1.
Brechin
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Brechin is a town and former royal burgh in Angus, Scotland. Along with the cathedral and round tower, part of the chapel of Brechins Maison Dieu or hospital survives from the Middle Ages, the town is well known for its cathedral, with eleventh century round tower, one of only two of these Irish-style monuments surviving in Scotland. The tower was originally free-standing, but is now incorporated in the framework of the cathedral, the cathedral has been much altered, but still contains medieval work of the 13th and 14th centuries, notably a handsome western tower and processional door. Brechin is represented within Angus Council by the Brechin & Edzell ward, the members elected from this ward are, as of 2012, Mairi Evans, Bob Myles and Jim Houston. Education in Brechin is managed by the Education Department of Angus Council, Brechin City Football Club plays Scottish League football and is currently placed in the SPFL League One. Its ground is called Glebe Park and is situated off Trinity Road, Glebe Park is the only senior football ground in Europe which has a hedge along one of its perimeters. Brechin is also home to the football club Brechin Victoria F. C. who play at Victoria Park. Caledonian Steam Railway Steam railway in the heart of Brechin
2.
Angus, Scotland
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Angus is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, a registration county and a lieutenancy area. The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross, main industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the north of the county, Angus was historically a county, known officially as Forfarshire from the 18th century until 1928. It remains a county and a lieutenancy area. In 1975 its administrative functions were transferred to the district of the Tayside Region. The area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period, material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC. The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes, bronze age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area. Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town and these burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet. Iron Age archaeology is also represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan. The county is associated with the Pictish kingdom of Circinn, which is thought to have encompassed Angus. Bordering it were the kingdoms of Ce to the North, Fotla to the West, the most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus. Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir, Angus shares borders with Kincardineshire to the north-east, Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west. Southwards, it faces Fife across the Firth of Tay, Angus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland. The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320 marked Scotlands establishment as an independent nation and it is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards. Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum, main industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the north of the county, in the 2001 census the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20. 14% were under the age of 16,63. 15% were between 16 and 65 and 18. 05% were aged 65 or above, the most recent available census results show that Gaelic is spoken by 0. 45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other areas, is lower than the national average of 1. 16%
3.
Inverness
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Inverness is a city in the Scottish Highlands. It is the centre for the Highland council area, and is regarded as the capital of the Highlands. It is the northernmost city in the United Kingdom and lies within the Great Glen at its north-eastern extremity where the River Ness enters the Moray Firth. At the latest, a settlement was established by the 6th century with the first royal charter being granted by Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim in the 12th century, the population of Inverness grew from 40,949 in 2001 to 46,870 in 2012. The Greater Inverness area, including Culloden and Westhill, had a population of 59,910 in 2012, Inverness is twinned with one German city, Augsburg, and two French towns, La Baule and Saint-Valery-en-Caux. Inverness College is the campus for the University of the Highlands and Islands. With around 8,500 students, Inverness College hosts around a quarter of all the University of the Highlands and Islands students, in 2014, a survey by a property website described Inverness as the happiest place in Scotland and the second happiest in the UK. Inverness was again found to be the happiest place in Scotland by a new study conducted in 2015, a 93 oz silver chain dating to 500–800 was found just to the south of Torvean in 1983. A church or a cell is thought to have been established by early Celtic monks on St Michaels Mount. The strategic location of Inverness has led to conflicts in the area. Reputedly there was a battle in the early 11th century between King Malcolm and Thorfinn of Norway at Blar Nam Feinne, to the southwest of the city, Inverness had four traditional fairs, including Legavrik or Leth-Gheamhradh, meaning midwinter, and Faoilleach. William the Lion granted Inverness four charters, by one of which it was created a royal burgh, of the Dominican friary founded by Alexander III in 1233, only one pillar and a worn knights effigy survive in a secluded graveyard near the town centre. Medieval Inverness suffered regular raids from the Western Isles, particularly by the MacDonald Lords of the Isles in the fifteenth century, in 1187 one Domhnall Bán led islanders in a battle at Torvean against men from Inverness Castle led by the governors son, Donnchadh Mac An Toisich. Both leaders were killed in the battle, Donald Ban is said to have buried in a large cairn near the river. Local tradition says that the citizens fought off the Clan Donald in 1340 at the Battle of Blairnacoi on Drumderfit Hill, Clan Munro defeated Clan Mackintosh in 1454 at the Battle of Clachnaharry just west of the city. Clan Donald and their allies stormed the castle during the Raid on Ross in 1491, the Clan Munro and Clan Fraser of Lovat took the castle for her. The house in which she lived meanwhile stood in Bridge Street until the 1970s, the only surviving modern remnant is a clock tower. Inverness played a role in the first Jacobite rising in 1689, in early May, it was besieged by a contingent of Jacobites led by MacDonell of Keppoch
4.
Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
5.
Hughes Medal
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The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
6.
Elliott Cresson Medal
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The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, the medal was first awarded in 1875,21 years after Cressons death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on a basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the awards lifetime
7.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
8.
