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Robert MacBryde

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Table with Fruit, 1948.

Robert MacBryde (1913–1966) was a Scottish still-life and figure painter and a theatre set designer.

MacBryde was born in Maybole and worked in a factory for 5 years after leaving school, he studied art at Glasgow School of Art from 1932 to 1937. There, he met Robert Colquhoun with whom he established a lifelong gay relationship^[1] and professional collaboration, the pair becoming known as "the two Roberts". MacBryde studied and travelled in France and Italy, assisted by scholarships, returning to London in 1939. He shared studio space with Colquhoun, and the pair shared a house with John Minton and, from 1943, Jankel Adler. MacBryde held his first one-person exhibition at the Lefevre Gallery in 1943.

Influenced by Graham Sutherland and John Piper, MacBryde became a well-known painter of the Modernist school of art, known for his brightly coloured Cubist studies. His later work evolved into a darker, Expressionist range of still lifes and landscapes; in collaboration with Colquhoun, he created several set designs during and after the Second World War. These included sets for Gielgud's Macbeth, King Lear at Stratford and Massine's Scottish ballet Donald of the Burthens, produced by the Sadler's Wells Ballet at Covent Garden in 1951. During the 1950s, both MacBryde and Colquhoun lost the attention of the art scene, and as both had become heavy drinkers, serious work became almost impossible, since neither had any private means, they were reduced at times to near destitution.

Colquhoun died suddenly in 1962. Soon after MacBryde moved to Ireland, and for a time shared a house with Patrick Kavanagh, with whom he had become friendly in London, however he was still drinking heavily and seems to have made no serious effort to paint again.

Robert MacBryde died in 1966 in Dublin as a result of a street accident. Anthony Cronin, a friend of MacBryde and Colquhoun, describes them both with affection and respect in his memoir Dead as Doornails, as does the English painter, playwright and poet Arthur Berry from The Potteries in his autobiography A Three And Sevenpence Half Penny Man.

References[edit]

^ Devine, Rachel (7 March 2010). "Openly homosexual when it was still illegal to be so and gay people were actively persecuted, they made little attempt to disguise their relationship.". London: Sunday Times. Retrieved 7 March 2010.

External Links & Further Reading[edit]

Bristow, Roger (2009). The Last Bohemians: The Two Roberts - Colquhoun and MacBryde. Bristol: Sansom & Co. ISBN 1906593191.
Biography at the Tate Gallery
Robert MacBryde on the Gazetteer for Scotland
An Anthology from X (Oxford University Press 1988). X (magazine) ran from 1959–1962. Edited by the poet David Wright & the painter Patrick Swift. Apart from contributions from MacBryde X also included painters such as Bacon, Giacometti, Freud, Auerbach, Bomberg, Kokoschka, et al., and writers such as W.H. Auden, Samuel Beckett, et al.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_MacBryde&oldid=799640411"

Scotland – Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separa

1. Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.

2. Flag

3. The class I Pictish stone at Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.

4. The Wallace Monument commemorates William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.

Painting – Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shad

1. The Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable paintings in the world.

2. Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (Ming Dynasty)

3. Circus Sideshow (French: Parade de cirque), Georges Seurat, 1887–88

4. Cave painting of aurochs, (French: Bos primigenius primigenius), Lascaux, France, prehistoric art

Scenic design – Scenic design is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. Scenic designers come from a variety of backgrounds, but in recent years, are mostly trained professionals. Scenic designers design sets and scenery that aim to fully immerse the viewer in the production, a designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas that’s best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The subject of, “How do we generate creative ideas. ”The most consuming part of expanding our horizons toward scenic concepts is more than witnessing creativity. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities, to have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. Whether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, discovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. Th

1. Scenic design, The 2010 Family Series, by Glenn Davis

2. Set design model by Marcel Jambon for an 1895 Paris production of Giuseppe Verdi 's Otello.

3. A set designer works on the set with carpenters.

4. Scenic designer Robert Edmond Jones (1887-1954) drawing at a waist high table (c. 1920).

Maybole – Maybole is a burgh of barony and police burgh of South Ayrshire, Scotland. It is situated 9 miles south of Ayr and 50 miles southwest of Glasgow by the Glasgow, Maybole has Middle Ages roots, receiving a charter from Donnchadh, Earl of Carrick in 1193. The current Marquess of Ailsa lives at Cassillis House, just outside Maybole, in the late seventeenth century, a census recorded Maybole was home to 28 lords and landowners with estates in Carrick and beyond. In former times, Maybole was the capital of the district of Carrick, Maybole Castle, a former seat of the Earls of Cassillis, dates to 1560 and still remains, although aspects of the castle are viewed as of concern. The public buildings include the town-hall, the Ashgrove and the Lumsden fresh-air fortnightly homes, Maybole is a short distance from the birthplace of Robbie Burns, the Scots national poet. Burns married a Maybole resident, Agnes Brown, in the nineteenth century, Maybole became a centre of boots and shoe manufacturing.

1. The head of the old Maybole Cross in the gardens of Maybole Castle in 2005. The cross bears the coats of arms of the Kennedy family of Cassillis and has a rare Moon dial on another face out of view.

2. St.Cuthbert's collegiate church in 2005.

3. St. Cuthberts in 1789.

4. New housing on the site of the old St. Cuthbert's shoe factory.

Glasgow School of Art – The Glasgow School of Art is Scotlands only public self-governing art school offering university-level programmes and research in architecture, fine art and design. The school is housed in one of Glasgows most famous buildings, often considered the masterpiece of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, severely damaged by a fire in May 2014, the building is now undergoing a careful restoration. Founded in 1845 as the Glasgow Government School of Design, it changed its name to The Glasgow School of Art in 1853 and it was first located at 12 Ingram Street and moved to the McLellan Galleries in 1869. In 1897, work started on a new building to house the school on Renfrew Street, the building was designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, chosen for the commission by the schools director, Francis Newbery, who oversaw a period of expansion and fast-growing reputation. The first half of the building was completed in 1899 and the half in 1909. The competition was won by New York-based Steven Holl Architects wo

1. The Glasgow School of Art

2. Western facade of GSA's Mackintosh building

3. Architectural model of the Glasgow School of Art.

4. Ancient (pre-1600)

Robert Colquhoun – Robert Colquhoun was a Scottish painter, printmaker and theatre set designer. Colquhoun was born in Kilmarnock and was educated at Kilmarnock Academy and he joined MacBryde on a travelling scholarship to France and Italy from 1937 to 1939, before serving as an ambulance driver in the Royal Army Medical Corps during the Second World War. After being injured, he returned to London in 1941 where he shared studio space with MacBryde, the pair shared a house with John Minton and, from 1943, Jankel Adler. Colquhouns early works of agricultural labourers and workmen were strongly influenced by the colours and his work developed into a more austere, Expressionist style, heavily influenced by Picasso, and concentrated on the theme of the isolated, agonised figure. From the mid-1940s to the early 1950s he was considered one of the artists of his generation. Along with that of MacBryde, the work of Colquhoun was regularly shown at the Lefevre Gallery in London, Colquhoun was also a prolific print

1. Woman with a Young Goat, 1948

France – France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French cult

1. One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC

2. Flag

3. The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire.

4. With Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right.

Italy – Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci,

1. The Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and engineering of ancient history.

2. Flag

3. The Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the Kings of Italy.

4. Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor Frederick II, UNESCO World Heritage site

London – London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concent

1. Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace and Central London skyline

4. The name London may derive from the River Thames

John Minton (artist) – Francis John Minton was an English painter, illustrator, stage designer and teacher. After studying in France, he became a teacher in London, in addition to landscapes, portraits and other paintings, some of them on an unusually large scale, he built up a reputation as an illustrator of books. In the mid-1950s, Minton found himself out of sympathy with the trend that was then becoming fashionable. He suffered psychological problems, self-medicated with alcohol, and in 1957 committed suicide, Minton was born in Great Shelford, Cambridgeshire, the second of three sons of Francis Minton, a solicitor, and his wife, Kate, née Webb. From 1925 to 1932, he was educated at Northcliff House, Bognor Regis, Sussex, and then from 1932 to 1935 at Reading School. He studied art at St Johns Wood School of Art from 1935 to 1938. and was influenced by his fellow student Michael Ayrton. He spent eight months studying in France, frequently accompanied by Ayrton, in October 1939 Minton registered as a cons

1. Self-portrait, circa 1953

Jankel Adler – Jankel Adler was a Jewish-Polish painter and printmaker. He was born as the seventh of ten children in Tuszyn, in 1912 he began training as an engraver with his uncle in Belgrade. He moved in 1914 to Germany where he lived for a time with his sister in Barmen, there he studied at the college of arts and crafts with professor Gustav Wiethücher. From 1918 to 1919 he went back to Łódź, where he was joint founder of Jung Jidysz, in 1920 he returned briefly to Berlin, in 1921 he returned to Barmen, and in 1922 he moved to Düsseldorf. There he became a teacher at the Academy of Arts, and became acquainted with Paul Klee, a painting by Adler received a gold medal at the exhibition German art Düsseldorf in 1928. In 1929 and 1930 he went on trips in Mallorca. During the election campaign of July 1932 he published with a group of leftist artists and intellectuals an urgent appeal against the policy of the National Socialists, as a modern artist, and especially as a Jew, he faced persecution unde

