1.
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Finis Davis was an American politician who was a Democratic U. S. Representative and Senator from Mississippi, the 23rd U. S. Secretary of War, and he took personal charge of the Confederate war plans but was unable to find a strategy to defeat the more populous and industrialized Union. Davis was born in Kentucky to a prosperous farmer, and grew up on his older brother Josephs large cotton plantations in Mississippi. Joseph Davis also secured his appointment to the U. S, after graduating, Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the U. S. Army. He fought in the Mexican–American War, as the colonel of a volunteer regiment and he served as the U. S. Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce, and as a Democratic U. S. senator from Mississippi. Before the war, he operated a cotton plantation in Mississippi. After the war had ended, he remained a proud apologist for the cause of slavery for which he, although Davis argued against secession in 1858, he believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union. Daviss first wife, Sarah Knox Taylor, died of malaria three months of marriage, and he also struggled with recurring bouts of the disease. He was unhealthy for much of his life, at the age of 36, Davis married again, to 18-year-old Varina Howell, a native of Natchez who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North. Only two survived him, and only one married and had children, many historians attribute the Confederacys weaknesses to the poor leadership of President Davis. Historians agree he was a less effective war leader than his Union counterpart Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and he was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union, ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot, and he became a hero of the Lost Cause in the post-Reconstruction South. Daviss paternal grandparents each immigrated separately to North America from the region of Snowdonia in North Wales in the early 18th century, the rest of his ancestry was English. After arriving in Philadelphia, Daviss paternal grandfather Evan settled in the colony of Georgia and he married the widow Lydia Emory Williams, who had two sons from a previous marriage. Their son Samuel Emory Davis was born in 1756 and he served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, along with his two older half-brothers. In 1783, after the war, he married Jane Cook and she was born in 1759 to William Cook and his wife Sarah Simpson in what is now Christian County, Kentucky
2.
Robert M. T. Hunter
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Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter was a Virginian lawyer and politician. He was a U. S. Representative, Speaker of the House, during the American Civil War he was Confederate States Secretary of State and then a Confederate Senator. After the war, he served as Treasurer of Virginia, Hunter was born in Loretto, Essex County, Virginia, the son of James Hunter and Maria Hunter. He was a maternal first cousin of both Robert S. Garnett and Richard B and he entered the University of Virginia in his seventeenth year and was one of its first graduates. While he was a student, he became a member of the Jefferson Literary and he then studied law at the Winchester Law School, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar. From 1835 to 1837 he was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, in 1837, Hunter was elected U. S. Representative as a States Rights Whig and he was re-elected in 1839, and became Speaker of the United States House of Representatives – the youngest person ever to hold that office. He was re-elected again in 1841, but was not chosen Speaker, in 1843 he was defeated for re-election. He then changed parties, becoming a Democrat, in 1845, he was again elected Representative, and in 1846 was elected U. S. Senator, taking office in 1847. He was re-elected in 1852 and 1858, in the Senate, he became chairman of the Committee on Finance in 1850. He is credited with bringing about a reduction of the quantity of silver in the smaller coins and he was the author of the Tariff of 1857 and of the bonded-warehouse system, and was one of the first to advocate civil service reform. In 1853 he declined President Millard Fillmores offer to make him Secretary of State, on seven of the first eight ballots, he was a very distant second to the leader, Stephen A. Douglas, and was third on the remaining 42 ballots. When the convention reconvened in Baltimore, most Southerners withdrew, including Hunter, Hunter did not regard Lincolns election as being of itself a sufficient cause for secession. On January 11,1861, he proposed an elaborate but impracticable scheme for the adjustment of differences between the North and the South, when this and several other efforts to the same end had failed, he quietly urged his own state to pass the ordinance of secession. He was expelled from the Senate for supporting secession, in July 1861, Hunter was appointed Confederate States Secretary of State. He resigned on February 18,1862, having elected a Confederate Senator. He served in the Confederate Senate until the end of the war, as a Confederate Senator, he was often a caustic critic of Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Despite this friction, he was appointed by Davis as one of three sent to attempt peace negotiations in 1865, and met with President Lincoln at the Hampton Roads Conference
3.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
4.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
5.
Robert M. Charlton
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Robert Milledge Charlton was an American politician and jurist. He served as a Senator representing Georgia from 1852 to 1853, Charlton was born in Savannah, Georgia on January 19,1807. A lawyer by training, Charlton served in positions at the city. He was a member of the Georgia House of Representatives, and he was appointed, Charlton was also appointed as a United States District Attorney. He was appointed as a Democrat to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of John M. Berrien, Charlton served as the mayor of Savannah from 1839 to 1841. The father of Robert Charlton, Thomas U. P, Charlton, had previously served as the appointed mayor of Savannah in 1815 and again in 1819. In 1829 Robert Charlton married Margaret Shick, Charlton ward, Savannah and Charlton County, Georgia are named after him. Charlton died in Savannah on January 18,1854, the day before his 47th birthday and he was also a slave owner. In 1830, he owned 3 slaves, in 1840, he owned 14 slaves. In 1850, he owned 13 slaves, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. 17, Darien, Georgia to Governor William Schley, Milledgeville, Georgia, / Robert M. Charlton
6.
Homer V. M. Miller
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Homer Virgil Milton Miller was a United States Senator from Georgia. Born in Pendleton, South Carolina, he moved with his parents to Rabun County and he attended the common schools and graduated from the Medical College of South Carolina in 1835. He continued medical studies in Paris and commenced practice in Cassville, Georgia, Miller was an unsuccessful Whig candidate for election to the Twenty-ninth United States Congress in 1844. In 1840, he owned 10 slaves, in 1850, he owned 3 slaves. In 1860 he owned 20 slaves, during the Civil War, he served in the Confederate Army as a surgeon and as a medical director, surgeon of posts, and inspector of hospitals in Georgia. He resumed the practice of medicine in Rome, Georgia, and was a member of the State Reconstruction convention in 1867, subsequently, he was trustee of the University of Georgia in Athens, and died in Atlanta in May 1896. Interment was in Myrtle Hill Cemetery, Rome, Georgia, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
7.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
8.
Georgia's 8th congressional district
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Georgias 8th congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of Georgia. The first election using the new boundaries were the 2012 congressional elections. The district is located in central and south-central Georgia, and stretches from the center of the state to the Florida border. The district includes the cities of Warner Robins, Tifton, Thomasville, Moultrie, incumbent Marshall faced a very tough challenge by former U. S. Representative Mac Collins, who represented a district from 1993 to 2005. Less than 60 percent of the population in Marshall’s present 3rd District was retained in the new 8th District, the reconfigured 8th includes Butts County, which was the political base of Collins, who once served as chair of the county commission. On the other hand, the 8th also includes all of the city of Macon where Marshall served as mayor from 1995 until 1999, the race featured heavy spending, not only by the candidates themselves but also from independent groups. During the campaign, President George W. Bush attended a rally on Collins behalf, as of May 2015, there are seven former members of the U. S. House of Representatives from Georgias 8th congressional district who are currently living at this time. Georgias congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present PDF map of Georgias 8th district at nationalatlas. gov Georgias 8th district at GovTrack. us
9.