Medal for Merit
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Since the proclamation of an emergency by the President on September 8,1939. The first medals were awarded to John C, garand and Albert Hoyt Taylor on March 28,1944. The first person to receive this medal who was not an American citizen was Edgar Sengier, Sengier was awarded the Medal for Merit on April 9,1946. The second foreign civilian to receive the medal was the Canadian spymaster William Stephenson in November 1946, Stephenson had the code name Intrepid during World War II. Some writers consider Stephenson to be one of the real life inspirations for the fictitious character James Bond, all proposed awards were considered by the Medal for Merit Board, consisting of three members appointed by the President, of whom one was appointed as the Chairman of the Board. The last medal of this type was awarded in 1952 after a delay in processing
9.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
10.
Direction finding
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Direction finding, or radio direction finding, is the measurement of the direction from which a received signal was transmitted. This can refer to radio or other forms of communication, including radar signals detection. By combining the information from two or more suitably spaced receivers, the source of a transmission may be located via triangulation. RDF was important in combating German threats during both the World War II Battle of Britain and the long running Battle of the Atlantic, in the former, the Air Ministry also used RDF to locate its own fighter groups and vector them to detected German raids. RDF systems can be used with any source, although very long wavelengths require very large antennas. For aerial use, where the horizon may extend to hundreds of kilometres, higher frequencies can be used, the ability to locate the position of an enemy transmitter has been invaluable since World War I, and played a key role in World War IIs Battle of the Atlantic. It is estimated that the UKs advanced huff-duff systems were directly or indirectly responsible for 24% of all U-Boats sunk during the war, modern systems often used phased array antennas to allow rapid beamforming for highly accurate results, and are part of a larger electronic warfare suite. Radio direction finders have evolved, following the development of new electronics, early systems used mechanically rotated antennas that compared signal strengths, and several electronic versions of the same concept followed. Modern systems use the comparison of phase or doppler techniques which are simpler to automate. Early British radar sets were referred to as RDF, which is stated was a deception. In fact, the Chain Home systems used large RDF receivers to determine directions, later radar systems generally used a single antenna for broadcast and reception, and determined direction from the direction the antenna was facing. Direction finding requires an antenna that is directional, many antenna designs exhibit this property. For example, a Yagi antenna has quite pronounced directionality, so the source of a transmission can be determined simply by pointing it in the direction where the signal level is obtained. However, to establish direction to great accuracy requires more sophisticated technique, a simple form of directional antenna is the loop aerial. Such an antenna will be least sensitive to signals that are normal to its face and this is caused by the phase output of the transmitting beacon. The phase changing phase causes a difference between the voltages induced on either side of the loop at any instant, turning the loop face on will not induce any current flow. Simply turning the antenna to obtain minimum signal will establish two possible directions from which the signal could be emanating. The NULL is used, as small angular deflections of the loop aerial near its null positions produce larger changes in current than similar angular changes near the loops max positions, for this reason, a null position of the loop aerial is used
11.
Met Office
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The Met Office is the United Kingdoms national weather service. It is an agency and trading fund of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO, Rob Varley and chief scientist. The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change, the Met Office was established in 1854 as a small department within the Board of Trade under Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy as a service to mariners. The loss of the vessel, the Royal Charter, and 459 lives off the coast of Anglesey in a violent storm in October 1859 led to the first gale warning service. FitzRoy established a network of 15 coastal stations from which visual gale warnings could be provided for ships at sea, the new electric telegraph enabled rapid dissemination of warnings and also led to the development of an observational network which could then be used to provide synoptic analysis. The Met Office started in 1861 to provide forecasts to newspapers. Publication of forecasts ceased in May 1866 after FitzRoy’s death but recommenced in April 1879, in 1936 the Met Office split with services to the Royal Navy being provided by its own forecasting services. It became an agency of the Ministry of Defence in April 1990. It has a worldwide presence – including a centre in Aberdeen. Royal Navy weather forecasts are provided by naval officers, not Met Office personnel. The Shipping Forecast is produced by the Met Office and broadcast on BBC Radio 4, the Met Office issues Severe Weather Warnings for the United Kingdom through the National Severe Weather Warning Service. These warn of events that may affect transport infrastructure and endanger peoples lives. In March 2008, the system was improved and a new stage of warning was introduced, on 10 November, the first named storm was Abigail. The principal weather products for UK customers are 36-hour forecasts from the operational 1, the Met Offices Global Model forecast has consistently been in the top 3 for global weather forecast performance in independent verification to WMO standards. Products for other regions of the globe are sold to customers abroad, if necessary, forecasters may make adjustments to the computer forecasts. Data is stored in the Met Offices own PP-format, formed in 2009, the Flood Forecasting Centre is a joint venture between the Environment Agency and the Met Office to provide flood risk guidance for England and Wales. The Centre is jointly staffed from both parent organisations and is based in the Operations Centre at the Met Office headquarters in Exeter, in Scotland this role is performed by the Scottish Flood Forecasting Service, a joint venture between the Scottish Environment Protection Agency and the Met Office. The Met Office makes seasonal forecasts and distributes them to customers and users globally, Met Office research has broken new ground in seasonal forecasting for the extratropics and has demonstrated its abilities in its seasonal predictions of the North Atlantic Oscillation
12.