1. Two Figures, oil on canvas painting by Jankel Adler, 1944

Graham Sutherland – Graham Vivian Sutherland OM was an English artist who is notable for his work in glass, fabrics, prints and portraits. His work was inspired by landscape and religion, and he designed the tapestry for the re-built Coventry Cathedral. Printmaking, mostly of landscapes, dominated Sutherlands work during the 1920s. He developed his art by working in watercolours before switching to using oil paints in the 1940s and it is these oil paintings, often of surreal, organic landscapes of the Pembrokeshire coast, that secured his reputation as a leading British modern artist. Sutherland taught at a number of art colleges, notably at Chelsea School of Art and at Goldsmiths College and he served as an official war artist in the Second World War drawing industrial scenes on the British home front. Such was Sutherlands standing in post-war Britain that he was commissioned to design the massive central tapestry in the new Coventry Cathedral, a number of portrait commissions in the 1950s proved highly

1. The large tapestry of Christ in Coventry Cathedral, England, designed by Graham Sutherland.

John Piper (artist) – John Egerton Christmas Piper CH was an English painter, printmaker and designer of stained-glass windows and theatre sets. His work often focused on the British landscape, especially churches and monuments and he was educated at Epsom College and trained at the Richmond School of Art, followed by the Royal College of Art in London. He turned from abstraction early in his career, concentrating on a more naturalistic and he was an official war artist in World War II. Piper collaborated with others, including the poets John Betjeman and Geoffrey Grigson on the Shell Guides, and with the potter Geoffrey Eastop. In his later years he produced many limited-edition prints, John Piper was born in Epsom, Surrey, the youngest of three sons to the solicitor Charles Alfred Piper and his wife Mary Ellen Matthews. During Pipers childhood, Epsom was still largely countryside and he went exploring on his bike, and drew and painted pictures of old churches and monuments on the way. He started making gu

1. Middle Mill, Pembrokeshire, 1982

2. The Passage to the Control-room at South West Regional Headquarters, Bristol (Art. IWM ART LD 170)

3. Shelter Experiments, near Woburn, Bedfordshire (Art. IWM ART LD 3859)

4. The Baptistry Window at Coventry Cathedral

Modernism – Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom

2. Eugène Delacroix 's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art

3. A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck

4. Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The Art Institute of Chicago

Cubism – Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countr

1. Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 x 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York

2. Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, considered to be a major step towards the founding of the Cubist movement

3. Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London

4. Paul Cézanne, Quarry Bibémus, 1898-1900, Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany

Expressionism – Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War and it remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film. The term is sometimes suggestive of angst, in a general sense, painters such as Matthias Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism, though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art histori

1. The Scream by Edvard Munch (1893), which inspired 20th-century Expressionists

2. Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Egon Schiele

3. "View of Toledo" by El Greco, 1595/1610 has been indicated to have a particularly striking resemblance to 20th-century expressionism. Historically however it is an example of Mannerism. [citation needed]

4. Wassily Kandinsky, On White II, 1923

Still life – A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of such as landscape or portraiture. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious, some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound. Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects, the term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration, generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts aestheti

1. Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625), Bouquet (1599), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Some of the earliest examples of still life were paintings of flowers by Northern Renaissance, Dutch, and Flemish painters.

2. Still life on a 2nd-century mosaic, with fish, poultry, dates and vegetables from the Vatican museum

3. Glass bowl of fruit and vases. Roman wall painting in Pompeii (around 70 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy

4. Hans Memling (1430–1494), Vase of Flowers (1480), Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. According to some scholars the Vase of Flowers is filled with religious symbolism.

Landscape art – In other works, landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition, detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape views in art may be imaginary, or copied from reality with varying degrees of accuracy. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, within a few decades it was used to describe vistas in poetry, and eventually as a term for real views. However the cognate term landscaef or landskipe for a patch of land had existed in Old English. The earliest pure landscapes with no figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. T

1. Joachim Patinir (1480–1524), Landscape with Charon Crossing the Styx, 1515–1524. Patinir pioneered the " world landscape " style.

2. Themistokles von Eckenbrecher (German, 1842–1921), View of Laerdalsoren, on the Sognefjord, 1901

3. Hasegawa Tōhaku, Pine Trees, one of a pair of folding screens, Japan, 1593. 156.8 × 356 cm (61.73 × 140.16 in)

4. Landscape with scene from the Odyssey, Rome, c. 60–40 BCE

World War II – World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked t

1. Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad

2. The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930

3. Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930

4. Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War

John Gielgud – Sir Arthur John Gielgud OM CH was an English actor and theatre director whose career spanned eight decades. With Ralph Richardson and Laurence Olivier, he was one of the trio of actors who dominated the British stage for much of the 20th century. A member of the Terry family theatrical dynasty, he gained his first paid acting work as a member of his cousin Phyllis Neilson-Terrys company in 1922. After studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art he worked in repertory theatre, during the 1930s Gielgud was a stage star in the West End and on Broadway, appearing in new works and classics. He began a career as a director, and set up his own company at the Queens Theatre. He was regarded by many as the finest Hamlet of his era, in the 1950s Gielgud feared that his career was threatened when he was convicted and fined for a homosexual offence, but his colleagues and the public supported him loyally. From the late 1960s he found new plays that suited him, by authors including Alan Bennett,

1. Gielgud as Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing, 1959

2. Centre: Marion, Kate and Ellen Terry and, far right, Fred Terry at Ellen's Silver Jubilee matinée, Drury Lane, 12 June 1906. Everyone shown was a member of the Terry family.

3. Noël Coward with Lilian Braithwaite, his, and later Gielgud's, co-star in The Vortex

4. Mrs Patrick Campbell and Edith Evans, 1920s co-stars with Gielgud

Macbeth – Macbeth is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, it is thought to have been first performed in 1606. It dramatises the damaging physical and psychological effects of political ambition on those who seek power for its own sake. Of all the plays that Shakespeare wrote during the reign of James I and it was first published in the Folio of 1623, possibly from a prompt book, and is his shortest tragedy. A brave Scottish general named Macbeth receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland, consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, Macbeth murders King Duncan and takes the Scottish throne for himself. He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia, forced to commit more and more murders to protect himself from enmity and suspicion, he soon becomes a tyrannical ruler. The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take Macbeth and Lady Macbeth into the realms of madness, the events of the tragedy are usually associated with the execution of Henry

1. Macbeth and Banquo encounter the witches for the first time

2. A poster for a c. 1884 American production of Macbeth, starring Thomas W. Keene. Depicted, anticlockwise from top-left, are: Macbeth and Banquo meet the witches; just after the murder of Duncan; Banquo's ghost; Macbeth duels Macduff; and Macbeth.

3. Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856), Macbeth seeing the Ghost of Banquo, 1854

4. Macbeth consulting the Vision of the Armed Head by Johann Heinrich Füssli

King Lear – King Lear is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical revision, was included in the 1623 First Folio, Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its own individual integrity that should be preserved. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering, george Bernard Shaw wrote, No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear. The eldest, Goneril, speaks first, declaring her love for her father in fulsome terms, moved by her flattery Lear proceeds to grant to Goneril her share as soon as she has finished her declaration, before Regan and Cordelia have a chance to speak. He then awards to Regan her share as soon as she has spoken, in his anger he disinherits Cordelia and divides her share between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to Lears unfair treatment of Cordelia, enraged by Kents protests, Lear then summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who

1. "King Lear and the Fool in the Storm" by William Dyce (1806–1864)

2. Cordelia in the Court of King Lear (1873) by Sir John Gilbert

3. A watercolour of King Lear and the Fool in the storm from Act III, Scene ii of King Lear

4. King Lear: Cordelia's Farewell by Edwin Austin Abbey

Royal Shakespeare Theatre – The Royal Shakespeare Theatre is a 1, 040+ seat thrust stage theatre owned by the Royal Shakespeare Company dedicated to the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare. It is located in the town of Stratford-upon-Avon – Shakespeares birthplace – in the English Midlands, the Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres re-opened in November 2010 after undergoing a major renovation known as the Transformation Project. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre opened in 1932 on the adjacent to the original Shakespeare Memorial Theatre. The architect was Elisabeth Scott, so the theatre became the first important work erected in Britain from the designs of a woman architect and it was renamed the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1961, following the establishment of the Royal Shakespeare Company the previous year. In the building designed by Scott, the theatre had a stage. Two tiers of seating were added to the side walls of the theatre. Balcony seats could only be accessed by means of a staircase to the side o

1. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 2011, north frontage and tower.