Alexander H. Stephens
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Alexander H. Stephens was an American politician from the state of Georgia, and the Confederate vice president throughout the American Civil War. His Cornerstone Speech of March 1861 defended slavery in the most uncompromising terms, in the course of the war, he became increasingly critical of Confederate President Jefferson Daviss policies, especially conscription and the suspension of habeas corpus. In February 1865, he was one of the commissioners who met with Lincoln at the abortive Hampton Roads Conference to discuss peace terms. After his arrest, and subsequent pardon, Stephens went on to serve in Congress. Stephens was born on February 11,1812 and his parents were Andrew Baskins Stephens and Margaret Grier. The Stephenses lived on a farm near present-day Crawfordville, Taliaferro County, at the time of Alexander Stephenss birth, the farm was part of Wilkes County. Taliaferro County was created in 1825 from land in Greene, Hancock, Oglethorpe, Warren and his father, a native of Pennsylvania, came to Georgia at 12 years of age, in 1795. His mother, a Georgia native and sister of Griers Almanac founder Robert Grier, died in 1812 at the age of 26, the introduction continues, In her sons character was a marked blending of parental traits. He was thrifty, generous, progressive, one of the best lawyers in the land, a reader and collector of books, an observer of the weather. In 1814, Andrew B. Stephens married Matilda Lindsay, daughter of Revolutionary War Colonel John Lindsay, in 1826, when Alexander Stephens was 14 years old, his father, Andrew, and stepmother, Matilda, died only days apart in May of that year. Their deaths caused him and several siblings to be scattered among relatives and he grew up poor and in difficult circumstances. Not long after the deaths of his father and his stepmother, Alexander Stephens was sent to live with his mothers brother, General Aaron W. Grier, near Raytown. General Grier had inherited his own library, said to be the largest library in all that part of the country. Alexander Stephens, who read voraciously even as a youth, mentions the library in his Recollections, frail but precocious, the young Stephens acquired his continued education through the generosity of several benefactors. One of them was the Presbyterian minister Alexander Hamilton Webster, who presided over a school in Washington, out of respect for his mentor, Stephens adopted Websters middle name, Hamilton, as his own. Stephens attended the Franklin College in Athens, where he was roommates with Crawford W. Long and he raised funds for Phi Kappa Hall, located on the university campus. Stephens graduated at the top of his class in 1832, after several unhappy years teaching school, he took up legal studies, passed the bar in 1834, and began a successful career as a lawyer in Crawfordville. During his 32 years of practice, he gained a reputation as a defender of the wrongfully accused
10.
Washington, Georgia
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Washington is a city in Wilkes County, Georgia, United States. The population was 4,295 at the 2000 census, the city is the county seat of Wilkes County. The city is referred to as Washington-Wilkes by locals, distinguishing it from any other Washington in the United States. Washington has a number of restored antebellum, Victorian, and colonial homes along the narrow and it claims to have more antebellum homes per capita than any other city of its size in Georgia. Also on the list are The Washington-Wilkes Historical Museum, and the restored historic Fitzpatrick Hotel. The battle resulted in a victory for the American Patriots who took 75 prisoners, on April 3,1865, with Union troops under Ulysses S. Grant poised to capture Richmond, Jefferson Davis escaped for Danville, Virginia, together with the Confederate cabinet. Joseph A Higgenbotham, Jr. of Amherst/Nelson County, Virginia, the meeting took place at the Heard house, with fourteen officials present. One of Washingtons most lingering mysteries is that of the lost Confederate gold, as the last recorded location of the remaining Confederate gold, the Washington area is thought to be the site where it is buried. Worth roughly $100,000 when it disappeared in 1865, at 2016 prices its value would be around $3.6 million, the cable television channel A&E produced a documentary focusing on this legend. First woman newspaper editor in U. S. was Sarah Porter Hillhouse who became the editor of the Monitor in 1804. First cotton mill in Georgia erected on Upton Creek in Wilkes County,1811 First stamp mill for gold in the world was invented and put into use near Washington by Jeremiah Griffin, 1831–32. One of the first plastic garments ever cut in the world was in Wilkes County by Margo, First seat of government of the State of Georgia,1780. In 1777, Wilkes County became the first county in Georgia, Washington is the county seat of Wilkes County. Washington is located at 33°44′7″N 82°44′29″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.9 square miles, of which 7.8 square miles is land and 0.04 square miles is water. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 4,134 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 60. 4% Black,35. 3% White,0. 1% Native American,0. 7% Asian,0. 2% from some other race and 1. 7% from two or more races. 1. 5% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,295 people,1,778 households, and 1,162 families residing in the city. The population density was 547.5 people per square mile, there were 1,974 housing units at an average density of 251.6 per square mile
11.
Whig Party (United States)
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The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Four US presidents belonged to the party while in office and it emerged in the 1830s as the immediate successor to the National Republican and Anti-Masonic Parties, and was also rooted in the tradition of the Federalist Party. Along with the rival Democratic Party, it was central to the Second Party System from the early 1840s to the mid-1860s and it originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and his Democratic Party. In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of the US Congress over the Presidency and favored a program of modernization, banking and it appealed to entrepreneurs, planters, reformers and the emerging urban middle class, but had little appeal to farmers or unskilled workers. It included many active Protestants, and voiced a moralistic opposition to the Jacksonian Indian removal, Party founders chose the Whig name to echo the American Whigs of the 18th century who fought for independence. The underlying political philosophy of the American Whig Party was not directly related to the British Whig party, the Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in 1840, former Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844, another war hero, General Winfield Scott of New Jersey was the Whig Partys last presidential nominee, in 1852. In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, Harrison and Taylor, elected president, John Tyler succeeded to the presidency after Harrisons death in 1841, but was expelled from the party later that year. Millard Fillmore, who became president after Taylors death in 1850, was the last Whig president, the party fell apart because of the internal tension over the expansion of slavery to the territories. Most Whig Party leaders eventually quit politics or changed parties, the northern voter base mostly gravitated to the new Republican Party. In the South, most joined the Know Nothing Party, which unsuccessfully ran Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election, the Constitutional Union Party experienced significant success from conservative former Whigs in the Upper South during the 1860 presidential election. Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction. The name Whig derived from a term that Patriots used to refer to themselves during the American Revolution and it indicated hostility to the British Sovereign, and despite the identical name, did not directly derive from the British Whig Party. The American Whigs were modernizers who saw President Andrew Jackson as a man on horseback with a reactionary opposition to the forces of social, economic. Casting their enemy as King Andrew, they sought to identify themselves as opponents of governmental overreaching. Despite the apparent unity of Jeffersons Democratic-Republicans from 1800 to 1824, as Jackson purged his opponents, vetoed internal improvements, and killed the Second Bank of the United States, alarmed local elites fought back. In 1831, Henry Clay re-entered the Senate and started planning a new party and he defended national rather than sectional interests. His Jacksonian opponents, however, distrusted the government and opposed all federal aid for internal improvements
12.
Constitutional Union Party (United States)
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The Constitutional Union Party was a political party in the United States created in 1860. It was made up of conservative former Whigs who wanted to avoid secession over the slavery issue and these former Whigs teamed up with former Know-Nothings and a few Southern Democrats who were against secession to form the Constitutional Union Party. They hoped that by not taking a firm stand either for or against slavery or its expansion and this party united Southern Whigs and Democrats under the Georgia Platform, which affirmed Georgias acceptance of the Compromise as a final resolution to the issue of slavery. However, the party never expanded outside of the Deep South states of Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama, the 1860 incarnation of the Constitutional Union Party united remnants of both the defunct Whig and Know-Nothing Parties who were unwilling to join either the Democrats or the Republicans. The convention nominated John Bell of Tennessee for President and Edward Everett of Massachusetts for Vice President, in the 1860 election, the Constitutional Unionists received the great majority of their votes from former southern Whigs or Know-Nothings. A few of their votes were cast by former Democrats who were against secession, douglas in the North and John C. California and Everetts home state of Massachusetts were the only states in which the party received more than 5% of the popular vote. The party and its purpose disappeared after 1860 as the states began to secede. Bell and many other Constitutional Unionists later supported the Confederacy during the Civil War, Everett supported the Union and in 1863 gave a speech at Gettysburg before Lincolns famous Gettysburg Address. National Union Party Southern Unionist United States presidential election,1860 Blum, John M. William S. McFeely, Edmund S. Morgan, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr, Kenneth M. Stampp, the National Experience, A History of the United States. Newly Formed Party Party Platform of 1860 OurCampaigns overview of Constitutional Union Convention 1860
13.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
University of Georgia
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Its primary location is a 762-acre campus adjacent to the college town of Athens, Georgia, approximately an hours drive from the global city of Atlanta. The university has been labeled one of the Public Ivies, a publicly funded university considered to provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. The university was founded in 1785 as the United States first state-chartered university and its historic North Campus is on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places as a designated historic district. The contiguous campus areas include rolling hills, gardens, and extensive green space including nature walks, fields, shrubbery, and large and varied arboreta. Close to the campus is the universitys 58-acre Health Sciences Campus that also has an extensive landscaped green space, more than 400 trees. The university offers over 140 degree programs in an array of disciplines. Consisting of thirteen separate libraries, the UGA Libraries rank among the nation’s largest and best research libraries containing 5.7 million volumes, the University of Georgia is one of 126 member institutions that comprise the Association of Research Libraries. The university is organized into seventeen schools and colleges, the university has three primary campuses. The largest one is the campus in Athens that has 460 buildings. The university has two campuses located in Atlanta and Lawrenceville, Georgia. The university operates several service and outreach stations spread across the state, the total acreage of the university in 30 Georgia counties is 41,539 acres. Varsity and intramural student athletics are a part of student life. UGA served as a member of the SEC in 1932. In their 121-year history, the varsity sports teams have won 39 national championships and 130 conference championships. The Georgia Redcoat Marching Band, the marching band of the university, plays at sports. The Senatus Academicus was composed of the Board of Visitors and the Board of Trustees with the Georgia Senate presiding over those two boards, the first meeting of the universitys board of trustees was held in Augusta, Georgia on February 13,1786. The meeting installed its first president, Abraham Baldwin, a native of Connecticut, Baldwin was a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and one of two Georgia delegates to sign the final document. Many features on the University of Georgia campus resemble the campus of Yale, on July 2,1799, the Senatus Academicus met again in Louisville, Georgia and decided that the time was right to open the university
16.