Thunderstorm
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Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied by winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or, in contrast. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband, strong or severe thunderstorms, known as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. Thunderstorms result from the upward movement of warm, moist air. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, as the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earths surface, as the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. Thunderstorms can form and develop in any location but most frequently within the mid-latitude. Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along them, pose great hazards. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts. There are four types of thunderstorms, single-cell, multi-cell cluster, multi-cell lines, supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena. Mesoscale convective systems formed by vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thunderstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the lightning that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms, weather radar, weather stations, past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earths atmosphere, thunderstorms have also observed on the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune. Warm air has a lower density than air, so warmer air rises upwards. Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air, the moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air condenses. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning, Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds
13.
Lightning
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Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge that occurs during a thunder storm. This discharge occurs between electrically charged regions of a cloud, between two clouds, or between a cloud and the ground. The charged regions in the atmosphere temporarily equalize themselves through this discharge referred to as an if it hits an object on the ground. Lightning causes light in the form of plasma, and sound in the form of thunder, Lightning may be seen and not heard when it occurs at a distance too great for the sound to carry as far as the light from the strike or flash. This article incorporates public domain material from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration document Understanding Lightning, the details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm electrification. The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the part of the storm where air is moving upward rapidly and temperatures range from -15 to -25 Celsius. At that place, the combination of temperature and rapid upward air movement produces a mixture of super-cooled cloud droplets, small ice crystals, the updraft carries the super-cooled cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward. At the same time, the graupel, which is larger and denser. The differences in the movement of the precipitation cause collisions to occur, when the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged. The updraft carries the positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud, the larger and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls toward the lower part of the storm. The result is that the part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged. This part of the cloud is called the anvil. While this is the charging process for the thunderstorm cloud. In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom of the cloud due to the precipitation. Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, latitude, prevailing wind currents, relative humidity, proximity to warm and cold bodies of water, to a certain degree, the ratio between IC, CC and CG lightning may also vary by season in middle latitudes. Lightnings relative unpredictability limits a complete explanation of how or why it occurs, the actual discharge is the final stage of a very complex process. At its peak, a thunderstorm produces three or more strikes to the Earth per minute
14.
High-frequency direction finding
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High-frequency direction finding, usually known by its abbreviation HF/DF or nickname huff-duff, is the common name for a type of radio direction finder introduced in World War II. High frequency refers to a band that can efficiently communicate over long distances, for example. HF/DF was primarily used to catch enemy radios while they transmitted, earlier systems used a mechanically rotated antenna and an operator listening for peaks or nulls in the signal, which took considerable time to determine, often on the order of a minute or more. HF/DFs display made the same measurement essentially instantaneously, which allowed it to catch fleeting signals, the system was initially developed by Robert Watson-Watt starting in 1926, as a system for locating lightning. Its role in intelligence was not developed until the late 1930s, in the early war period, HF/DF units were in very high demand, and there was considerable inter-service rivalry involved in their distribution. Between 1942 and 1944, smaller units became available and were common fixtures on Royal Navy ships. It is estimated HF/DF contributed to 24% of all U-boats sunk during the war, Radio direction finding was a widely used technique even before World War I, used for both naval and aerial navigation. The basic concept used an antenna, in its most basic form simply a circular loop of wire with a circumference decided by the frequency range of the signals to be detected. When the loop is aligned at right angles to the signal, early DF systems used a loop antenna that could be mechanically rotated. The operator would tune in a radio station and then rotate the antenna until the signal disappeared. This meant that the antenna was now at right angles to the broadcaster, by taking several such measurements, or using some other form of navigational information to eliminate one of the ambiguous directions, the bearing to the broadcaster could be determined. In 1907 an improvement was introduced by Ettore Bellini and Alessandro Tosi that greatly simplified the DF system in some setups, the single loop antenna was replaced by two antennas, arranged at right angles. The output of each was sent to its own looped wire, or as they are referred to in this system, two coils, one for each antenna, are arranged close together at right angles. The signals from the two antennas generated a magnetic field in the space between the coils, which was picked up by a solenoid, the search coil. The maximum signal was generated when the coil was aligned with the magnetic field from the field coils. This eliminated any need for the antennas to move, the Bellini–Tosi direction finder was widely used on ships, although mechanical systems tended to be used on aircraft as they were normally smaller. All of these took time to operate. Normally the radio operator would first use conventional radio tuners to find the signal in question, once tuned, the operator rotated the antennas or goniometer looking for peaks or nulls in the signal
15.