2. The first Shakespeare Memorial theatre complex, pictured in the 1890s

Ballet – Ballet /ˈbæleɪ/ is a type of performance dance that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread, highly technical form of dance with its own based on French terminology. It has been influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres. Becoming a ballet dancer requires years of training, Ballet has been taught in various schools around the world, which have historically incorporated their own cultures to evolve the art. Ballet may also refer to a dance work, which consists of the choreography. A well-known example of this is The Nutcracker, a ballet that was originally choreographed by Marius Petipa. Ballets are choreographed and performed by trained artists, the word came into English usage from the French around 1630. Ballet originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries before being spread from Italy

1. Classical bell tutus in The Dance Class by Degas, 1874

2. Anna Pavlova in Giselle, wearing a romantic tutu

3. Scene from act 4 of Swan Lake, Vienna State Opera, 2004

4. Harlequin and Columbina from the mime theater at Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen, Denmark

Royal Opera House – The Royal Opera House is an opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is referred to as simply Covent Garden. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, originally called the Theatre Royal, it served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented, a year later, Handels first season of operas began. Many of his operas and oratorios were written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there. The current building is the theatre on the site following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856. The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, the main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 12.20 m wide and 14.80 m high, the main auditorium is a Grade I listed building. The letters patent remained in the possession of the patentees heirs until th

1. The Royal Opera House, Bow Street frontage with Plazzotta 's statue, Young Dancer, in the foreground

2. "Rich's Glory": John Rich takes over (seemingly invades) his new Covent Garden Theatre. (A caricature by William Hogarth)

3. A satirical drawing from 1811 of the "Pigeon Holes" that flanked the upper gallery at Covent Garden

4. A picture of the first theatre drawn shortly before it burned down in 1808

Patrick Kavanagh – Patrick Kavanagh was an Irish poet and novelist. His best-known works include the novel Tarry Flynn, and the poems On Raglan Road and he is known for his accounts of Irish life through reference to the everyday and commonplace. Patrick Kavanagh was born in rural Inniskeen, County Monaghan, in 1904 and his grandfather was a schoolteacher called Keaveney, which a local priest changed to Kavanagh. The grandfather had to leave the following a scandal and never taught in a national school again. Patrick Kavanaghs father, James, was a cobbler and farmer, Kavanaghs brother Peter became a university professor and writer, two of their sisters were teachers, three became nurses, and one became a nun. Patrick Kavanagh was a pupil at Kednaminsha National School from 1909 to 1916 and he became apprenticed to his father as a shoemaker and worked on his farm. He was also goalkeeper for the Inniskeen Gaelic football team and he later reflected, Although the literal idea of the peasant is of a farm lab

1. Patrick Kavanagh, by Patrick Swift, 1960

2. George William Russell, Kavanagh's literary advisor and mentor

3. Patrick Kavanagh by Patrick Swift, lithograph, 1956, NPG, London

4. Kavanagh's Grave, Inniskeen

Dublin – Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical

1. Clockwise from top: Samuel Beckett Bridge, Trinity College, Custom House, Dublin Castle, O'Connell Bridge, and Convention Centre Dublin.

2. Father Mathew Bridge, formerly Dublin Bridge, is understood to be near the ancient "Ford of the Hurdles" (Baile Átha Cliath), the original crossing point on the River Liffey.

3. Dublin Castle was the fortified seat of British rule in Ireland until 1922.

4. Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin.

Anthony Cronin – Anthony Gerard Richard Cronin was an Irish poet, novelist, biographer, critic, commentator, barrister and arts activist. Anthony Cronin was born in Enniscorthy, County Wexford and he obtained a B. A. from the National University of Ireland, entered the Kings Inns in 1944 and was called to the Bar in 1948. With Flann O’Brien, Patrick Kavanagh and Con Leventhal, Cronin celebrated the first Bloomsday in 1954 and he contributed to many television programmes, including Flann O’Brien, Man of Parts and Folio. He had honorary doctorates from institutions, including Dublin University, the National University of Ireland. He was the inspiration for, and a member of, Aosdána. Cronin was a member of its body, the Toscaireacht. He was also a member of the bodies of the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Cronin began his career as a contributor to Envoy, A Review of Literature. He was editor of The Bell in the 1950s and literary editor of Time and he wrote a weekly column, Viewpoint, in the Irish Times from

1. Anthony Cronin, by Patrick Swift, 1950, National Gallery of Ireland

2. Poets Patrick Kavanagh and Anthony Cronin at the church in Monkstown with the carriage in which they had been proceeding about Dublin in the footsteps of Leopold Bloom, the protagonist in Ulysses - 50 years after Bloom traversed the city in James Joyce 's novel.

Arthur Berry (playwright) – Arthur Berry was an English playwright, poet, teacher and artist, who was born in Smallthorne, Stoke-on-Trent. His individual creative work became deeply rooted in the culture, people, Berry was the son of a publican and grew up in the potteries city of Stoke-on-Trent during the Depression. He was born with an arm, as he could not work as a miner or manual labourer Berry was enrolled at the Burslem School of Art in the city. Despite a rebellious start there, he came under the care of Gordon Mitchell Forsyth, director of art education, Berry gained a place at the Royal College of Art, as did a number of the more talented Burslem students. During his time at the Royal College the institution was evacuated from Kensington to Ambleside in the Lake District, Berry, who suffered from agoraphobia, did not find the rural surroundings of Ambleside particularly to his taste. However, he appreciated the intense Autumn colours which are characteristic of the locality and he spent the last year of

1. Burslem School of Art

2. Ambleside, where Berry studied during the War

International Standard Book Number – The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial

1. A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

X (magazine)

1. X, Vol I, first four issues, 1961

2. David Wright, by Patrick Swift, c.1960

3. X, Vol.II, No.I, March 1961

David Wright (poet)

1. David Wright, by Patrick Swift, c. 1960

2. Poems, David Wright

3. Deafness, David Wright

Patrick Swift

1. Patrick Swift, Algarve studio, 1978

2. London Tree, Westbourne Terrace, c. 1960

3. Patrick Kavanagh, 1960

4. Portrait of Swift by Reginald Gray, 1980

Francis Bacon (painter)

1. Centre panel, Study for a Self-Portrait—Triptych, 1985–86

2. Francis Bacon photographed in the early 1980s.

3. Bacon's birthplace at 63 Lower Baggot Street, Dublin

4. A baby in a carriage falling down the "Odessa Steps"

Alberto Giacometti

1. Portrait of Alberto-Giacometti, (etching by Jan Hladík, 2002)

2. Current 100 Swiss Franc banknote, front

3. Current 100 Swiss Franc banknote, back

4. Three Men Walking II, 1949, painted bronze sculpture Metropolitan Museum of Art. "The surfaces of Three Men Walking (II), 1949, typify his technique."

Lucian Freud

1. Lucian Freud

2. Girl with a white dog, 1951–1952, Tate Gallery. Portrait of Freud's first wife, Kitty Garman, the daughter of Jacob Epstein and Kathleen Garman

3. Benefits Supervisor Sleeping, 1995, a very large portrait of "Big Sue" Tilley (see below), showing his handling of flesh tones, and a typical high viewpoint

4. After Cézanne, 1999–2000, National Gallery of Australia

Frank Auerbach

1. Frank Auerbach

2. Head of E.O.W. IV, 1961, National Gallery of Scotland.

3. Portrait of Julia, c. 1960

David Bomberg

1. Photograph of David Bomberg, c.1925.

2. Vision of Ezekiel, 1912, oil on canvas. Tate Gallery.

3. The Mud Bath, 1914, Tate Gallery.

4. Sappers at Work: A Canadian Tunnelling Company, Hill 60, St Eloi by David Bomberg, which bears a reference to 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company.

Oskar Kokoschka

1. The Bride of the Wind or The Tempest, oil on canvas, a self-portrait expressing his unrequited love for Alma Mahler, widow of composer Gustav Mahler, 1914

2. The house in which Oskar Kokoschka was born in Pöchlarn (August 2006)

3. Oskar Kokoschka in 1963, by Erling Mandelmann

4. Portrait of Lotte Franzos 1909, (oil on canvas, 114.9 cm × 79.4 cm), The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC

W.H. Auden

1. Auden in 1939 (from the Library of Congress)

2. Auden's birthplace in York

3. Christopher Isherwood (left) and W. H. Auden (right) photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 6 February 1939

4. Cover of the privately printed Poems (1928)

LIST OF IMAGES

1. Scotland – Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses

Scotland – Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.
Scotland – Flag
Scotland – The class I Pictish stone at Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.
Scotland – The Wallace Monument commemorates William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.

2. Painting – Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music

Painting – The Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable paintings in the world.
Painting – Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (Ming Dynasty)
Painting – Circus Sideshow (French: Parade de cirque), Georges Seurat, 1887–88
Painting – Cave painting of aurochs, (French: Bos primigenius primigenius), Lascaux, France, prehistoric art

3. Scenic design – Scenic design is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. Scenic designers come from a variety of backgrounds, but in recent years, are mostly trained professionals. Scenic designers design sets and scenery that aim to fully immerse the viewer in the production, a designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas that’s best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The subject of, “How do we generate creative ideas. ”The most consuming part of expanding our horizons toward scenic concepts is more than witnessing creativity. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities, to have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. Whether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, discovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish a visual concept for the production. All of these required drawing elements can be created from one accurate 3-D CAD model of the set design. Scenic designers are responsible for creating models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations. Prague, CZ What is Scenography Article illustrating the differences between US and European theatre design practices Special, WhatLinksHere/Julia Anastasopoulos

Scenic design – Scenic design, The 2010 Family Series, by Glenn Davis
Scenic design – Set design model by Marcel Jambon for an 1895 Paris production of Giuseppe Verdi 's Otello.
Scenic design – A set designer works on the set with carpenters.
Scenic design – Scenic designer Robert Edmond Jones (1887-1954) drawing at a waist high table (c. 1920).