Union College
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Union College is a private, non-denominational liberal arts college located in Schenectady, New York, United States. Founded in 1795, it was the first institution of higher learning chartered by the New York State Board of Regents, in the 19th century, it became the Mother of Fraternities, as three of the earliest such organizations were established there. After 175 years as a traditional institution, Union College began enrolling women in 1970. The college offers an arts curriculum across some 21 academic departments, as well as opportunities for interdepartmental majors. Approximately 25% of students major in the sciences, 10% in psychology, 11% in engineering, 10% in biology, 9% in history. By the time they graduate, about 60% of Union students will have engaged in some form of study or study abroad. Places of higher learning were few in the days of the Americas. Officially chartered in 1795, Union can trace its beginnings to 1779, by 1799, another 16 surviving colleges had been chartered or founded in the United States, to bring the total to 25 at the end of the 18th century. But, in the years between the American Revolution and Civil War, the foundations of 182 permanent colleges were laid in the United States. Hundreds more were born but proved short-lived, largely because of financial limitations, of the 182 colleges and universities founded in those years, well over a hundred appeared outside the original thirteen colonies. Union College, like many of these, was founded in what was nearly a wilderness, in the town of Schenectady, New York on the Mohawk River, at the time, the town had fewer than 4,000 residents. The cities of Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo did not yet exist, and western New York was very sparsely settled, Unions charter was 16 years in the making. Even before the Revolution had ended, a new rising democratic tide was overtaking the colonists, the old ways, and in particular the old purposes and structure of higher education, were being pushed aside. Practical education for the new man of commerce and politics was the new desire, not just classical education for the professions, every hamlet and rude settlement aspired to become an Athens of the West, and Schenectady was no exception. The Mohawk and Hudson River regions were for the most part dominated by the Dutch in those years, Queens College, while intended in part to provide a classical education, had also been founded specifically to train ministers in the Dutch Reformed Church. This has been said by some to be the first expression in America of a demand for higher education. This petition, along with a one in 1782, failed in its purpose. In the meantime, the Dutch Church continued to show an interest in establishing an academy or college under its control in Schenectady
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University of Virginia School of Law
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The University of Virginia School of Law was founded in Charlottesville in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson as one of the original subjects taught at his academical village, the University of Virginia. Virginia Law is the fourth-oldest active law school in the United States, the law school offers the J. D. LL. M. and S. J. D. degrees in law and hosts visiting scholars, visiting researchers and a number of legal research centers. Virginia Law is perennially regarded as one of the 10 most prestigious law schools in the United States. U. S. News & World Report currently ranks Virginia Law as tied for eighth in the nation with Michigan, in 2018, in the 2010 Super Lawyers Law School Rankings, Virginia Law ranks fourth in the nation. In the 2015 Above the Law rankings, Virginia Law ranked sixth in the nation, a 2013 Above the Law report also notes that Virginia is second in the number of graduates leading the nations top 100 firms. A study published in the Journal of Legal Education ranked Virginia Law fourth in the number of partners in the National Law Journals top 100 firms, Virginia Law also places high in clerkships, recently ranking behind only Harvard Law School and Yale Law School. The 2016 QS World University Rankings for law school, places Virginia Law in the range of 51–100 worldwide, Virginia Law recently completed an eight-year capital campaign, raising $173.9 million to enhance the student experience. The Judge Advocate Generals Legal Center and School operated by the United States Army is located next to UVA, Virginia Law is among the most selective law schools in the nation. For the class entering in the fall of 2016,297 out of 4,811 J. D. applicants matriculated, the 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2016 entering class were 164 and 170, respectively, with a median of 169. The 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.48 and 3.94, respectively, the Class of 2019 come from 39 states, the District of Columbia, and 138 undergraduate institutions. The age range was 20 to 37, 55% of the class was male, 45% female, and 24% identified themselves as people of color. 59% of the class had work experience after college, the total cost of attendance for first-year law students at Virginia Law for the 2016-2017 academic year is $78,002 for Virginia residents and $81,002 for nonresidents. The Law School maintains a roster of student organizations, including chapters of the Federalist Society, the American Constitution Society. The Virginia Law Weekly, the Law Schools student-run weekly newspaper, has published since 1948. The paper has been cited in court cases including the U. S. Supreme Court case Patterson v. New York. In addition to its news content, the VLW also contains student-submitted content which often includes humorous, the Law Weekly has won the American Bar Associations previous three Best Newspaper Awards, in 2006,2007, and 2008. Each spring over a hundred students write, direct and perform in The Libel Show and its performers roast Law School professors, student stereotypes and life in Charlottesville throughout each of its three nightly showings. Professors write and sing their response to the jokes at the penultimate performance
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Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
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Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
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Brigadier general
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Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general, when appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops. In some countries a brigadier general is designated as a one-star general. The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a general, or simply a brigadier. An alternative rank of general was first used in the French revolutionary armies. Some countries, such as Brazil, Taiwan, and Japan, some of these countries then use the rank of colonel general to make four general-officer ranks. The naval equivalent is usually commodore and this gallery displays Air Force brigadier general insignia if they are different from the Army brigadier general insignia. Note that in many Commonwealth countries, the equivalent air force rank is Air Commodore, the rank of brigadier general is used in the Argentine Air Force. Unlike other armed forces of the World, the rank of general is actually the highest rank in the Air Force. This is due to the use of the rank of brigadier and its derivatives to designate all general officers in the Air Force, brigadier, brigadier-major, and brigadier-general. The rank of general is reserved for the Chief General Staff of the Air Force. The Argentine Army does not use the rank of brigadier-general, instead using brigade general which in turn is the lowest general officer before Divisional General, see also Argentine Army officer rank insignia. When posted elsewhere, the rank would be relinquished and the former rank resumed and this policy prevented an accumulation of high-ranking general officers brought about by the relatively high turnover of brigade commanders. Brigadier general was used as an honorary rank on retirement. The rank insignia was like that of the current major general, as in the United Kingdom, the rank was later replaced by brigadier. Prior to 2001, the Bangladesh Army rank was known as brigadier, in 2001 the Bangladesh Army introduced the rank of brigadier general, however the grade stayed equivalent to brigadier. It is the lowest ranking general officer, between the ranks of Colonel and Major General, Brigadier General is equivalent to commodore of the Bangladesh Navy and air commodore of the Bangladesh Air Force. It is still popularly called brigadier
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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Peninsula Campaign
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The Peninsula Campaign of the American Civil War was a major Union operation launched in southeastern Virginia from March through July 1862, the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. The operation, commanded by Maj. Gen. George B, McClellan, was an amphibious turning movement against the Confederate States Army in Northern Virginia, intended to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. McClellan landed his army at Fort Monroe and moved northwest, up the Virginia Peninsula, Magruders defensive position on the Warwick Line caught McClellan by surprise. His hopes for a quick advance foiled, McClellan ordered his army to prepare for a siege of Yorktown, just before the siege preparations were completed, the Confederates, now under the direct command of Johnston, began a withdrawal toward Richmond. The first heavy fighting of the campaign occurred in the Battle of Williamsburg, in which the Union troops managed some tactical victories, an amphibious flanking movement to Elthams Landing was ineffective in cutting off the Confederate retreat. In the Battle of Drewrys Bluff, an attempt by the U. S. Navy to reach Richmond by way of the James River was repulsed. As McClellans army reached the outskirts of Richmond, a battle occurred at Hanover Court House. The battle was inconclusive, with casualties, but it had lasting effects on the campaign. On August 20,1861, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan formed the Army of the Potomac, with himself as its first commander. During the summer and fall, McClellan brought a degree of organization to his new army. It was an achievement, in which he came to personify the Army of the Potomac. He created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable, consisting of 48 forts and strong points, on November 1,1861, Gen. Winfield Scott retired and McClellan became general in chief of all the Union armies. The president expressed his concern about the vast labor involved in the role of army commander and general in chief. On January 27, Lincoln issued an order that all of his armies to begin offensive operations by February 22. On January 31, he issued an order for the Army of the Potomac to move overland to attack the Confederates at Manassas Junction. Although Lincoln believed his plan was superior, he was relieved that McClellan finally agreed to begin moving, on March 8, doubting McClellans resolve, Lincoln called a council of war at the White House in which McClellans subordinates were asked about their confidence in the Urbanna plan. They expressed their confidence to varying degrees, after the meeting, Lincoln issued another order, naming specific officers as corps commanders to report to McClellan. McClellan retooled his plan so that his troops would disembark at Fort Monroe, Virginia, in the Battle of Hampton Roads, Virginia defeated wooden U. S