U-boat
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U-boat is the anglicised version of the German word U-Boot, a shortening of Unterseeboot, literally undersea boat. While the German term refers to any submarine, the English one refers specifically to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second World Wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role. Austro-Hungarian navy submarines were known as U-boats. The first submarine built in Germany, the three-man Brandtaucher, sank to the bottom of Kiel harbor on 1 February 1851 during a test dive, the inventor and engineer Wilhelm Bauer had designed this vessel in 1850, and Schweffel & Howaldt constructed it in Kiel. Dredging operations in 1887 rediscovered Brandtaucher, it was raised and put on display in Germany, there followed in 1890 the boats WW1 and WW2, built to a Nordenfelt design. The SM U-1 was a completely redesigned Karp-class submarine and only one was built, the Imperial German Navy commissioned it on 14 December 1906. It had a hull, a Körting kerosene engine. The 50%-larger SM U-2 had two torpedo tubes, the U-19 class of 1912–13 saw the first diesel engine installed in a German navy boat. At the start of World War I in 1914, Germany had 48 submarines of 13 classes in service or under construction, during that war the Imperial German Navy used SM U-1 for training. Retired in 1919, it remains on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, on 5 September 1914, HMS Pathfinder was sunk by SM U-21, the first ship to have been sunk by a submarine using a self-propelled torpedo. On 22 September, U-9 sank the obsolete British warships HMS Aboukir, HMS Cressy, for the first few months of the war, U-boat anticommerce actions observed the prize rules of the time, which governed the treatment of enemy civilian ships and their occupants. On 20 October 1914, SM U-17 sank the first merchant ship, surface commerce raiders were proving to be ineffective, and on 4 February 1915, the Kaiser assented to the declaration of a war zone in the waters around the British Isles. This was cited as a retaliation for British minefields and shipping blockades, under the instructions given to U-boat captains, they could sink merchant ships, even potentially neutral ones, without warning. In February 1915, a submarine U-6 was rammed and both periscopes were destroyed off Beachy Head by the collier SS Thordis commanded by Captain John Bell RNR after firing a torpedo, on 7 May 1915, SM U-20 sank the liner RMS Lusitania. The sinking claimed 1,198 lives,128 of them American civilians, munitions that it carried were thousands of crates full of ammunition for rifles, 3-inch artillery shells, and also various other standard ammunition used by infantry. The sinking of the Lusitania was widely used as propaganda against the German Empire, a widespread reaction in the U. S was not seen until the sinking of the ferry SS Sussex. The sinking occurred in 1915 and the United States entered the war in 1917, the initial U. S. response was to threaten to sever diplomatic ties, which persuaded the Germans to issue the Sussex pledge that reimposed restrictions on U-boat activity
16.
Arnold Wilkins
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Arnold Frederic Wilkins OBE was a pioneer in developing the use of radar. With the Daventry experiment, Wilkins successfully detected an aircraft by reflection of waves for the first time in history. Born in Chorlton, Cheshire, Wilkins was the son of John Knowles Wilkins of Chester and was educated at Chester City & County School, Manchester University and he was usually known as Skip Wilkins and worked at the Radio Research Station with Robert Watson-Watt. In an experiment on 26 February 1935 in a field in Northamptonshire at Stowe Nine Churches, Watson-Watt, known as the Daventry Experiment, this demonstration detected a Royal Air Force Heyford bomber aircraft at a distance of eight miles. By June they were detecting aircraft at 27 km, which was enough for scientists, the successful results of the initial test led to the setting up of a research station that was to become the Telecommunications Research Establishment. By the end of the year the range was up to 100 km, at which point plans were made in December to set up five stations covering the approaches to London by Watson-Watt and Sir Henry Tizard. Those stations opened in 1938 with the help of Wilkins and were extended to the Chain Home system. In 1938, he helped to develop the British version of the Identification friend or foe system, after the war, he worked at the Radio Research Station in Buckinghamshire. His memoirs were written in 1976 and lodged in Churchill College Library and he appeared in the 1977 TV Series The Secret War explaining his role in the discovery of radar, and is seen to reconduct the original Daventry Experiment alongside TV presenter William Woollard. He died in Saxtead, near Framlingham, Suffolk and his widow, Nancy, died in Framlingham in 2011. They are survived by three daughters, arnold Wilkins, Pioneer of British Radar. Http, //www. history. org. uk/resources/student_resource_3570. html Alan Blumlein History of radar Aeronautical Research Committee
17.
Handley Page Heyford
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The Handley Page Heyford was a twin-engine British biplane bomber of the 1930s. The aircraft was named for and first deployed at RAF Upper Heyford, the specification resulted in a large number of proposals being submitted by the British aircraft industry, with designs by Fairey and Vickers as well as Handley Pages design. Open positions were provided for the pilot and both the nose and dorsal gunners. The Heyford had a novel configuration, with the attached to the upper wing — somewhat like the 1914-designed German Gotha G. I —. This provided a defensive field of fire for the nose and dorsal guns as well as the ventral retractable dustbin turret. The fixed undercarriage consisted of large, spat-covered wheels, the design allowed ground crews to safely attach bombs while the engines were running, but the result was that the pilot was some 17 ft off the ground. The HP.38 proved successful during trials at Martlesham Heath and with No.10 Squadron RAF and was chosen as the winner of the B19/27 competition. Production Heyford Is were fitted with 575 hp Kestrel III engines and retained the two-blade propellers, Engine variations marked the main Mk II and III differences, the former being equipped with 640 hp Kestrel IVs, supercharged to 695 hp in the Heyford III. As part of the RAFs Expansion scheme, orders were placed for 70 Heyford IIIs in 1936, the delivery of these aircraft allowed the RAF to have nine operational Heyford Squadrons by the end of 1936. These squadrons of Heyfords formed the part of Bomber Commands night bomber strength in the late 1930s. Heyfords flew many long night exercises, sometimes flying mock attacks against targets in France, four crashed and two had to make forced landings resulting in three crewmen killed and three injured. The Heyford started to be replaced in 1937, with the arrival in service of Armstrong Whitworth Whitleys and Vickers Wellesleys, some remained flying until 1940 as bombing and gunnery trainers, being declared obsolete in July 1939, with two used as glider tugs until April 1941. At least two examples found experimental use, one for airborne radar and the other for inflight refuelling, Heyford I Powered by 575 hp Rolls-Royce Kestrel III engines,15 built, serial numbers K3489-K3902. Heyford IA Engine support changes, power-driven generator, four-blade propellers,23 built, Heyford II Powered by 640 hp Kestrel IV engines,16 built, serial numbers K4863-K4878. Heyford III Supercharged 695 hp Kestrel VI engines,70 built in two batches, serial numbers K5180-K5199 and K6857-K6906, for a total of 125 United Kingdom Royal Air ForceNo
18.