4. Maybole – Maybole is a burgh of barony and police burgh of South Ayrshire, Scotland. It is situated 9 miles south of Ayr and 50 miles southwest of Glasgow by the Glasgow, Maybole has Middle Ages roots, receiving a charter from Donnchadh, Earl of Carrick in 1193. The current Marquess of Ailsa lives at Cassillis House, just outside Maybole, in the late seventeenth century, a census recorded Maybole was home to 28 lords and landowners with estates in Carrick and beyond. In former times, Maybole was the capital of the district of Carrick, Maybole Castle, a former seat of the Earls of Cassillis, dates to 1560 and still remains, although aspects of the castle are viewed as of concern. The public buildings include the town-hall, the Ashgrove and the Lumsden fresh-air fortnightly homes, Maybole is a short distance from the birthplace of Robbie Burns, the Scots national poet. Burns married a Maybole resident, Agnes Brown, in the nineteenth century, Maybole became a centre of boots and shoe manufacturing. Margaret McMurray, one of the last native speakers of a Lowland dialect of Scottish Gaelic is recorded to have lived at Cultezron, the ancestral seat of the Marquesses of Ailsa is Culzean Castle, now run by The National Trust for Scotland and located four miles west from Maybole. This dates from 1777, it stands on a cliff, beneath which are the Coves of Culzean, once the retreat of outlaws. A primary rail service is at Maybole railway station, two miles to the south-west are the ruins of Crossraguel Abbey, founded about 1240. In the early 20th century, Maybole added a Baptist church and this was admitted to the Baptist Union in 1901 and appointed its first full minister in 1919, a year after the Great War finished. Kirkoswald, where Robert Burns spent his year, learning land-surveying. In the parish lie the real people who inspired two of Burns fictitious characters Douglas Graham and John Davidson. Farther south are the ruins of Turnberry Castle, where Robert the Bruce is said to have been born, a few miles to the north of Culzean are the ruins of Dunure Castle, an ancient stronghold of the Kennedys. The town has three schools, Cairn Primary, Gardenrose Primary and St Cuthberts Primary. The secondary school for Maybole is Carrick Academy, Carrick Academy is also a School of Rugby due to its many successes in the sport. The local football club, Maybole F. C. play at Ladywell Stadium, the lyrics of The Waterboys Glastonbury Song include, I dreamed myself from the sultry plains, To the old green square back in old Maybole. Sir William Montgomery-Cuninghame, recipient of the Victoria Cross in 1854 during the Crimean War Sir Gilbert Blane, eighteenth century physician, Scottish engineer and roadbuilder of the eighteenth century. Artist Robert MacBryde Born in Maybole, he became a known painter of the Modern school of art

Maybole – The head of the old Maybole Cross in the gardens of Maybole Castle in 2005. The cross bears the coats of arms of the Kennedy family of Cassillis and has a rare Moon dial on another face out of view.
Maybole – St.Cuthbert's collegiate church in 2005.
Maybole – St. Cuthberts in 1789.
Maybole – New housing on the site of the old St. Cuthbert's shoe factory.

5. Glasgow School of Art – The Glasgow School of Art is Scotlands only public self-governing art school offering university-level programmes and research in architecture, fine art and design. The school is housed in one of Glasgows most famous buildings, often considered the masterpiece of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, severely damaged by a fire in May 2014, the building is now undergoing a careful restoration. Founded in 1845 as the Glasgow Government School of Design, it changed its name to The Glasgow School of Art in 1853 and it was first located at 12 Ingram Street and moved to the McLellan Galleries in 1869. In 1897, work started on a new building to house the school on Renfrew Street, the building was designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, chosen for the commission by the schools director, Francis Newbery, who oversaw a period of expansion and fast-growing reputation. The first half of the building was completed in 1899 and the half in 1909. The competition was won by New York-based Steven Holl Architects working with Glasgow-based JM Architects, the Reid Building was completed in 2014 and sits opposite the Mackintosh Building on a site previously occupied by the Foulis, Assembly and Newbery Tower Buildings. The School of Architecture is highly rated by the architecture profession, the School is organised into four academic schools, the Mackintosh School of Architecture, the School of Design and the School of Fine Art, each with its own academic programmes and research centres. A fourth school, School of Simulation and Visualisation, specialising in digital and virtual technologies was introduced in October 2016, the GSA also has a long-established portfolio of non-degree provision, including leisure classes. The original Mackintosh building was damaged by fire on 23 May 2014. The extent of the damage and the future of the building have still to be determined, an initial fire service estimate was that 90% of the building and 70% of its contents had been saved. The fire, which began in the basement, quickly spread upwards and, although it was brought under control quite quickly, significant damage was done to the historic studios and stairways. The renowned Mackintosh library was destroyed, the archive was water damaged, the fire broke out as students were preparing for their Degree Show. Eyewitnesses said that the fire appeared to have started when a projector exploded in the basement of the Charles Rennie Mackintosh building just before 12, 30pm. Investigators later determined that the cause was not a faulty projector, according to The Scotsman newspaper, the use of aerosol cans is against school policy. ”In addition, an intended fire suppression system for the building had not been completed. A school staff member was on hand when the blaze first ignited, a careful restoration process began soon after the fire, work on restoring and recreating the Macintosh design, including the famous library interior, started in 2016. The restoration is taking pains to perform the work with historical accuracy, including through the use of original wood species such as longleaf pine. The school currently has two campuses, the School of Fine Art, Digital Culture, and MFA programmes are in the vicinity of the fire damaged Mackintosh building. The Institute of Design Innovation, a centre of the School of Design is based in Forres

Glasgow School of Art – The Glasgow School of Art
Glasgow School of Art – Western facade of GSA's Mackintosh building
Glasgow School of Art – Architectural model of the Glasgow School of Art.
Glasgow School of Art – Ancient (pre-1600)

6. Robert Colquhoun – Robert Colquhoun was a Scottish painter, printmaker and theatre set designer. Colquhoun was born in Kilmarnock and was educated at Kilmarnock Academy and he joined MacBryde on a travelling scholarship to France and Italy from 1937 to 1939, before serving as an ambulance driver in the Royal Army Medical Corps during the Second World War. After being injured, he returned to London in 1941 where he shared studio space with MacBryde, the pair shared a house with John Minton and, from 1943, Jankel Adler. Colquhouns early works of agricultural labourers and workmen were strongly influenced by the colours and his work developed into a more austere, Expressionist style, heavily influenced by Picasso, and concentrated on the theme of the isolated, agonised figure. From the mid-1940s to the early 1950s he was considered one of the artists of his generation. Along with that of MacBryde, the work of Colquhoun was regularly shown at the Lefevre Gallery in London, Colquhoun was also a prolific printmaker, producing a large number of lithographs and monotypes throughout his career. During and after the Second World War he worked with MacBryde on several set designs and these included sets for Gielguds Macbeth, King Lear at Stratford and Massines Scottish ballet Donald of the Burthens, produced by the Sadlers Wells Ballet at Covent Garden in 1951. Robert Colquhoun died, an alcoholic, in obscurity in London in 1962. MacBryde moved to Dublin, where he was killed in a accident in 1966. Their friend Anthony Cronin describes them with respect and affection in his memoir Dead as Doornails, mysterious Figures Woman with Leaping Cat Bristow, Roger. The Last Bohemians, The Two Roberts - Colquhoun and MacBryde, biography at the Tate Gallery Robert Colquhoun on the Gazetteer for Scotland The Roberts at the Scottish National Gallery

Robert Colquhoun – Woman with a Young Goat, 1948

7. France – France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

France – One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France – Flag
France – The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire.
France – With Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right.

8. Italy – Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

Italy – The Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and engineering of ancient history.
Italy – Flag
Italy – The Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the Kings of Italy.
Italy – Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor Frederick II, UNESCO World Heritage site

9. London – London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area

London – Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace and Central London skyline
London
London
London – The name London may derive from the River Thames

10. John Minton (artist) – Francis John Minton was an English painter, illustrator, stage designer and teacher. After studying in France, he became a teacher in London, in addition to landscapes, portraits and other paintings, some of them on an unusually large scale, he built up a reputation as an illustrator of books. In the mid-1950s, Minton found himself out of sympathy with the trend that was then becoming fashionable. He suffered psychological problems, self-medicated with alcohol, and in 1957 committed suicide, Minton was born in Great Shelford, Cambridgeshire, the second of three sons of Francis Minton, a solicitor, and his wife, Kate, née Webb. From 1925 to 1932, he was educated at Northcliff House, Bognor Regis, Sussex, and then from 1932 to 1935 at Reading School. He studied art at St Johns Wood School of Art from 1935 to 1938. and was influenced by his fellow student Michael Ayrton. He spent eight months studying in France, frequently accompanied by Ayrton, in October 1939 Minton registered as a conscientious objector, but in 1941 changed his views and joined the Pioneer Corps. He was commissioned in 1943, but was discharged on grounds in the same year. While in the army, Minton, with Ayrton, designed the costumes, the settings moved the piece from the 11th-century to the age of illuminated missals, The Manchester Guardian wrote that they should be long remembered. In the same year he and Ayrton held a joint exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in London, the Times wrote, Mr. Mintons early penchant for dark colour schemes can be seen in his 1939 Landscape at Les Baux, in the Tate Gallery. From 1943 to 1946 Minton taught illustration at the Camberwell College of Arts, at the same time he continued to draw and paint, sharing a studio for some years with Robert Colquhoun and Robert MacBryde, and later with Keith Vaughan. Reviewing a 1944 exhibition, The Times remarked that Minton was clearly in the tradition of Samuel Palmer, Mintons appearance in this period is shown in a 1952 portrait by Lucian Freud, as well as in self-portraits. He designed textiles and wallpapers, he produced posters for London Transport and Ealing Studios and he painted scenes of Britain, from rural beauty to urban decay, and travelled overseas, producing scenes of the West Indies, Spain and Morocco. The Times wrote, Even when they were ostensibly of Spain and Jamaica and they were densely patterned and luxuriantly coloured, and it was always the fullness and richness of the scene which attracted his eye and which he painted with such evident enjoyment. Mintons posthumous fame is principally as an illustrator, many of his commissions for illustrations came from the publisher John Lehmann. Both men were homosexual, and they were so much in one company that some people supposed that they were partners. He also produced dustwrappers for many publishers including Michael Joseph, Secker and Warburg and he suffered extreme mood swings and became dependent on alcohol. He took his own life in 1957 at his London home, in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biographys entry on Minton, Michael Middleton writes, Minton is often seen as an illustrator rather than a painter

