on April 9,1779, he married Susanna Yates in Albany, and they had thirteen children, among them Gerrit Y. He was Surrogate of Albany County from 1787 to 1808, and New York State Treasurer from 1803 to 1808 and he lived at the house built by his father-in-law at what became 358 North Market Street, in Albany. He was buried at the Albany Rural Cemetery in Menands, New York, chancellor John Lansing, Jr. was his brother, his daughter Susan Lansing was the second wife of Peter Gansevoort, and his grandson Abraham Lansing was Acting New York State Treasurer in 1874
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The Big Four (World War I)
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The Big Four or The Four Nations refer to the four top Allied powers and their leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. The Big Four is also known as the Council of Four and it was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France. Woodrow Wilson was elected President on the basis of issues in 1912. He based his 1916 re-election campaign around the slogan he kept us out of war, and had worked hard to broker a compromise peace. The nation was poorly armed when it went to war in April 1917, but it had millions of potential fresh soldiers, billions of dollars, officially Wilson kept the US independent of the Allies. In 1918 Wilson took personal control of negotiations with Germany, including the armistice and he issued his Fourteen Points, his view of a post-war world that could avoid another terrible conflict. It had an impact on both sides in Europe, and made him the man of the hour in Paris. He made a blunder by refusing to bring along any prominent Republicans to Paris. His main goal was a solution to end warfare based on the League of Nations. He paid special attention to creating new nations out of defunct empires, a Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into his idealistic internationalism, now referred to as Wilsonianism. Wilsonianism calls for the United States to enter the arena to fight for democracy. David Lloyd George, from the British Liberal Party was an effective leader of the coalition government that took power in late 1916. He won by a landslide in the election of 1918, held just after the war ended, however he was much more moderate at Paris. Unlike Clemenceau and Orlando, Lloyd George did not want to destroy the German economy, asked how he had done at the peace conference, he commented, Not badly, considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon. It has been said that Lloyd George was the most affable and the most resilient, in an article from the New York Times it says that Lloyd George was a pragmatist determined to protect and expand the interests of the British Empire. Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was an Italian diplomat and political figure and he was born in Palermo, Sicily. He is commonly nicknamed The Premier of Victory, in 1897 he was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies for the district of Partinico for which he was constantly re-elected until 1925. He aligned himself with Giovanni Giolitti, who was Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921, as Prime Minister of Italy, he went to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919
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Liberty ship
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The Liberty ship was a class of cargo ship built in the United States during World War II. Though British in conception, the design was adapted by the United States for its simple, mass-produced on an unprecedented scale, the now iconic Liberty ship came to symbolize U. S. wartime industrial output. The class was developed to meet British orders for transports to replace those torpedoed by German U-boats, the vessels were purchased both for the U. S. fleet and lend-lease deliveries of war materiel to Britain and the Soviet Union. Eighteen American shipyards built 2,710 Liberty ships between 1941 and 1945, easily the largest number of ships produced to a single design and their production mirrored on a much larger scale the manufacture of the Hog Islander and similar standardized ship types during World War I. Only three Liberty Ships are preserved, two as operational museum ships. S, the number was doubled in 1939 and again in 1940 to 200 ships a year. Ship types included two tankers and three types of merchant vessel, all to be powered by steam turbines, limited industrial capacity, especially for reduction gears, meant that relatively few of these ships were built. In 1940 the British government ordered 60 Ocean-class freighters from American yards to replace war losses and these were simple but fairly large with a single 2,500 horsepower compound steam engine of obsolete but reliable design. Britain specified coal-fired plants, because it then had extensive coal mines, the order specified an 18-inch increase in draft to boost displacement by 800 long tons to 10,100 long tons. The accommodation, bridge, and main engine were located amidships, the first Ocean-class ship, SS Ocean Vanguard, was launched on 16 August 1941. The design was modified by the United States Maritime Commission, in part to increase conformity to American construction practices, but more importantly to make it even quicker and cheaper to build. The US version was designated EC2-S-C1, EC for Emergency Cargo,2 for a ship between 400 and 450 feet long, S for steam engines, and C1 for design C1. The new design replaced much riveting, which accounted for one-third of the costs, with welding. It was adopted as a Merchant Marine Act design, and production awarded to a conglomerate of West Coast engineering and construction companies headed by Henry J. Kaiser known as the Six Companies. Liberty ships were designed to carry 10,000 long tons of cargo, usually one type per ship, but, during wartime, generally carried loads far exceeding this. On 27 March 1941, the number of ships was increased to 200 by the Defense Aid Supplemental Appropriations Act and increased again in April to 306. By 1941, the turbine was the preferred marine steam engine because of its greater efficiency compared to earlier reciprocating compound steam engines. Eighteen different companies built the engine. It had the advantage of ruggedness and simplicity
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "article name needed". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