Chain Home
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Chain Home, or CH for short, was the codename for the ring of coastal Early Warning radar stations built by the Royal Air Force before and during the Second World War to detect and track aircraft. The term also referred to the equipment itself, until it was given the official name Air Ministry Experimental Station Type 1 in 1940. Chain Home was the first early warning network in the world. In 1934, Nikola Tesla claimed to have invented a ray that could destroy aircraft. The Tizard Committee formed to consider the possibility, and asked Robert Watt, Watts assistant, Arnold Wilkins, calculated that a death ray was impossible, but suggested that radio could be used for long-range detection. Watts team quickly built a system using commercial shortwave radio hardware. Basic development was completed by the end of the year, with range on the order of 100 miles. Through 1936 attention was focused on a version, and early 1937 saw the addition of height finding. The first five stations, covering the approaches to London, were installed by 1937, Operational tests using early units in 1937 demonstrated that that relaying useful information to the pilots in fighter aircraft was difficult. This led to the formation of the first integrated air defence network, the Dowding system, which collected and filtered this information into a single view of the airspace. This had the effect of multiplying the effectiveness of the RAF to the point that it was as if they had three times as many fighters, allowing them to defeat the larger German force. With such high efficiency, it was no longer the case that the bomber will always get through, the Chain Home network was continually expanded, with over forty stations operational by the wars end. Ports were covered by Chain Home Extra Low, AMES Type 14, in 1942 the AMES Type 7 radar began to take over the job of tracking of targets once detected, and CH turned its attention entirely to the early warning role. Late in the war, when the threat of Luftwaffe bombing had ended, after the war, they were reactivated as part of the ROTOR system to watch for Soviet bombers, before being replaced by newer systems in the 1950s. Today only a few of the sites remain intact in any fashion. From the earliest days of radio technology, signals had been used for systems using the radio direction finding technique. RDF can determine the bearing to a transmitter, and several such measurements can be combined to produce a radio fix. Given some basic changes to the broadcast signal, it was possible for the receiver to determine its location using a single station, the UK pioneered one such service in the form of the Orfordness Beacon
19.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
20.
Battle of Britain
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The Battle of Britain was a military campaign of the Second World War, when the Royal Air Force defended the United Kingdom against the German Air Force attacks from the end of June 1940. It is described as the first major campaign fought entirely by air forces, the primary objective of the Nazi German forces was to compel Britain to agree to a negotiated peace settlement. In July 1940, the air and sea blockade began with the Luftwaffe mainly targeting coastal shipping convoys, ports and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth. On 16 July Hitler ordered the preparation of Operation Sea Lion as an amphibious and airborne assault on Britain. Nazi Germany was unable to sustain daylight raids, but their continued night bombing operations on Britain became known as the Blitz. Its first Chief of the Air Staff Hugh Trenchard was among the military strategists in the 1920s like Giulio Douhet who saw air warfare as a new way to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare, interception was near impossible with fighter planes no faster than bombers. Their view was that the bomber will always get through, Germany was forbidden military air forces by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, but developed aircrew training in civilian and sport flying. In 1926 the secret Lipetsk fighter-pilot school began operating, a winter 1933–34 war game indicated a need for fighters and anti-aircraft protection as well as bombers. On 1 March 1935 the Luftwaffe was formally announced, with Walther Wever as Chief of Staff, the list excluded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale, as that was considered a waste of strategic effort, but the doctrine allowed revenge attacks if German civilians were bombed. A revised edition was issued in 1940, and the central principle of Luftwaffe doctrine was that destruction of enemy armed forces was of primary importance. In the Spanish Civil War, the Luftwaffe in the Condor Legion tried out air fighting tactics, wolfram von Richthofen become an exponent of air power providing ground support to other services. The difficulty of hitting targets prompted Ernst Udet to require that all new bombers had to be dive bombers. Priority was given to producing large numbers of aeroplanes. The speed with which German forces defeated most of the armies in Norway in early 1940 created a significant political crisis in Britain. In early May 1940, the Norway Debate questioned the fitness for office of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, on 10 May, the same day Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister, the Germans initiated the Battle of France with an aggressive invasion of French territory. The Germans were so convinced of an imminent armistice that they began constructing street decorations for the parades of victorious troops. Instead, Churchill used his skilful rhetoric to harden public opinion against capitulation, the Battle of Britain has the unusual distinction that it gained its name before being fought. In secret conference on 23 May 1939 Hitler set out his rather contradictory strategy that an attack on Poland was essential, if this is impossible, then it will be better to attack in the West and to settle Poland at the same time with a surprise attack
21.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
22.