John Minton (artist) – Self-portrait, circa 1953

11. Jankel Adler – Jankel Adler was a Jewish-Polish painter and printmaker. He was born as the seventh of ten children in Tuszyn, in 1912 he began training as an engraver with his uncle in Belgrade. He moved in 1914 to Germany where he lived for a time with his sister in Barmen, there he studied at the college of arts and crafts with professor Gustav Wiethücher. From 1918 to 1919 he went back to Łódź, where he was joint founder of Jung Jidysz, in 1920 he returned briefly to Berlin, in 1921 he returned to Barmen, and in 1922 he moved to Düsseldorf. There he became a teacher at the Academy of Arts, and became acquainted with Paul Klee, a painting by Adler received a gold medal at the exhibition German art Düsseldorf in 1928. In 1929 and 1930 he went on trips in Mallorca. During the election campaign of July 1932 he published with a group of leftist artists and intellectuals an urgent appeal against the policy of the National Socialists, as a modern artist, and especially as a Jew, he faced persecution under Hitlers regime which took power in 1933. In the years followed, he made numerous journeys to Poland, Italy, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania. In 1937, twenty-five of his works were seized from public collections by the Nazis, in 1943 he moved to London. Died in Whitley Cottage in Aldbourne on 25 April 1949 at the age of 53 years, Adler was strongly influenced by Picasso and Léger. He enjoyed experimenting with materials, for example sand admixtures and he often painted Jewish subjects, and painted some few abstract compositions. List of German painters Jankels Cats Stefan Themerson, Jankel Adler,1948 Andrzej Kempa, Marek Szukalak, The Biographical Dictionary of the Jews from Lodz, Łódź2006, Oficyna Bibliofilów and Fundacja Monumentum Iudaicum Lodzense, pp. 6–7, ISBN 83-87522-83-X. Jankel Adler collection at the Israel Museum

Jankel Adler – Two Figures, oil on canvas painting by Jankel Adler, 1944

12. Graham Sutherland – Graham Vivian Sutherland OM was an English artist who is notable for his work in glass, fabrics, prints and portraits. His work was inspired by landscape and religion, and he designed the tapestry for the re-built Coventry Cathedral. Printmaking, mostly of landscapes, dominated Sutherlands work during the 1920s. He developed his art by working in watercolours before switching to using oil paints in the 1940s and it is these oil paintings, often of surreal, organic landscapes of the Pembrokeshire coast, that secured his reputation as a leading British modern artist. Sutherland taught at a number of art colleges, notably at Chelsea School of Art and at Goldsmiths College and he served as an official war artist in the Second World War drawing industrial scenes on the British home front. Such was Sutherlands standing in post-war Britain that he was commissioned to design the massive central tapestry in the new Coventry Cathedral, a number of portrait commissions in the 1950s proved highly controversial. Winston Churchill hated Sutherlands depiction of him and publicly humiliated Sutherland when the painting was presented, in 1955, Sutherland and his wife purchased a property near Nice. Living abroad led to something of a decline in his status in Britain, however, a visit to Pembrokeshire in 1967, his first trip there in nearly twenty years, led to a creative renewal that went some way toward restoring his reputation as a leading British artist. Graham Sutherland was born in Streatham in London, the son of a lawyer who became a civil servant in the Land Registry Office. Graham Sutherland attended Homefield Preparatory School in Sutton and was educated at Epsom College. Upon leaving school, after some preliminary coaching in art, Sutherland began an apprenticeship at the Midland Railway works in Derby. After a year he succeeded in persuading his father that he was not destined for a career in engineering and that he should be allowed to study art. There being no vacancies at his first choice, the Slade School of Fine Art, he entered Goldsmiths School of Art in 1921, in both 1925 and 1928, Sutherland exhibited drawings and engravings at the XXI Gallery in London. Sutherlands early prints of pastoral subjects show the influence of Samuel Palmer, largely mediated by the older etcher and he did not begin to paint in earnest until he was in his 30s, following the collapse of the print market in 1930 due to the Great Depression. These pieces are landscapes, which show an affinity with the work of Paul Nash. Sutherland converted to Catholicism in December 1926, the year before his marriage to Kathleen Barry, the couple, who were inseparable, lived at various locations in Kent before eventually buying a property in Trottiscliffe in 1945. Sutherland also took up glass design, fabric design, and poster design during the 1930s, between 1935 and 1940, he also taught composition and book illustration at Chelsea. In 1934 he visited Pembrokeshire for the first time and was inspired by its landscape

Graham Sutherland – The large tapestry of Christ in Coventry Cathedral, England, designed by Graham Sutherland.

13. John Piper (artist) – John Egerton Christmas Piper CH was an English painter, printmaker and designer of stained-glass windows and theatre sets. His work often focused on the British landscape, especially churches and monuments and he was educated at Epsom College and trained at the Richmond School of Art, followed by the Royal College of Art in London. He turned from abstraction early in his career, concentrating on a more naturalistic and he was an official war artist in World War II. Piper collaborated with others, including the poets John Betjeman and Geoffrey Grigson on the Shell Guides, and with the potter Geoffrey Eastop. In his later years he produced many limited-edition prints, John Piper was born in Epsom, Surrey, the youngest of three sons to the solicitor Charles Alfred Piper and his wife Mary Ellen Matthews. During Pipers childhood, Epsom was still largely countryside and he went exploring on his bike, and drew and painted pictures of old churches and monuments on the way. He started making guide books complete with pictures and information at a young age, Pipers brothers both served in the First World War and one of them was killed at Ypres in 1915. John Piper attended Epsom College from 1919 and he did not like the college but found refuge in art. When he left Epsom College in 1922, Piper published a book of poetry, however, his father disagreed and insisted he join the family law firm, Piper, Smith & Piper in Westminster. Piper worked beside his father in London for three years, took articles but refused the offer of a partnership in the firm and this refusal cost Piper his inheritance but left him free to attend Richmond School of Art. At Richmond, the artist Raymond Coxon prepared him for the exams for the Royal College of Art. While studying at Richmond, Piper met Eileen Holding, a student whom he married in August 1929. Piper disliked the regime at the RCA and left in December 1929, Piper and Holding lived in Hammersmith and held a joint exhibition of their artworks at Heals in London in 1931. Piper also wrote art and music reviews for several papers and magazines, one such review, of the artist Edward Wadsworths work, led to an invitation from Ben Nicholson for Piper to join the Seven and Five Society of modern artists. The farmhouse had no electricity, no mains water and no telephone connection. Piper and Evans gradually converted the farms out-buildings to studios for their artworks, in the following years Piper was involved in a wide variety of projects in several different media. He drew a series on Welsh nonconformist chapels, produced articles on English typography, through Myfanwy Evans, Piper met John Betjeman in 1937 and Betjeman asked Piper to work on the Shell Guides he was editing. Piper wrote and illustrated the guide to Oxfordshire, focusing on rural churches, in March 1938 Stephen Spender asked Piper to design the sets for his production of Trial of a Judge

John Piper (artist) – Middle Mill, Pembrokeshire, 1982
John Piper (artist) – The Passage to the Control-room at South West Regional Headquarters, Bristol (Art. IWM ART LD 170)
John Piper (artist) – Shelter Experiments, near Woburn, Bedfordshire (Art. IWM ART LD 3859)
John Piper (artist) – The Baptistry Window at Coventry Cathedral

14. Modernism – Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention

Modernism
Modernism – Eugène Delacroix 's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art
Modernism – A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck
Modernism – Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The Art Institute of Chicago

15. Cubism – Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon

Cubism – Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 x 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York
Cubism – Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, considered to be a major step towards the founding of the Cubist movement
Cubism – Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London
Cubism – Paul Cézanne, Quarry Bibémus, 1898-1900, Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany

16. Expressionism – Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War and it remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film. The term is sometimes suggestive of angst, in a general sense, painters such as Matthias Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism, though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art historian Antonin Matějček in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism, An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express himself. Immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures, in 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, a few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinskys Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903, among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish itself until 1913, though mainly a German artistic movement initially and most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910–30, most precursors of the movement were not German. Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it overlapped with other major isms of the modernist period, with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, more explicitly, that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. The term refers to a style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions. It is arguable that all artists are expressive but there are examples of art production in Europe from the 15th century onward which emphasize extreme emotion. Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon, according to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the two is that Expressionism doesnt shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some terrific fuck yous, Baroque doesnt, brazil, Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo and Lasar Segall. Estonia, Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt Finland, Tyko Sallinen, Alvar Cawén, Juho Mäkelä, there were a number of groups of expressionist painters, including Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter was based in Munich and Die Brücke was based originally in Dresden, Die Brücke was active for a longer period than Der Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a year. The Expressionists had many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh and they were also aware of the work being done by the Fauves in Paris, who influenced Expressionisms tendency toward arbitrary colours and jarring compositions