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Seven Days Battles
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The Seven Days Battles were a series of six major battles over the seven days from June 25 to July 1,1862, near Richmond, Virginia, during the American Civil War. Confederate General Robert E. Lee drove the invading Union Army of the Potomac, McClellan, away from Richmond and into a retreat down the Virginia Peninsula. The series of battles is sometimes known erroneously as the Seven Days Campaign, McClellans Army of the Potomac continued its retreat toward the safety of Harrisons Landing on the James River. Lees final opportunity to intercept the Union Army was at the Battle of Glendale on June 30, at the Battle of Malvern Hill on July 1, Lee launched futile frontal assaults and suffered heavy casualties in the face of strong infantry and artillery defenses. The Seven Days ended with McClellans army in relative safety next to the James River, Lees army, which had been on the offensive during the Seven Days, lost over 20,000. As Lee became convinced that McClellan would not resume his threat against Richmond, he moved north for the Northern Virginia Campaign, the Peninsula Campaign was the unsuccessful attempt by McClellan to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond and end the war. It started in March 1862, when McClellan landed his army at Fort Monroe and moved northwest, Magruders defensive position on the Warwick Line caught McClellan by surprise. His hopes for a quick advance foiled, McClellan ordered his army to prepare for a siege of Yorktown, just before the siege preparations were completed, the Confederates, now under the direct command of Johnston, began a withdrawal toward Richmond. The first heavy fighting of the campaign occurred in the Battle of Williamsburg, in which the Union troops managed some tactical victories, an amphibious flanking movement to Elthams Landing was ineffective in cutting off the Confederate retreat. In the Battle of Drewrys Bluff, an attempt by the United States Navy to reach Richmond by way of the James River was repulsed, the battle was inconclusive, with heavy casualties, but it had lasting effects on the campaign. Johnston was wounded and replaced on June 1 by the more aggressive Robert E. Lee and it was developed at a meeting on June 23. The Union Army straddled the rain-swollen Chickahominy River, with the bulk of the army, four corps, arrayed in a semicircular line south of the river. Lees plan was to cross the Chickahominy with the bulk of his army to attack the Union north flank, leaving only two divisions to hold a line of entrenchments against McClellans superior strength. This would concentrate about 65,500 troops to oppose 30,000, leaving only 25,000 to protect Richmond, the Confederate cavalry under Brig. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart had reconnoitered Porters right flank—as part of a daring but militarily dubious circumnavigation of the entire Union Army from June 12 to 15—and found it vulnerable, following this, Longstreet and D. H. Hill would pass through Mechanicsville and join the battle. Huger and Magruder would provide diversions on their fronts to distract McClellan as to Lees real intentions and he had received intelligence that Lee was prepared to move and that the arrival of Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Stonewall Jacksons force from the Shenandoah Valley was imminent. He decided to resume the offensive before Lee could, anticipating Jacksons reinforcements marching from the north, he increased cavalry patrols on likely avenues of approach. He wanted to advance his siege artillery about a mile and a closer to the city by taking the high ground on Nine Mile Road around Old Tavern
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Northern Virginia Campaign
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Concerned that Popes army would combine forces with Maj. Gen. George B. McClellans Army of the Potomac and overwhelm him, Lee sent Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Stonewall Jackson north to intercept Popes advance toward Gordonsville, the two forces initially clashed at Cedar Mountain on August 9, a Confederate victory. Lee determined that McClellans army on the Virginia Peninsula was no longer a threat to Richmond and sent most of the rest of his army, Maj. Gen. James Longstreets command, following Jackson. Jackson conducted a wide-ranging maneuver around Popes right flank, seizing the large depot in Popes rear, at Manassas Junction. On August 30, Pope attacked again, but was surprised to be caught between attacks by Longstreet and Jackson, and was forced to withdraw with heavy losses, the campaign concluded with another flanking maneuver by Jackson, which Pope engaged at the Battle of Chantilly on September 1. Lees maneuvering of the Army of Northern Virginia against Pope is considered a military masterpiece, historian John J. Hennessy wrote that Lee may have fought cleverer battles, but this was his greatest campaign. After the collapse of McClellans Peninsula Campaign in the Seven Days Battles of June 1862, Pope had achieved some success in the Western Theater, and Lincoln sought a more aggressive general than McClellan. Some of his men were encouraged by Popes aggressive tone. Gen Jacob D. Coxs division from western Virginia, the new army was divided into three corps of 51,000 men, under Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel, replacing Frémont, who refused to serve under Pope and resigned his command, Banks, and McDowell. Sturgiss Washington troops constituted the Army reserve, Cavalry brigades under Col. John Beardsley and Brig. John P. Hatch and George D. Bayard were attached directly to the three corps, a lack of centralized control that had negative effects in the campaign. Parts of three corps of McClellans Army of the Potomac and Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnsides IX Corps, eventually joined Pope for combat operations, raising his strength to 77,000. On the Confederate side, General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia was organized into two wings or commands of about 55,000 men, the right wing was commanded by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet, the left by Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson. The Cavalry Division under Maj. Gen. J. E. B, Stuart was attached to Jacksons wing. Whiting, Theophilus Holmes, Benjamin Huger, and John B and his former command was divided into two parts led by Brig. Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson got Hugers division, David R. Jones and Lafayette McLaws continued in command of their divisions, both of which had been part of Magruders Army of the Peninsula. Maj. Gen. D. H. Hills command was placed under Longstreet. Also joining was Brig. Gen. Nathan G. Shanks Evanss independent South Carolina brigade, McLaws and Hill were left in Richmond, and so Longstreet would take only five divisions north
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Maryland Campaign
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The Maryland Campaign—or Antietam Campaign—occurred September 4–20,1862, during the American Civil War. Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lees first invasion of the North was repulsed by the Army of the Potomac under Maj. Gen. George B, McClellan, who moved to intercept Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia and eventually attacked it near Sharpsburg, Maryland. The resulting Battle of Antietam was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history and is considered one of the major turning points of the war. Following his victory in the Northern Virginia Campaign, Lee moved north with 55,000 men through the Shenandoah Valley starting on September 4,1862. His objective was to resupply his army outside of the war-torn Virginia theater and he undertook the risky maneuver of splitting his army so that he could continue north into Maryland while simultaneously capturing the Federal garrison and arsenal at Harpers Ferry. McClellan accidentally found a copy of Lees orders to his commanders and planned to isolate. The Battle of South Mountain on September 14 delayed McClellans advance, the Battle of Antietam on September 17 was the bloodiest day in American military history with over 22,000 casualties. On September 18, Lee ordered a withdrawal across the Potomac and on September 19–20, although Antietam was a tactical draw, Lees Maryland Campaign failed to achieve its objectives. President Abraham Lincoln used this Union victory as the justification for announcing his Emancipation Proclamation, the year 1862 started out well for Union forces in the Eastern Theater. McClellans Army of the Potomac had invaded the Virginia Peninsula during the Peninsula Campaign, but, when Robert E. Lee assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia on June 1,1862, fortunes reversed. Lee fought McClellan aggressively in the Seven Days Battles, McClellan lost his nerve, Lee then conducted the Northern Virginia Campaign in which he outmaneuvered and defeated Maj. Gen. John Pope and his Army of Virginia, most significantly at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Lees Maryland Campaign can be considered the part of a logically connected, three-campaign. The Confederates had suffered significant manpower losses in the wake of the summer campaigns, nevertheless, Lee decided his army was ready for a great challenge, an invasion of the North. His goal was to reach the major Northern states of Maryland and Pennsylvania and his movements would threaten Washington and Baltimore, so as to annoy and harass the enemy. Several motives led to Lees decision to launch an invasion, First, he needed to supply his army and knew the farms of the North had been untouched by war, unlike those in Virginia. Moving the war northward would relieve pressure on Virginia, Second was the issue of Northern morale. Lee knew the Confederacy did not have to win the war by defeating the North militarily, it merely needed to make the Northern populace and he told Confederate President Jefferson Davis in a letter of September 3 that the enemy was much weakened and demoralized. There were secondary reasons as well, the Confederate invasion might be able to incite an uprising in Maryland, especially given that it was a slave-holding state and many of its citizens held a sympathetic stance toward the South