James Watt
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While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder, Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water, Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful, in his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work. He developed the concept of horsepower, and the SI unit of power, James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the towns chief baillie, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watts grandfather, Thomas Watt, was a teacher and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Despite being raised by parents, he later on became a deist. Watt did not attend regularly, initially he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock Grammar School. He exhibited great manual dexterity, engineering skills and an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin, when he was eighteen, his mother died and his fathers health began to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland and he made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. Because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated and these instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, at first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and this partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, in 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood, James Jr. and Margaret. His wife died in childbirth in 1772, in 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children, Gregory, who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet
23.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
24.
Brechin High School
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Brechin High School is a non-denominational secondary school in Brechin, Angus, Scotland. It has approximately 660 students, and a staff of 50, the school has a relationship with the towns cathedral stretching back to the early 15th century, with the formation of the choir school. Feeder primary schools include two in Brechin, Andover and Maisondieu and four schools, Edzell, Lethnot, Stracathro. The school is in the north-west of Brechin, near the A90 bypass, dame Anne Begg MP, Labour Member of Parliament since 1997 for Aberdeen South. Dorothy Geddes, FRCS OBE, Professor of Oral Biology at the University of Glasgow, john Gillies LLD FRS FRSE FSA, Historiographer Royal, 1793-1836. Thomas Guthrie DD, founder of the Ragged Schools of Scotland, william Guthrie, eighteenth century historian and geographer. Catherine Hollingworth OBE, pioneering speech and drama therapist, joseph Fairweather Lamb FRSE, Chandos Professor of Physiology at the University of St Andrews. David Low, Bishop of Ross and Argyll, 1819-1838 and Bishop of Moray, alexander Ferrier Mitchell DD LLD, Professor of Ecclesiastical History at the University of St Andrews and Moderator of the Church of Scotland. David Myles, Conservative Member of Parliament from 1979-83 for Banffshire, john Pringle Nichol LLD FRSE, Regius Professor of Astronomy at the University of Glasgow. Robin Orr CBE, composer, professor of music and founder chairman of Scottish Opera, james Small DSc MRIA FRSE, Professor of Botany at Queens University Belfast. Peter Spence, industrial chemist and pioneering alum manufacturer, sir Robert Watson-Watt KCB FRS FRAeS, inventor of radar. David Will CBE, Vice-President from 1990-2007 of FIFA, Brechin High School - official website Brechin Highs on Scottish Schools Online
25.
University of St Andrews
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The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894
26.
University of Dundee
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The University of Dundee is a public research university based in the city and Royal burgh of Dundee on the east coast of the central Lowlands of Scotland. It is consistently ranked within the Top 250 universities in the world, following significant expansion, the University of Dundee became an independent body in 1967 whilst retaining much of its ancient heritage and governance structure. Since its independence, the university has grown to become a recognised centre for research. The main campus of the university is located in Dundees West End and consists of a mixture of Victorian, Edwardian and postmodern architecture. Dundee has developed a significant reputation for students entering the professions, most notably law, medicine and dentistry as well as emerging areas such as life sciences. The University of Dundee has its roots in the earlier University college based in Dundee, at the same time, the University of St Andrews was, as were the other universities in Scotland at the time, suffering from significant financial problems. Moreover, St Andrews position, isolation and small size contributed to a significant decline, finally, agreement was reached that what was needed was expansion of the sciences and professions, rather than the arts at St Andrews. In this endeavour, she was assisted by her relative, Dr John Boyd Baxter, no religious oaths were to be required of members. Later that year, University College, Dundee was established as an academic institution, when opened in 1883, it comprised five faculties, Maths and Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Engineering and Drawing, English Language and Literature and Modern History, and Philosophy. The University College had no power to award degrees and for some students were prepared for external examinations of the University of London. The policy of no discrimination between the sexes, which was insisted upon by Mary Ann Baxter, meant that the new college recruited several able female students. Their number included the social reformer Mary Lily Walker and, later and this move was of notable benefit to both, enabling the University of St Andrews to support a medical school. Medical students could choose to undertake preclinical studies either in Dundee or St Andrews after which all students would undertake their studies at Dundee. Eventually, law, dentistry and other subjects were taught at University College. By 1904 University College had a roll of 208, making up 40 per cent of the roll of the University generally, by session 1909-10234 students were studying at University College,101 of whom were female. Attempts were made to raise income, kipling implored those who had lost their sons in the Great War to consider giving a donation so that their names would live on. In 1947, the Principal of University College, Douglas Wimberley released the Wimberley Memo, in 1954, after a Royal Commission, University College was renamed Queens College and the Dundee-based elements of the University gained a greater degree of independence and flexibility. It was also at this time that Queens College absorbed the former Dundee School of Economics, Queens Colleges size and location, alongside a willingness to expand, led to an eventual decision to separate from the wider University of which it remained an integral part
27.