Expressionism – The Scream by Edvard Munch (1893), which inspired 20th-century Expressionists
Expressionism – Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Egon Schiele
Expressionism – "View of Toledo" by El Greco, 1595/1610 has been indicated to have a particularly striking resemblance to 20th-century expressionism. Historically however it is an example of Mannerism. [citation needed]
Expressionism – Wassily Kandinsky, On White II, 1923

17. Still life – A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of such as landscape or portraiture. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious, some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound. Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects, the term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration, generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary. Still life occupied the lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres, the trompe-lœil painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real, is a specialized type of still life, usually showing inanimate and relatively flat objects. Still-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs and it was believed that food objects and other items depicted there would, in the afterlife, become real and available for use by the deceased. Ancient Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects, by the 16th century, food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains and these vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600. As Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced in the arts of painting, genre painting. He singled out Peiraikos, whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few, by 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils, still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects. Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects, painters like Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as part of an iconographic program. Petrus Christus’ portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is an example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content. Another similar type of painting is the family portrait combining figures with a table of food. Around this time, simple still-life depictions divorced of figures were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings, another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475. This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms introduced the type with a painting that still startles. A small religious scene can often be out in the distance

Still life – Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625), Bouquet (1599), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Some of the earliest examples of still life were paintings of flowers by Northern Renaissance, Dutch, and Flemish painters.
Still life – Still life on a 2nd-century mosaic, with fish, poultry, dates and vegetables from the Vatican museum
Still life – Glass bowl of fruit and vases. Roman wall painting in Pompeii (around 70 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy
Still life – Hans Memling (1430–1494), Vase of Flowers (1480), Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. According to some scholars the Vase of Flowers is filled with religious symbolism.

18. Landscape art – In other works, landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition, detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape views in art may be imaginary, or copied from reality with varying degrees of accuracy. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, within a few decades it was used to describe vistas in poetry, and eventually as a term for real views. However the cognate term landscaef or landskipe for a patch of land had existed in Old English. The earliest pure landscapes with no figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. The frescos from the Tomb of Nebamun, now in the British Museum, are a famous example. These were frequently used, as in the illustrated, to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista, a persistent problem for landscape artists. The Chinese style generally showed only a distant view, or used dead ground or mist to avoid that difficulty, aesthetic theories in both regions gave the highest status to the works seen to require the most imagination from the artist. They were often also poets whose lines and images illustrated each other, a revival in interest in nature initially mainly manifested itself in depictions of small gardens such as the Hortus Conclusus or those in millefleur tapestries. The frescos of figures at work or play in front of a background of trees in the Palace of the Popes. Several frescos of gardens have survived from Roman houses like the Villa of Livia, a particular advance is shown in the less well-known Turin-Milan Hours, now largely destroyed by fire, whose developments were reflected in Early Netherlandish painting for the rest of the century. Landscape backgrounds for various types of painting became prominent and skilful during the 15th century. The Italian development of a system of graphical perspective was now known all over Europe. Indeed, certain styles were so popular that they became formulas that could be copied again and again, after the publication of the Small Landscapes, landscape artists in the Low Countries either continued with the world landscape or followed the new mode presented by the Small Landscapes. The popularity of landscape scenes can be seen in the success of the painter Frans Post. Salvator Rosa gave picturesque excitement to his landscapes by showing wilder Southern Italian country, there are different styles and periods, and subgenres of marine and animal painting, as well as a distinct style of Italianate landscape

Landscape art – Joachim Patinir (1480–1524), Landscape with Charon Crossing the Styx, 1515–1524. Patinir pioneered the " world landscape " style.
Landscape art – Themistokles von Eckenbrecher (German, 1842–1921), View of Laerdalsoren, on the Sognefjord, 1901
Landscape art – Hasegawa Tōhaku, Pine Trees, one of a pair of folding screens, Japan, 1593. 156.8 × 356 cm (61.73 × 140.16 in)
Landscape art – Landscape with scene from the Odyssey, Rome, c. 60–40 BCE

19. World War II – World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

World War II – Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad
World War II – The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930
World War II – Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930
World War II – Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War

20. John Gielgud – Sir Arthur John Gielgud OM CH was an English actor and theatre director whose career spanned eight decades. With Ralph Richardson and Laurence Olivier, he was one of the trio of actors who dominated the British stage for much of the 20th century. A member of the Terry family theatrical dynasty, he gained his first paid acting work as a member of his cousin Phyllis Neilson-Terrys company in 1922. After studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art he worked in repertory theatre, during the 1930s Gielgud was a stage star in the West End and on Broadway, appearing in new works and classics. He began a career as a director, and set up his own company at the Queens Theatre. He was regarded by many as the finest Hamlet of his era, in the 1950s Gielgud feared that his career was threatened when he was convicted and fined for a homosexual offence, but his colleagues and the public supported him loyally. From the late 1960s he found new plays that suited him, by authors including Alan Bennett, David Storey, during the first half of his career, Gielgud did not take the cinema seriously. Though he made his first film in 1924, and had successes with The Good Companions and Julius Caesar, Gielgud appeared in more than sixty films between Becket, for which he received his first Academy Award nomination, and Elizabeth. As the acid-tongued Hobson in Arthur he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and his film work further earned him a Golden Globe Award and two BAFTAs. Although largely indifferent to awards, Gielgud had the distinction of winning an Oscar, an Emmy, a Grammy. He was famous from the start of his career for his voice and he broadcast more than a hundred radio and television dramas, between 1929 and 1994, and made commercial recordings of many plays, including ten of Shakespeares. Among his honours, he was knighted in 1953 and the Gielgud Theatre was named after him, from 1977 to 1989, he was president of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Gielgud was born in South Kensington, London, the third of the four children and youngest of three sons of Frank Henry Gielgud and his second wife, Kate Terry-Gielgud, née Terry-Lewis. The two elder boys were Lewis, who became an official of the Red Cross and UNESCO. On his fathers side, Gielgud was of Lithuanian and Polish descent, the surname derives from Gelgaudiškis, a village in Lithuania. The Counts Gielgud had owned the Gielgudziszki Castle on the River Niemen, jan Gielgud took refuge in England with his family, one of his grandchildren was Frank Gielgud, whose maternal grandmother was a famous Polish actress, Aniela Aszpergerowa. Frank married into a family with wide theatrical connections, Frank had no theatrical ambitions and worked all his life as a stockbroker in the City of London. In 1912, aged eight, Gielgud went to Hillside preparatory school in Surrey as his brothers had done

John Gielgud – Gielgud as Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing, 1959
John Gielgud – Centre: Marion, Kate and Ellen Terry and, far right, Fred Terry at Ellen's Silver Jubilee matinée, Drury Lane, 12 June 1906. Everyone shown was a member of the Terry family.
John Gielgud – Noël Coward with Lilian Braithwaite, his, and later Gielgud's, co-star in The Vortex
John Gielgud – Mrs Patrick Campbell and Edith Evans, 1920s co-stars with Gielgud

21. Macbeth – Macbeth is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, it is thought to have been first performed in 1606. It dramatises the damaging physical and psychological effects of political ambition on those who seek power for its own sake. Of all the plays that Shakespeare wrote during the reign of James I and it was first published in the Folio of 1623, possibly from a prompt book, and is his shortest tragedy. A brave Scottish general named Macbeth receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland, consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, Macbeth murders King Duncan and takes the Scottish throne for himself. He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia, forced to commit more and more murders to protect himself from enmity and suspicion, he soon becomes a tyrannical ruler. The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take Macbeth and Lady Macbeth into the realms of madness, the events of the tragedy are usually associated with the execution of Henry Garnet for complicity in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. In the backstage world of theatre, some believe that the play is cursed, over the course of many centuries, the play has attracted some of the most renowned actors to the roles of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. It has been adapted to film, television, opera, novels, comics, the play opens amidst thunder and lightning, and the Three Witches decide that their next meeting shall be with Macbeth. Macbeth, the Kings kinsman, is praised for his bravery, in the following scene, Macbeth and Banquo discuss the weather and their victory. As they wander onto a heath, the Three Witches enter, though Banquo challenges them first, they address Macbeth, hailing him as Thane of Glamis, Thane of Cawdor, and that he shall be King hereafter. Macbeth appears to be stunned to silence, when Banquo asks of his own fortunes, the witches respond paradoxically, saying that he will be less than Macbeth, yet happier, less successful, yet more. He will father a line of kings though he himself will not be one, while the two men wonder at these pronouncements, the witches vanish, and another thane, Ross, arrives and informs Macbeth of his newly bestowed title, Thane of Cawdor. The first prophecy is fulfilled, and Macbeth, previously skeptical. King Duncan welcomes and praises Macbeth and Banquo, and declares that he spend the night at Macbeths castle at Inverness. Macbeth sends a message ahead to his wife, Lady Macbeth, Lady Macbeth suffers none of her husbands uncertainty and wishes him to murder Duncan in order to obtain kingship. When Macbeth arrives at Inverness, she overrides all of her husbands objections by challenging his manhood and he and Lady Macbeth plan to get Duncans two chamberlains drunk so that they will black out, the next morning they will blame the chamberlains for the murder. They will be defenseless as they remember nothing. While Duncan is asleep, Macbeth stabs him, despite his doubts and he is so shaken that Lady Macbeth has to take charge