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Battle of Antietam
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After pursuing the Confederate general Robert E. Lee into Maryland, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan of the Union Army launched attacks against Lees army, in defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers corps mounted an assault on Lees left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across Millers Cornfield, and fighting swirled around the Dunker Church, Union assaults against the Sunken Road eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not followed up. In the afternoon, Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnsides corps entered the action, capturing a bridge over Antietam Creek. At a crucial moment, Confederate Maj. Gen. A. P. Hills division arrived from Harpers Ferry and launched a counterattack, driving back Burnside. Although outnumbered two-to-one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army, during the night, both armies consolidated their lines. In spite of crippling casualties, Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan throughout September 18, despite having superiority of numbers, McClellans attacks failed to achieve force concentration, which allowed Lee to counter by shifting forces and moving interior lines to meet each challenge. Therefore, despite ample reserve forces that could have been deployed to exploit localized successes, McClellan had halted Lees invasion of Maryland, but Lee was able to withdraw his army back to Virginia without interference from the cautious McClellan. McClellans refusal to pursue Lees army led to his removal from command by President Abraham Lincoln in November, although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Confederate troops had withdrawn first from the battlefield, making it, in military terms, a Union victory. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia—about 55,000 men—entered the state of Maryland on September 3,1862, emboldened by success, the Confederate leadership intended to take the war into enemy territory. Lees invasion of Maryland was intended to run simultaneously with an invasion of Kentucky by the armies of Braxton Bragg and it was also necessary for logistical reasons, as northern Virginias farms had been stripped bare of food. They sang the tune Maryland, My Maryland, as they marched, but by the fall of 1862 pro-Union sentiment was winning out, especially in the western parts of the state. Civilians generally hid inside their houses as Lees army passed through their towns, or watched in cold silence, while the Army of the Potomac was cheered and encouraged. While McClellans 87, 000-man Army of the Potomac was moving to intercept Lee, the order indicated that Lee had divided his army and dispersed portions geographically, thus making each subject to isolation and defeat if McClellan could move quickly enough. McClellan waited about 18 hours before deciding to take advantage of this intelligence and reposition his forces, McClellans Army of the Potomac, bolstered by units absorbed from John Popes Army of Virginia, included six infantry corps. The I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of the divisions of, the II Corps, under Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Israel B. The V Corps, under Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter, consisted of the divisions of, the VI Corps, under Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, Maj. Gen. William F. Baldy Smith
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Compromise of 1850
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The compromise, drafted by Whig Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and brokered by Clay and Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois, reduced sectional conflict. Controversy arose over the Fugitive Slave provision, the Compromise was greeted with relief, although each side disliked specific provisions. Texas surrendered its claim to New Mexico, as well as its claims north of the Missouri Compromise Line and it retained the Texas Panhandle and the federal government took over the states public debt. California was admitted as a state with its current boundaries. In practice, these lands were generally unsuited to plantation agriculture, the slave trade was banned in the District of Columbia. A more stringent Fugitive Slave Law was enacted, the Compromise became possible after the sudden death of President Zachary Taylor, who, although a slave owner, had favored excluding slavery from the Southwest. Whig leader Henry Clay designed a compromise, which failed to pass in early 1850, upon Clays instruction, Douglas then divided Clays bill into several smaller pieces and narrowly won their passage over the opposition of those with stronger views on both sides. A state the size of Texas attracted interest from both residents and pro and anti-slavery camps on a national scale. Texas claimed land north of the 36°30 demarcation line for slavery set by the 1820 Missouri Compromise, the Texas Annexation resolution had required that if any new states were formed out of Texas lands, those north of the Missouri Compromise line would become free states. The eventual Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade, passed by the House in August 1846 and February 1847 but not the Senate. Later an effort failed to attach the proviso to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the line was again proposed by the Nashville Convention of June 1850. Popular sovereignty, developed by Lewis Cass and Douglas as the eventual Democratic Party position, none of the area would be left as an unorganized or organized territory, avoiding the question of slavery in the territories. Changing Texass borders, Senator Thomas Hart Benton in December 1849 or January 1850, Texass western and northern boundaries would be the 102nd meridian west and 34th parallel north. First draft of the compromise of 1850, Texass northwestern boundary would be a diagonal line from the Rio Grande 20 miles north of El Paso to the Red River at the 100th meridian west. On January 29,1850, Whig Senator Henry Clay gave a speech called for compromise on the issues dividing the Union. However, Clays specific proposals for achieving a compromise, including his idea for Texas boundary, were not adopted in a single bill, upon Clays urging, Senator Stephen A. Douglas, Democrat of Illinois, divided Clays bill into several smaller bills, and passed each separately. When he instructed Douglas, Clay was nearly dead and unable to guide the congressional debate any further, the Compromise of 1850 was formally proposed by Clay and guided to passage by Douglas over Northern Whig and Southern Democrat opposition. Texass boundaries were set at their present form, El Paso, where Texas had established county government, was left in Texas, Slave trade was abolished in Washington, D. C
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English Americans
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In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. The English were the top group, with 66% saying they were a good thing for the United States. Ben J. Wattenberg argues that this demonstrates an general American bias against Hispanics. English immigrants in the 19th century, as other groups. They began migrating in large numbers without state support, Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply American due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U. S. and their influence on the countrys population. While there may be reasons for this, after centuries of intermarriage and internal geographic mobility. For these reasons, no part of the pluralist American society is so difficult to describe as a separate entity as the English. The original 17th-century settlers were overwhelmingly English and it was conducted on August 2,1790. The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin. The estimate results indicate that people of English ancestry made up about 47. 5% of the population or 60. 9% of the European American population. Some 80. 7% of the total United States population was of European heritage, around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves. Of the remaining population, more than 75% was of British origin, in the 2000 census,24.5 million Americans reported English ancestry,8. 7% of the total U. S. population. This estimate is probably a serious undercount by over 30 million given that, in the 1980 census, as many as 80 million Americans may be wholly or partly of English ancestry. In 1980,23,748,772 Americans claimed wholly English ancestry, in 1860, an estimated 11 million or almost 35% of the population of the United States was wholly or primarily of English ancestry. The population has increased by almost ten times the numbers in 1860, in total, there are estimated to be around 678,000 British born expatriates in the United States with the majority of these being English. English Americans are found in numbers throughout America, particularly in the Northeast, South. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a percentage, highest in the east and west
29.