Natural philosophy
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Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature was the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. It is considered to be the precursor of natural science, from the ancient world, starting with Aristotle, to the 19th century, the term natural philosophy was the common term used to describe the practice of studying nature. Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, in the German tradition, Naturphilosophie persisted into the 18th and 19th century as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity of nature and spirit. Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with movement, including Goethe, Hegel. The term natural philosophy preceded our current natural science, empirical science historically developed out of philosophy or, more specifically, natural philosophy. In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy was one of many branches of philosophy, the first person appointed as a specialist in Natural Philosophy per se was Jacopo Zabarella, at the University of Padua in 1577. Modern meanings of the science and scientists date only to the 19th century. Before that, science was a synonym for knowledge or study, the term gained its modern meaning when experimental science and the scientific method became a specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy. In general, chairs of Natural Philosophy established long ago at the oldest universities are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors. Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, in Platos earliest known dialogue, Charmides distinguishes between science or bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not. Natural philosophy has been categorized as a rather than a practical branch of philosophy. Sciences that guide arts and draw on the knowledge of nature may produce practical results. The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe, some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. George Santayana, in his Scepticism and Animal Faith, attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain ones skepticism enough to trust ones senses, rené Descartes metaphysical system of Cartesian Dualism describes two kinds of substance, matter and mind. Humankinds mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history, Philosophical, and specifically non-religious thought about the natural world, goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned from his studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man. The thought of philosophers such Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Democritus centered on the natural world
28.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
29.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
30.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
31.
War Office
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The name War Office is also given to the former home of the department, the War Office building located at the junction of Horse Guards Avenue and Whitehall in central London. During August 2013 it was announced that the former War Office building would be sold on the open market. The War Office developed from the Council of War, an ad hoc grouping of the King and his military commanders which managed the Kingdom of Englands frequent wars. It was equivalent to the Admiralty, responsible for the Royal Navy, and the Air Ministry, the department had several London homes until it settled at Horse Guards in Whitehall during 1722, where it was to remain until 1858. The first War Office Secretary at War is usually said to have been William Blathwayt and it was, however, a fairly minor government job which dealt with the minutiae of administration rather than grand strategy. Issues of strategic policy during wartime were managed by the Northern and Southern Departments, from 1704 to 1855, the job of Secretary was possessed by a minister of the second rank, although he was occasionally part of the Cabinet. Many of his responsibilities were transferred to the Secretary of State for War after the creation of more senior post during 1794. The job of Secretary at War was merged with that of the Secretary of State for War during 1855, during 1855 the Board of Ordnance was abolished as a result of its perceived poor performance during the Crimean War. This powerful independent body, dating from the 15th century, had directed by the Master-General of the Ordnance. The disastrous campaigns of the Crimean War resulted in the consolidation of all duties during 1855 as subordinate to the Secretary of State for War. He was not, however, solely responsible for the Army and this was reduced in theory by the reforms introduced by Edward Cardwell during 1870, which subordinated the Commander-in-Chief to the Secretary for War. His resistance to reform caused military efficiency to lag well behind that of Britains rivals, the management of the War Office was hampered by persistent disputes between the civilian and military parts of the organisation. The government of H. H. Asquith attempted to resolve this during the First World War by appointing Lord Kitchener as Secretary for War, making him the first, however, this was thought unsatisfactory, during his tenure, the Imperial General Staff was virtually dismantled. Its role was replaced effectively by the Committee of Imperial Defence, the War Office decreased greatly in importance after the First World War, a fact illustrated by the drastic reductions of its staff numbers during the inter-war period. On 1 April 1920, it employed 7,434 civilian staff and its responsibilities and funding were also reduced. During 1936, the government of Stanley Baldwin appointed a Minister for Co-ordination of Defence, when Winston Churchill became Prime Minister during 1940, he bypassed the War Office altogether and appointed himself Minister of Defence. Clement Attlee continued this arrangement when he came to power during 1945, during 1964, the present form of the Ministry of Defence was established, unifying the War Office, Admiralty, and Air Ministry. The records of the War Office are kept by The National Archives with the code WO and it contains about 1,000 rooms across seven floors, linked by 2½ miles of corridors
32.
Longwave
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In radio, longwave, also written as long wave or long-wave, and commonly abbreviated LW, refers to parts of the radio spectrum with relatively long wavelengths. The term is an one, dating from the early 20th century, when the radio spectrum was considered to consist of long, medium. Most modern radio systems and devices use wavelengths which would then have been considered ultra-short, in contemporary usage, the term longwave is not defined precisely, and its meaning varies across the world. Sometimes, part of the frequency band is included. The International Telecommunication Union Region 1 longwave broadcast band falls wholly within the low band of the radio spectrum. Broader definitions of longwave may extend below and/or above it, in the US, the Longwave Club of America is interested in frequencies below the AM broadcast band, i. e. all frequencies below 535 kHz. Because of their wavelength, radio waves in this frequency range can diffract over obstacles like mountain ranges and travel beyond the horizon. This mode of propagation, called ground wave, is the mode in the longwave band. The attenuation of signal strength with distance by absorption in the ground is lower than at higher frequencies, Low frequency ground waves can be received up to 2,000 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Low frequency waves can also travel long distances by reflecting from the ionosphere, although this method. Reflection occurs at the ionospheric E layer or F layers, skywave signals can be detected at distances exceeding 300 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Non-directional beacons transmit continuously for the benefit of radio direction finders in marine and they identify themselves by a callsign in Morse code. They can occupy any frequency in the range 190–1750 kHz, in North America, they occupy 190–535 kHz. In ITU Region 1 the lower limit is 280 kHz, there are government broadcast stations in the range 40–80 kHz that transmit coded time signals to radio clocks. Radio controlled clocks receive their time calibration signals with built-in long-wave receivers, long-waves travel by groundwaves that hug the surface of the earth, unlike medium-waves and short-waves. Those higher-frequency signals do not follow the surface of the Earth beyond a few kilometers and these different propagation paths can make the time lag different for every signal received. The military of the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, United States, Germany, in North America during the 1970s, the frequencies 167,179 and 191 kHz were assigned to the short-lived Public Emergency Radio of the United States. Nowadays, in the United States, Part 15 of FCC regulations allow unlicensed use of 136 kHz and this is called Low Frequency Experimental Radio
33.