Macbeth – Macbeth and Banquo encounter the witches for the first time
Macbeth – A poster for a c. 1884 American production of Macbeth, starring Thomas W. Keene. Depicted, anticlockwise from top-left, are: Macbeth and Banquo meet the witches; just after the murder of Duncan; Banquo's ghost; Macbeth duels Macduff; and Macbeth.
Macbeth – Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856), Macbeth seeing the Ghost of Banquo, 1854
Macbeth – Macbeth consulting the Vision of the Armed Head by Johann Heinrich Füssli

22. King Lear – King Lear is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical revision, was included in the 1623 First Folio, Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its own individual integrity that should be preserved. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering, george Bernard Shaw wrote, No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear. The eldest, Goneril, speaks first, declaring her love for her father in fulsome terms, moved by her flattery Lear proceeds to grant to Goneril her share as soon as she has finished her declaration, before Regan and Cordelia have a chance to speak. He then awards to Regan her share as soon as she has spoken, in his anger he disinherits Cordelia and divides her share between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to Lears unfair treatment of Cordelia, enraged by Kents protests, Lear then summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who have both proposed marriage to Cordelia. Learning that Cordelia has been disinherited, the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit, the King of France is shocked by Lears decision because up until this time Lear has only praised and favored Cordelia. Meanwhile, Gloucester has introduced his illegitimate son Edmund to Kent, Lear announces he will live alternately with Goneril and Regan, and their husbands. He reserves to himself a retinue of one hundred knights, to be supported by his daughters, Goneril and Regan speak privately, revealing that their declarations of love were fake, and that they view Lear as a foolish old man. Edmund resents his illegitimate status, and plots to dispose of his older brother Edgar. He tricks their father Gloucester with a letter, making him think Edgar plans to usurp the estate. Kent returns from exile in disguise under the name of Caius, Lear and Caius quarrel with Oswald, Gonerils steward. Lear discovers that now that Goneril has power, she no longer respects him and she orders him to behave better and reduces his retinue. Enraged, Lear departs for Regans home, Edmund learns from Curan, a courtier, that there is likely to be war between Albany and Cornwall, and that Regan and Cornwall are to arrive at Gloucesters house that evening. Taking advantage of the arrival of the duke and Regan, Edmund fakes an attack by Edgar and he disinherits Edgar and proclaims him an outlaw. Bearing Lears message to Regan, Caius meets Oswald again at Gloucesters home, quarrels with him again, when Lear arrives, he objects to the mistreatment of his messenger, but Regan is as dismissive of her father as Goneril was. Goneril arrives and supports Regans argument against him, Lear yields completely to his rage. He rushes out into a storm to rant against his ungrateful daughters, Kent later follows to protect him

King Lear – "King Lear and the Fool in the Storm" by William Dyce (1806–1864)
King Lear – Cordelia in the Court of King Lear (1873) by Sir John Gilbert
King Lear – A watercolour of King Lear and the Fool in the storm from Act III, Scene ii of King Lear
King Lear – King Lear: Cordelia's Farewell by Edwin Austin Abbey

23. Royal Shakespeare Theatre – The Royal Shakespeare Theatre is a 1, 040+ seat thrust stage theatre owned by the Royal Shakespeare Company dedicated to the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare. It is located in the town of Stratford-upon-Avon – Shakespeares birthplace – in the English Midlands, the Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres re-opened in November 2010 after undergoing a major renovation known as the Transformation Project. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre opened in 1932 on the adjacent to the original Shakespeare Memorial Theatre. The architect was Elisabeth Scott, so the theatre became the first important work erected in Britain from the designs of a woman architect and it was renamed the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1961, following the establishment of the Royal Shakespeare Company the previous year. In the building designed by Scott, the theatre had a stage. Two tiers of seating were added to the side walls of the theatre. Balcony seats could only be accessed by means of a staircase to the side of the building, separate from the main foyer, the theatre has several notable Art Deco features, including the staircase and corridors at either side of the auditorium. It is a Grade II* listed building, the Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres are on the western bank of the River Avon, with the adjacent Bancroft Gardens providing a scenic riverside setting. The Rooftop Restaurant and Bar overlooks both the river and the Bancroft Gardens, the Royal Shakespeare Company has renovated the Royal Shakespeare Theatre as part of a £112. The new theatre is more accessible to people with disabilities. The theatre is a theatre, which allows the actors. The stage reaches out into the audience, who are seated on three sides of it and this one-room theatre creates a more traditional Shakespearean performance area, allowing the audience to draw closer to the actors and creating a more personal theatre experience. The project reached over a total of £100 million in cost and also drew in financial support from RSC America, plans to redevelop the theatre were finalised and work commenced in 2007, with a scheduled completion date of 2010. The RSC had its own team, led by Project Director. Other members of the team included, Bennetts Associates, Buro Happold, Charcoalblue, Mace, Acoustic Dimensions, Drivers Jonas Deloitte and Gardiner. The new theatre opened in November 2010, with events and activities. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre was officially opened on 4 March 2011 by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, there is also a riverside walk which stretches from the Bancroft Gardens, past the theatre, towards Holy Trinity Church. The whole building is now accessible for the first time for visitors, performers, the Company, A Biographical Dictionary of the Royal Shakespeare Company

Royal Shakespeare Theatre – The Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 2011, north frontage and tower.
Royal Shakespeare Theatre – The first Shakespeare Memorial theatre complex, pictured in the 1890s

24. Ballet – Ballet /ˈbæleɪ/ is a type of performance dance that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread, highly technical form of dance with its own based on French terminology. It has been influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres. Becoming a ballet dancer requires years of training, Ballet has been taught in various schools around the world, which have historically incorporated their own cultures to evolve the art. Ballet may also refer to a dance work, which consists of the choreography. A well-known example of this is The Nutcracker, a ballet that was originally choreographed by Marius Petipa. Ballets are choreographed and performed by trained artists, the word came into English usage from the French around 1630. Ballet originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries before being spread from Italy to France by an Italian aristocrat, Catherine de Medici, in France, ballet developed even further under her aristocratic influence. The dancers in these early court ballets were mostly noble amateurs, Ballets in this period were lengthy and elaborate and often served a political purpose. Ornamented costumes were meant to impress viewers and restricted freedom of movement. The ballets were performed in large chambers with viewers on three sides, French court ballet reached its height under the reign of King Louis XIV. Known as the Sun King, Louis symbolized the brilliance of France, in 1661 Louis founded the Académie Royale de Danse to establish standards and certify dance instructors. In 1672, Louis XIV made Jean-Baptiste Lully the director of the Académie Royale de Musique from which the first professional ballet company, Lully is considered the most important composer of music for ballets de cour and instrumental to the development of the form. Ballet went into decline in France after 1830, though it continued to develop in Denmark, Italy, the arrival in Europe on the eve of First World War of the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev, revived interest in the ballet and started the modern era. The Russian choreographer Michel Fokine challenged tradition and called for reforms that reinvigorated ballet as an art form, in the 20th century, ballet had a wide influence on other dance genres, and subgenres of ballet have also evolved. In the United States, choreographer George Balanchine developed what is now known as neoclassical ballet, other developments include contemporary ballet and post-structural ballet. Also in the century, ballet took a turn dividing it from classical ballet to the introduction of modern dance. Stylistic variations have emerged and evolved since the Italian Renaissance, early, classical variations are primarily associated with geographic origin

Ballet – Classical bell tutus in The Dance Class by Degas, 1874
Ballet – Anna Pavlova in Giselle, wearing a romantic tutu
Ballet – Scene from act 4 of Swan Lake, Vienna State Opera, 2004
Ballet – Harlequin and Columbina from the mime theater at Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen, Denmark

25. Royal Opera House – The Royal Opera House is an opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is referred to as simply Covent Garden. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, originally called the Theatre Royal, it served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented, a year later, Handels first season of operas began. Many of his operas and oratorios were written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there. The current building is the theatre on the site following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856. The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, the main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 12.20 m wide and 14.80 m high, the main auditorium is a Grade I listed building. The letters patent remained in the possession of the patentees heirs until the 19th century, in 1728, John Rich, actor-manager of the Dukes Company at Lincolns Inn Fields Theatre, commissioned The Beggars Opera from John Gay. In addition, a Royal Charter had created a fruit and vegetable market in the area, at its opening on 7 December 1732, Rich was carried by his actors in processional triumph into the theatre for its opening production of William Congreves The Way of the World. Despite the frequent interchangeability between the Covent Garden and Drury Lane companies, competition was intense, often presenting the plays at the same time. Rich introduced pantomime to the repertoire, himself performing and a tradition of seasonal pantomime continued at the modern theatre, in 1734, Covent Garden presented its first ballet, Pygmalion. Marie Sallé discarded tradition and her corset and danced in diaphanous robes, george Frideric Handel was named musical director of the company, at Lincolns Inn Fields, in 1719, but his first season of opera, at Covent Garden, was not presented until 1734. His first opera was Il pastor fido followed by Ariodante, the première of Alcina, there was a royal performance of Messiah in 1743, which was a success and began a tradition of Lenten oratorio performances. From 1735 until his death in 1759 he gave regular seasons there and he bequeathed his organ to John Rich, and it was placed in a prominent position on the stage, but was among many valuable items lost in a fire that destroyed the theatre on 20 September 1808. In 1792 the architect Henry Holland rebuilt the auditorium, within the shell of the building but deeper and wider than the old auditorium. Rebuilding began in December 1808, and the second Theatre Royal, the Old Price Riots lasted over two months, and the management was finally forced to accede to the audiences demands. During this time, entertainments were varied, opera and ballet were presented, kemble engaged a variety of acts, including the child performer Master Betty, the great clown Joseph Grimaldi made his name at Covent Garden