Franklin College of Arts and Sciences
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The Franklin College of Arts and Sciences is the founding college of the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, United States. The college was named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, today, the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences comprises 30 departments in five divisions, fine arts, social sciences, biological sciences, physical and mathematical sciences, and the humanities. From that point it was known as the Franklin College of Liberal Arts, then later as Franklin College of Arts, classes were taught first taught on what is present-day North Campus. The first permanent brick building on campus was the Franklin College, now renamed Old College, the building a Georgian brick structure built in 1806, houses the offices for the Dean of Franklin College. The building is patterned after a building at Yale University and is the oldest surviving building at the University and in Athens, Franklin College of Arts and Sciences is the oldest and largest college at the University of Georgia. All six of the University of Georgias Marshall Scholarship recipients were Franklin college students, 1977–1988 William J. Payne 1992–2004 Wyatt Anderson 2004–2011 Garnett S. Stokes 2011–2012 Hugh Ruppersburg, interim 2012–present Alan T. Dorsey Reed, Thomas Walter. History of the University of Georgia, UNDERGRADUATE AND PROFESSIONAL DEGREES OFFERED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
30.
Athens, Georgia
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Athens is a consolidated city–county in the U. S. state of Georgia, in the northeastern part of the state, comprising the former city of Athens proper and Clarke County. The University of Georgia, the flagship public research university, is located in this college town. In 1991, after a vote the preceding year, the city abandoned its charter to form a unified government with Clarke County. As of the 2010 census, the consolidated city-county had a population of 115,452. Athens is the sixth-largest city in Georgia, and the city of the Athens-Clarke County, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. Athens-Clarke County has the smallest geographical area of a county in Georgia, in the late 18th century, a trading settlement on the banks of the Oconee River called Cedar Shoals stood where Athens is located today. On January 27,1785, the Georgia General Assembly granted a charter by Abraham Baldwin for the University of Georgia as the first state-supported university. Sixteen years later, in 1801, a committee from the board of trustees selected a site for the university on a hill above Cedar Shoals in what was then Jackson County. On July 25, John Milledge, one of the trustees and later governor of Georgia, bought 633 acres from Daniel Easley, Milledge named the surrounding area Athens after the city that was home to the academy of Plato and Aristotle in Greece. The first buildings on the University of Georgia campus were made from logs, the town grew as lots adjacent to the college were sold to raise money for the additional construction of the school. By the time the first class graduated from the university in 1804, completed in 1806 and named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, Franklin College was the University of Georgias and the City of Athens first permanent structure. This brick building is now known as Old College, Athens officially became a town in December 1806 with a government made up of a three-member commission. The university continued to grow, as did the town, with cotton mills fueling the industrial and commercial development, Athens became known as the Manchester of the South after the city in England known for its mills. The university essentially created a reaction of growth in the community which developed on its doorstep. During the American Civil War, Athens became a significant supply center when the New Orleans armory was relocated to what is now called the Chicopee building, fortifications can still be found along parts of the North Oconee River between College and Oconee St. In addition, Athens played a part in the ill-fated Stoneman Raid when a skirmish was fought on a site overlooking the Middle Oconee River near what is now the old Macon Highway. As in many towns, there is a Confederate memorial. It is located on Broad Street, near the University of Georgia Arch, during Reconstruction, Athens continued to grow
31.
Demosthenian Literary Society
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The Demosthenian Literary Society is a literary society primarily involved in debating at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. It was founded in February 1803 by the first graduating class of the Universitys Franklin College and it is named after the Greek orator Demosthenes. Augustin Clayton, James Jackson, and Williams Rutherford are recognized as the fathers of Demosthenian. Clayton became the first student to receive his diploma from Franklin College and went on to become a judge of wide respect, representative from Georgia, with Georgias Clayton County being named in his honor. Rutherford and Jackson went on to become professors at Franklin College, after 167 years of male-only membership, the first female members of the Society were inducted on March 4,1970. President Sherrill Watkins presided over the initiation of Kathy Conrad, a freshman from Atlanta, and Bebe Herring, by the late 1970s, female members were heavily active in the Society and held numerous offices—even President. In 2008, the Society put forward its first all female Inter-Society Debate team, the four women swept the debate on warrantless wiretapping and FISA reform, winning the votes of all three judges and the alternate. Today, the Society has slightly more female than male members, citing issues of student disenfranchisement within the UGA and U. S. political systems, the Society voted in 2012 to secede from the United States of America as the micronation Demosthenia. This resolution was acknowledged as a move to raise the Societys profile, Demosthenian Hall was constructed by Dr. James Tinsley of Columbia County in 1824 at a cost to the Society of $4,000. It is the fourth oldest building at the University of Georgia and was placed on the National Register for Historic Places in 1971 and it has become the physical expression of a living tradition which binds generations of students. The Society’s minutes show that by September 5,1829, the building’s $4,000 construction cost had been paid off. The construction was financed by the Society’s members, alumni, located on the University of Georgia’s historic north quadrangle, its facade in the formal Federal style forms a pleasing contrast to the later columned Greek revival structures which surround it. The front is graced with a Palladian window over a light doorway, the exterior walls are two feet thick and are of stucco over brick construction. In 1997, Demosthenian Hall received a $200,000 facelift, the original hard wood floors were uncovered and restored in the Lower Chamber. The Upper Chamber is the room of the Society. The speaker’s lectern has been dated to the 1820s and may have built for the Hall. It is a medallion of holly leaves surrounded by swags of smaller leaves which are framed by delicate filigree and this ceiling is one of the most architecturally significant structures at the University of Georgia and is one of the few remaining examples of this form of decorative artwork. The Lower Chamber is the space of the Society, members can often be found studying or enjoying a game of chess in between classes
32.
Georgia House of Representatives
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The Georgia House of Representatives is the lower house of the Georgia General Assembly of the U. S. state of Georgia. There are currently 180 elected members, the Georgia House of Representatives was created in 1777 during the American Revolution, making it older than the U. S. Congress. During its existence, its place has moved multiple times, from Savannah to Augusta, to Louisville, to Milledgeville. In 1867, the governor of Georgia called for an assembly in Atlanta to discuss a constitutional convention. Atlanta officials moved to make the city Georgias new state capital, the constitutional convention agreed and the people voted to ratify the decision on April 20,1868. The Georgia General Assembly first presided in Atlanta on July 4,1868, on October 26,1884, construction began on a new state capitol and was first occupied on June 15,1889. The state legislature cannot grant incorporation to private persons but may establish laws governing the incorporation process and it is also prohibited from authorizing contracts or agreements that may have the effect of or the intent of lessening competition or encouraging a monopoly. Members of the Georgia House of Representatives maintain two privileges during their time in office, first, no member can be arrested during session or during committee meetings except in cases of treason, felony, or breach of the peace. Second, members are not liable for anything they say in session or committee meetings. According to the constitution of 1983, this body is to comprise no fewer than 180 members elected for two-year terms. Current state law provides for 180 members, elections are held the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years. It is the third-largest lower house of the 50 United States, as of 2011, attorneys account for about 16. 1% of the membership of the Georgia House of Representatives, a relatively low figure. The House of Representatives elects its own Speaker as well as a Speaker Pro Tempore, the current speaker of the Georgia House of Representatives is David Ralston. The current Speaker Pro Tempore is Jan Jones, the Speaker Pro Tempore becomes Speaker in case of the death, resignation, or permanent disability of the Speaker. The Speaker Pro Tempore serves until a new Speaker is elected, in addition there is a clerk of the House, who is charged with overseeing the flow of legislation through the body. The current clerk is William L. Reilly
33.
Crawfordville, Georgia
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Crawfordville is a city in Taliaferro County, Georgia, United States. The population was 572 at the 2000 census, the city is the county seat of Taliaferro County. Crawfordville was founded in 1825 as the seat of the newly formed Taliaferro County and it was incorporated as a town in 1826 and as a city in 1906. Crawfordville is located at 33°33′17″N 82°53′54″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.1 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 572 people,260 households, the population density was 182.4 people per square mile. There were 312 housing units at a density of 99.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 41. 43% White,56. 99% African American,1. 05% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 52% of the population. 35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 19. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.82. In the city, the population was out with 23. 1% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,24. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 79.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 71.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $19,063, and the median income for a family was $22,386. Males had an income of $26,705 versus $23,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,103, about 28. 8% of families and 29. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 38. 3% of those under age 18 and 20. 2% of those age 65 or over. The Taliaferro County School District consists of one school offering pre-school to grade twelve. The district has 24 full-time teachers and over 280 students, Stephens home, Liberty Hall, is preserved as a museum and is a part of the A. H. Stephens Historic Park, a Georgia State Park located in Crawfordville. The movie Sweet Home Alabama was partially filmed in Crawfordville and it includes the historical Taliaferro County Courthouse in one scene, as well as a scene with Reese Witherspoon walking down Main Street. The movies Coward of the County with Kenny Rogers, Get Low with Robert Duvall, central Savannah River Area Official Website A. H. Stephens State Historic Park
34.
William Y. Thompson
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William Young Thompson was an historian affiliated from 1955 through 1988 with Louisiana Tech University at Ruston in Lincoln Parish in north Louisiana. A specialist in the history of his native American South, Thompson served as chairman of the university history department from 1965 until his retirement, Thompson was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, to Henry Howard Thompson, a Presbyterian pastor, and the former Frances Ellzey. He attended school in Bristol, Tennessee and at the Christian Stony Brook Preparatory School on Long Island, during World War II, he was from 1943-1945 a first lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps, the forerunner of the Air Force. He served in the European Theatre of Operations, during the war, Thompson earned the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with three Oak Leaf Clusters. After the war, Thompson remained in the United States Air Force Reserve, after the war, Thompson completed his academic studies at the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, Alabama, from which he received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1946. Thereafter, he obtained the Master of Arts from Emory University, from 1950 to 1955, he was a professor at Presbyterian College in Clinton in Laurens County in northwestern South Carolina. While at Presbyterian College, he completed his Ph. D. at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Thompsons Robert Toombs of Georgia, originally subtitled, The Man Who Almost Became President of the Confederacy, grew from his masters thesis at Emory. The 1966 publication through Louisiana State University Press in Baton Rouge was based on the career of Robert Toombs of Georgia, before, during, and after the American Civil War. Thompsons writing is thorough and documented and emphasizes Toombs as an unrepentant Confederate who refused to take the loyalty oath after 1865 and remained an undisciplined individualist. In 1984, Thompson published E. M. Graham, North Louisianian, the study of the little-known Evander McNair Van Graham, a teacher-turned-attorney who was reared in Alabama but settled in Union Parish. Graham concludes that there is much need for historians of the scene who sense in the life. On March 27,1981, Thompson delivered a paper based on this book as the address at the Louisiana Historical Association annual meeting held in Many in Sabine Parish. He had been named the president in 1980. Israel Shreve, a Quaker, fought in the American Revolution. Garnie W. McGinty, Thompson also held the Garnie W. McGinty Chair of History at Louisiana Tech. Ahead lay death from enemy bullets, behind him plodded a medical bureau inadequately equipped in materiel, spirit, and vision to protect him from destruction by disease. In 1956, he published The U. S, Sanitary Commission, a study of the forerunner of the American Red Cross, in the journal Civil War History. In 1958, Civil War History published a second Thompson article, Sanitary Fairs of the Civil War, there is also an endowed professorship named for Thompsons colleague in the history department, John D. Winters, author of The Civil War in Louisiana. The William Y. Thompson Endowed Scholarship at Louisiana Tech is named in his honor, in 1982, Thompson was named Outstanding College Professor of American History in Louisiana by the Daughters of the American Revolution
35.
Nueces River
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The Nueces River is a river in the U. S. state of Texas, about 315 miles long. It drains a region in central and southern Texas southeastward into the Gulf of Mexico and it is the southernmost major river in Texas northeast of the Rio Grande. Nueces is Spanish for nuts, early settlers named the river after the numerous pecan trees along its banks, the Nueces rises northwest of San Antonio in the Edwards Plateau, in Real County, roughly 50 mi north of Uvalde. It flows south through the Texas Hill Country, past Barksdale and Crystal City, east of Carrizo Springs, it turns to the east, flowing through the scrub plains of South Texas, across rural Dimmit, La Salle, and McMullen Counties. It enters Corpus Christi Bay on the Gulf of Mexico at Corpus Christi, called Chotilapacquen by Coahuiltecan-speaking groups, the river was named Nueces by Alonso de León referring to the abundant pecan tree groves. One of the first settlers to scout the area was Cpt, blas María de la Garza Falcón in 1766. From before the end of the Texas Revolution, Mexico recognized that the Nueces River was historically the border of Texas from the rest of the country and this dispute continued after the annexation of Texas, and was one of the causes of the Mexican–American War. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the dispute, with Mexico recognizing, under pressure, on August 10,1862 pro-Union Germans from the Texas Hill Country trying to flee to Mexico were ambushed and killed by Confederates—the Nueces massacre. The Nueces is one of several clear warm-water spring creeks in the Hill Country of Texas, in its upper reaches, the water is clear and cool. The American alligator is also abundant in the Nueces River, list of Texas rivers Fly Fishing Nueces River from the Handbook of Texas Online Nueces River Authority home page
36.
Rio Grande
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The Rio Grande is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States, along the way, it forms part of the Mexico–United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its length was 1,896 miles in the late 1980s. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fourth- or fifth-longest river system in North America. The river serves as part of the border between the U. S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U. S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid–20th century, heavy consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20% of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the rivers mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region, the Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by Americas Great Waters Coalition. The Rio Grandes watershed covers 182,200 square miles, many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grandes basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basins total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles. The Rio Grande rises in the part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U. S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains and it then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo, below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico. The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles to 1,248 miles, a major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other well-known tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean-going ships, in New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico, during portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar
37.
James K. Polk
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James Knox Polk was the 11th President of the United States. Polk was born in Pineville, North Carolina, and moved to Tennessee to study law, after building a successful law practice, he was elected to the Tennessee legislature and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825. He left Congress to serve as Governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841, after losing re-election as governor in 1840, and losing in another gubernatorial election in 1842, Polk was a dark horse candidate for president in 1844. Though he entered the convention hoping to be nominated for vice president, in the general election, he defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party in large part due to his promise to annex the Republic of Texas. True to his pledge to serve only one term as President, Polk left office in March 1849. He died of cholera three months later, scholars have ranked him favorably on lists of greatest presidents for his ability to promote, obtain support for, and achieve all of the major items on his presidential agenda. However, he has also criticized for leading the country into war against Mexico. Polk has been called the least known consequential president, James Knox Polk, the first of ten children, was born on November 2,1795 in a log house in what is now Pineville, North Carolina in Mecklenburg County, just outside Charlotte. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, successful farmer and his mother, Jane Polk, was a descendant of a brother of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox. She named her firstborn after her father James Knox, like many early Scots-Irish settlers in the North Carolina mountains, the Knox and Polk families were Presbyterian. While Polks mother Jane remained a devout Presbyterian her entire life, when the parents took the young James to a Presbyterian church to be baptized, the father Samuel refused to declare his belief in Christianity, and the minister refused to baptize the child. In 1803, most of Polks relatives moved to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Middle Tennessee, the family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk turning to land speculation and becoming a county judge. His health was problematic and in 1812 his pain became so unbearable that he was taken to Dr. Ephraim McDowell of Danville, Kentucky, Polk was awake during the operation with nothing but brandy available for anesthetic, but it was successful. The surgery may have left Polk sterile, as he did not sire any children, when Polk recovered, his father offered to bring him into the mercantile business, but Polk refused. In July 1813, Polk enrolled at the Zion Church near his home, a year later he attended an academy in Murfreesboro, where he may have met his future wife, Sarah Childress. At Murfreesboro, Polk proved a promising student, in January 1816, Polk was admitted into the University of North Carolina as a second-semester sophomore. The Polk family had connections with the university, then a school of about 80 students, Sam Polk was their land agent for Tennessee. While there, Polk joined the Dialectic Society where he took part in debates
38.