Royal Opera House – The Royal Opera House, Bow Street frontage with Plazzotta 's statue, Young Dancer, in the foreground
Royal Opera House – "Rich's Glory": John Rich takes over (seemingly invades) his new Covent Garden Theatre. (A caricature by William Hogarth)
Royal Opera House – A satirical drawing from 1811 of the "Pigeon Holes" that flanked the upper gallery at Covent Garden
Royal Opera House – A picture of the first theatre drawn shortly before it burned down in 1808

26. Patrick Kavanagh – Patrick Kavanagh was an Irish poet and novelist. His best-known works include the novel Tarry Flynn, and the poems On Raglan Road and he is known for his accounts of Irish life through reference to the everyday and commonplace. Patrick Kavanagh was born in rural Inniskeen, County Monaghan, in 1904 and his grandfather was a schoolteacher called Keaveney, which a local priest changed to Kavanagh. The grandfather had to leave the following a scandal and never taught in a national school again. Patrick Kavanaghs father, James, was a cobbler and farmer, Kavanaghs brother Peter became a university professor and writer, two of their sisters were teachers, three became nurses, and one became a nun. Patrick Kavanagh was a pupil at Kednaminsha National School from 1909 to 1916 and he became apprenticed to his father as a shoemaker and worked on his farm. He was also goalkeeper for the Inniskeen Gaelic football team and he later reflected, Although the literal idea of the peasant is of a farm labouring person, in fact a peasant is all that mass of mankind which lives below a certain level of consciousness. They live in the cave of the unconscious and they scream when they see the light. He also commented that, although he had grown up in a poor district, Kavanaghs first published work appeared in 1928 in the Dundalk Democrat and the Irish Independent. Kavanagh had encountered a copy of the Irish Statesman, edited by George William Russell, Russell at first rejected Kavanaghs work but encouraged him to keep submitting, and he went on to publish verse by Kavanagh in 1929 and 1930. This inspired the farmer to leave home and attempt to further his aspirations, in 1931, he walked 80 kilometres to meet Russell in Dublin, where Kavanaghs brother was a teacher. Russell gave Kavanagh books, among them works by Feodor Dostoyevsky, Victor Hugo, Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Robert Browning, Kavanagh joined Dundalk Library and the first book he borrowed was The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot. Kavanaghs first collection, Ploughman and Other Poems, was published in 1936 and it is notable for its realistic portrayal of Irish country life, free of the romantic sentiment often seen at the time in rural poems, a trait he abhorred. Two years after his first collection was published he had yet to make a significant impression, mr Kavanaghs lyrics are for the most part slight and conventional, easily enjoyed but almost as easily forgotten. In 1938 Kavanagh went to London and he remained there for about five months. The Green Fool, a loosely autobiographical novel, was published in 1938, gogarty, who had taken offence at the close coupling of the words wife and mistress, was awarded £100 in damages. The book, which recounted Kavanaghs rural childhood and his attempts to become a writer, received international recognition, in 1939 Kavanagh settled in Dublin. He soon saw through the literary masks many Dublin writers wore to affect an air of artistic sophistication, to him such men were dandies, journalists, and civil servants playing at art

Patrick Kavanagh – Patrick Kavanagh, by Patrick Swift, 1960
Patrick Kavanagh – George William Russell, Kavanagh's literary advisor and mentor
Patrick Kavanagh – Patrick Kavanagh by Patrick Swift, lithograph, 1956, NPG, London
Patrick Kavanagh – Kavanagh's Grave, Inniskeen

27. Dublin – Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle

Dublin – Clockwise from top: Samuel Beckett Bridge, Trinity College, Custom House, Dublin Castle, O'Connell Bridge, and Convention Centre Dublin.
Dublin – Father Mathew Bridge, formerly Dublin Bridge, is understood to be near the ancient "Ford of the Hurdles" (Baile Átha Cliath), the original crossing point on the River Liffey.
Dublin – Dublin Castle was the fortified seat of British rule in Ireland until 1922.
Dublin – Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin.

28. Anthony Cronin – Anthony Gerard Richard Cronin was an Irish poet, novelist, biographer, critic, commentator, barrister and arts activist. Anthony Cronin was born in Enniscorthy, County Wexford and he obtained a B. A. from the National University of Ireland, entered the Kings Inns in 1944 and was called to the Bar in 1948. With Flann O’Brien, Patrick Kavanagh and Con Leventhal, Cronin celebrated the first Bloomsday in 1954 and he contributed to many television programmes, including Flann O’Brien, Man of Parts and Folio. He had honorary doctorates from institutions, including Dublin University, the National University of Ireland. He was the inspiration for, and a member of, Aosdána. Cronin was a member of its body, the Toscaireacht. He was also a member of the bodies of the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Cronin began his career as a contributor to Envoy, A Review of Literature. He was editor of The Bell in the 1950s and literary editor of Time and he wrote a weekly column, Viewpoint, in the Irish Times from 1974 to 1980. Later he contributed a column on poetry to the Sunday Independent and his first collection of poems, called simply Poems, was published in 1958. Several collections followed and his Collected Poems was published in 2004, the End of the Modern World, written over several decades, was his final publication. Cronins first novel, The Life of Riley, is a satire on life in Ireland in the mid-20th century. He also wrote biographies of two Irish writers, No Laughing Matter, The Life and Times of Flann OBrien and Samuel Beckett. From 1966 to 1968 Cronin was a lecturer at the University of Montana. Cronin lived in Dublin with his wife, fellow author Anne Haverty and he died on 27 December 2016, on the eve of his 93rd birthday. 29-67, performed Peacock 1974. Memoirs Dead as Doornails Biographies No Laughing Matter, The Life and Times of Flann OBrien Samuel Beckett, The Last Modernist As Editor New Poems, ed

Anthony Cronin – Anthony Cronin, by Patrick Swift, 1950, National Gallery of Ireland
Anthony Cronin – Poets Patrick Kavanagh and Anthony Cronin at the church in Monkstown with the carriage in which they had been proceeding about Dublin in the footsteps of Leopold Bloom, the protagonist in Ulysses - 50 years after Bloom traversed the city in James Joyce 's novel.

29. Arthur Berry (playwright) – Arthur Berry was an English playwright, poet, teacher and artist, who was born in Smallthorne, Stoke-on-Trent. His individual creative work became deeply rooted in the culture, people, Berry was the son of a publican and grew up in the potteries city of Stoke-on-Trent during the Depression. He was born with an arm, as he could not work as a miner or manual labourer Berry was enrolled at the Burslem School of Art in the city. Despite a rebellious start there, he came under the care of Gordon Mitchell Forsyth, director of art education, Berry gained a place at the Royal College of Art, as did a number of the more talented Burslem students. During his time at the Royal College the institution was evacuated from Kensington to Ambleside in the Lake District, Berry, who suffered from agoraphobia, did not find the rural surroundings of Ambleside particularly to his taste. However, he appreciated the intense Autumn colours which are characteristic of the locality and he spent the last year of the course in London. After the war, Berry became an art teacher and he worked in London and Manchester, but as a teacher he is best known for his long association with Burslem School of Art, where he had studied. Burslem School of Art was absorbed within Stoke-on-Trent College of Art, Berry was lecturer in painting at the Polytechnic until 1985. Berrys second wife, Cynthia, was one of his students and they married in 1966 and lived at Wolstanton, Newcastle under Lyme. Berrys first stage play was performed in 1976 and his 1979 work Lament For The Lost Pubs Of Burslem was awarded the Sony/Pye Award for the best radio monologue of 1979. Only the side-doors would let you in and these were narrow, no pub has been more lamented. Berry wrote an autobiography titled A Three and Sevenpence Halfpenny Man and his other works include Dandelions, and The Little Gold-Mine, a collection of stories about Potteries life. His paintings are held in private and public collections. He has been referred to as the Lowry of the Potteries. For example, he was so described in the title of a 2007 exhibition of his work, the comparison was discussed in two related letters to The Sentinel, Arthur Berry. was a good teacher and focus for art activity at the Burslem & Stoke Art School. I do not agree that he is for many the finest 20th century artist from Stoke - there are other candidates also, mr Berrys work lies somewhere between painting and drawing - for me paint and its properties hold most attraction. Mr Berrys talent was spread over several areas - drawing, painting, writing, plays, poems and they seemed to convey that strange Stoke light which appeals to me and the old buildings and streets which were very much part of my own childhood and youth. The Arthur Berry exhibition of work at Ford Green Hall. is compact but conveys the flavour of what the local writer and poet was all about

Arthur Berry (playwright) – Burslem School of Art
Arthur Berry (playwright) – Ambleside, where Berry studied during the War

30. International Standard Book Number – The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number – A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code