Texas annexation
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The Texas annexation was the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America, which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29,1845. The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2,1836, at the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States. Moreover, they wished to avoid a war with Mexico, whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas, through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. Pro-Texas-annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their partys convention in May 1844, in alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform. In June 1844, the Senate, with its Whig majority, the pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the November 1844 presidential election. In December 1844, lame-duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house, the Democratic-dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty. On March 1,1845, President Tyler signed the annexation bill, when Polk took office the next day, he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer. Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans, the bill was signed by Polk on December 29,1845, accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 19,1846, first mapped by Spain in 1519, Texas was part of the vast Spanish empire seized by the Spanish Conquistadors from its indigenous people for over 300 years. When the Louisiana territory was acquired by the United States from France in 1803, the boundaries of Texas were determined within the larger geostrategic struggle to demarcate the limits of the United States extensive western lands and of Spains vast possessions in North America. Nonetheless, Texas remained an object of fervent interest to American expansionists, among them Thomas Jefferson, while a majority of southern congressmen acquiesced to the exclusion of slavery from the bulk of the Louisiana Purchase, a significant minority objected. Then-Representative John Tyler of Virginia invoked the Jeffersonian precepts of territorial and commercial growth as a goal to counter the rise of sectional differences over slavery. This doctrine would be revived during the Texas annexation controversy, colonizing empresario Stephen F. Austin managed the regional affairs of the mostly American-born population – 20% of them slaves – under the terms of the generous government land grants. A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier, and Mexicos civic laws went largely unenforced, Mexican authorities, perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826, abandoned the policy of benign rule. New restrictions were imposed in 1829–1830, outlawing slavery throughout the nation, military occupation followed, sparking local uprisings and a civil war. Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, in 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self-government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2,1836, on April 20–21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto
39.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
40.
Wilmot Proviso
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The Wilmot Proviso proposed an American law to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico in the Mexican War. The conflict over the proviso was one of the events leading to the American Civil War. It passed the House but failed in the Senate, where the South had greater representation and it was reintroduced in February 1847 and again passed the House and failed in the Senate. In 1848, an attempt to make it part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo also failed, sectional political disputes over slavery in the Southwest continued until the Compromise of 1850. President John Tyler signed the bill on March 1,1845, as many expected, the annexation led to war with Mexico. After the capture of New Mexico and California in the first phases of the war, the key to this was the determination of the future status of slavery in any new territory. Both major political parties had labored long to keep divisive slavery issues out of national politics, however, midway through Polks term, Democratic dissatisfaction with the administration was growing within the Martin Van Buren, or Barnburner, wing of the Democratic Party over other issues. Polk was seen more and more as enforcing strict party loyalty primarily to serve southern interests, the Whigs faced a different scenario. The victory of James K. Polk over Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election had caught the southern Whigs by surprise. In the South in particular, there was already the realization, or perhaps fear and their political goal was to avoid any sectional debate over slavery which would expose the sectional divisions within the party. On Saturday August 8,1846 President Polk submitted to Congress a request for $2,000,000 in order to facilitate negotiations with Mexico over the settlement of the war. The request came with no public warning after Polk had failed to arrange for approval of the bill with no Congressional debate, with Congress scheduled to adjourn that Monday, Democratic leadership arranged for the bill to be immediately considered in a special night session. Debate was to be limited to two hours with no speech to last more than ten minutes. Wilmot had a record of supporting the Polk administration and was close to many Southerners. With the likelihood that Wilmot would have no trouble gaining the floor in the House debate, the vote to add the proviso to the bill was then called, and it passed by 83–64. A last-ditch effort by southerners to table the bill was defeated by 94–78. Most ominously, these all fell overwhelmingly along sectional rather than party lines. The Senate took up the late in its Monday session
41.
Howell Cobb
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Thomas Howell Cobb was an American political figure. A southern Democrat, Cobb was a member of the United States House of Representatives. He also served as a Secretary of Treasury under President James Buchanan, Cobb served for two weeks between the foundation of the Confederacy and the election of Jefferson Davis as its first President. This made him, as the Speaker of the Congress, provisional Head of State at this time, born in Jefferson County, Georgia, Cobb was raised in Athens, Georgia, and attended the University of Georgia where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Literary Society. He was of Welsh American ancestry and he was admitted to the bar in 1836 and became solicitor general of the western judicial circuit of Georgia. He married Mary Ann Lamar on May 26,1835 and they would have eleven children, the first in 1838 and the last in 1861. They were John Addison, Zachariah Lamar, Howell, Henry Jackson, Basil Lamar, Mary Ann Lamar, Laura Rootes, Sarah, Andrew Jackson, Elizabeth Craig, and Thomas Reade Rootes. Several did not survive out of childhood, including their last and he was elected as Democrat to the 28th, 29th, 30th and 31st Congresses. He was chairman of the U. S. House Committee on Mileage during the 28th Congress and he sided with President Andrew Jackson on the question of nullification, was an efficient supporter of President James K. On that issue, Cobb was elected governor of Georgia by a large majority, after 63 ballots, Cobb became Speaker of the House on December 22,1850. When Zachary Taylor died on July 9, Vice President Millard Fillmore became President, the president pro tempore of the Senate was not appointed until July 11 when William Rufus de Vane King took that position. In 1851, he left the House to serve as the Governor of Georgia and he published A Scriptural Examination of the Institution of Slavery. He was elected to the 34th Congress and then took the position of Secretary of the Treasury in Buchanans Cabinet and he served for three years, resigning in December 1860. At one time, Cobb was Buchanans choice for his successor, in 1860, Cobb ceased to be a Unionist, and became a leader of the secession movement. He was president of a convention of the states that assembled in Montgomery, Alabama. Under Cobbs guidance, the delegates drafted a constitution for the new Confederacy and he served as President of several sessions of the Confederate Provisional Congress, before resigning to join the military when war erupted. Cobb joined the Confederate army and was named as colonel of the 16th Georgia Infantry and he was appointed a brigadier general on February 13,1862, and assigned command of a brigade in what became the Army of Northern Virginia. Between February and June 1862, he represented the Confederate authorities in negotiations with Union officers for an agreement on the exchange of prisoners of war and his efforts in these discussions contributed to the Dix-Hill Cartel accord reached in July 1862
42.
Henry Clay
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Henry Clay, Sr. was an American lawyer and planter, statesman, and skilled orator who represented Kentucky in both the United States Senate and House of Representatives. He served three terms as Speaker of the House of Representatives and served as Secretary of State under President John Quincy Adams from 1825 to 1829. Clay ran for the presidency in 1824,1832 and 1844, however, he was unsuccessful in all of his attempts to reach his nations highest office. Despite his presidential losses, Clay remained a dominant figure in the Whig Party, Clay was a dominant figure in both the First and Second Party systems. After serving two stints in the Senate, Clay won election to the House of Representatives in 1810 and was elected Speaker of the House in 1811. Clay would remain a prominent public figure until his death 41 years later in 1852, a leading war hawk, Speaker Clay favored war with Britain and played a significant role in leading the nation into the War of 1812. In 1814, Clays tenure as Speaker was interrupted when Clay traveled to Europe, Clay ran for president in 1824 and lost, finishing fourth in a four-man contest. No candidate received a majority, and so the election was decided in the House of Representatives. Clay maneuvered House voting in favor of John Quincy Adams, who appointed him as Secretary of State. Opposing candidate Andrew Jackson denounced the actions of Clay and Adams as part of a corrupt bargain, Clay returned to the Senate in 1831. He continued to advocate his American System, and become a leader of the opposition to President Andrew Jackson, President Jackson opposed federally-subsidized internal improvements and a national bank as a threat to states rights, and the president used his veto power to defeat many of Clays proposals. In 1832, Clay ran for president as a candidate of the National Republican Party, following the election, the National Republicans united with other opponents of Jackson to form the Whig Party, which remained one of the two major American political parties until after Clays death. In 1844, Clay won the Whig Partys presidential nomination, Clays opposition to the annexation of Texas, partly over fears that such an annexation would inflame the slavery issue, hurt his campaign, and Democrat James K. Polk won the election. Clay later opposed the Mexican–American War, which resulted in part from the Texas annexation, Clay returned to the Senate for a final term, where he helped broker a compromise over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession. Known as The Great Compromiser, Clay brokered important agreements during the Nullification Crisis, as part of the Great Triumvirate or Immortal Trio, along with his colleagues Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun, he was instrumental in formulating the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, and he was viewed as the primary representative of Western interests in this group, and was given the names Harry of the West and The Western Star. As a plantation owner, Clay held slaves during his lifetime, Henry Clay was born on April 12,1777, at the Clay homestead in Hanover County, Virginia, in a story-and-a-half frame house. It was a home for a common Virginia planter of that time
Confederate States
Brigadier General
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