Loop antenna
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A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop or coil of wire, tubing, or other electrical conductor with its ends connected to a balanced transmission line. Small loops have low resistance and thus poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving antennas at low frequencies. To increase the field in the loop and thus the efficiency, the coil of wire is often wound around a ferrite rod magnetic core. These antennas are used for radio direction finding. In amateur radio, loop antennas are used for low profile operating where larger antennas would be inconvenient, unsightly. Loop antennas are easy to build. Resonant loop antennas are large, governed by the intended wavelength of operation. Thus they are used at higher frequencies, especially VHF and UHF. They can be viewed as a folded dipole deformed into a different shape, although a resonant loop may be in the shape of a circle, distorting it into a somewhat different closed shape does not greatly alter its characteristics. For instance, the quad antenna popular in amateur radio consists of a resonant loop in a rectangular shape, or a large loop can be completely collapsed into a line, in which case it is termed a folded dipole. In the case of large loops, such as the quad or a folded dipole, on the other hand, a small loop antenna is used for wavelengths much bigger than the loop itself, its radiation resistance and efficiency are instead dependent on the area enclosed by the loop. For a given area, the length of the conductor is minimized if the shape is a circle. Although it has a similar appearance, the so-called halo antenna is not technically a loop since it possesses a break in the conductor opposite the feed point. Its characteristics are unlike that of either sort of loop antenna described in this article, also outside the scope of this article is the use of coupling coils for inductive transmission systems including LF and HF RFID tags and readers. The large or resonant loop antenna can be seen as a folded dipole which has been reformed into a circle, in order to be resonant the loop requires a circumference approximately equal to one wavelength. Contrary to the loop antenna, this design radiates in the direction normal to the plane of the loop. Therefore, these loops are installed with the plane of the loop in the vertical direction. Compared to a dipole or folded dipole, it then transmits less toward the sky or ground, further directionality can be obtained by using a loop whose circumference is not one but 3 or 5 wavelengths
34.
Aldershot
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Aldershot is a town in the English county of Hampshire, located on heathland about 37 mi southwest of London. The area is administered by Rushmoor Borough Council, the town has a population of 36,321, while the Farnborough/Aldershot Built-up Area, a loose conurbation has a population of 243,344, making it the thirtieth-largest urban area in the UK. Aldershot is known as the Home of the British Army, a connection led to its rapid growth from a small village to a Victorian town. Aldershot is twinned with Sulechów in Poland, Meudon in France, the name may have derived from alder trees found in the area. Aldershot was included as part of the Hundred of Crondall referred to in the Domesday Book of 1086, john Nordens map of Hampshire, published in the 1607 edition of William Camdens Britannia, indicates that Aldershot was a market town. Prior to 1850, Aldershott was little known, the area was a vast stretch of common land, a lonely wasteland unsuitable for most forms of agriculture with scant population. In the 18th century, the stretch of the London to Winchester turnpike that passed through Aldershot between Bagshot and Farnham was the scene of highway robberies, at one time it had almost as bad a reputation as Hounslow Heath. Dick Turpin is said to have operated in the area having his headquarters nearby in Farnborough, in 1854, at the time of the Crimean War, Aldershot Garrison was established as the first permanent training camp for the British Army. This led to an expansion of Aldershots population going from 875 in 1851. Mrs Louisa Daniell arrived in the town at this time and set up her Soldiers Home and Institute to cater for the needs of the soldiers. The Aldershot riot of July 1945 caused considerable damage to the centre when disgruntled Canadian troops rioted in the streets for two evenings. A substantial rebuilding of the barracks was carried out between 1961 and 1969, by the architecture and engineering firm Building Design Partnership, the work was sped up under government pressure, and various new building technologies were employed with mixed success. In 1974 Aldershot and Farnborough urban districts were merged to form the Borough of Rushmoor under the provisions of the Local Government Act 1972. After a 2009 campaign, the British Government allowed veteran Gurkha soldiers who had served for more four years. As many Gurkha soldiers had been based in and around Aldershot, between the 2001 Census and the 2011 Census, Rushmoors Nepalese population increased to approximately 6,000 people, making up 6. 5% of the overall population. Howarth was later criticised for suggesting that Nepalese migrants should be dispersed across the UK, the Aldershot Military Tattoo was an annual event dating back to 1894. In the 1920s and 30s, the Aldershot Command Searchlight Tattoo held at the Rushmoor Arena presented displays from all branches of the services, at one time the performances attracted crowds of up to 500,000 people. The Tattoo was organised to raise money for military charities, by the end of the 1930s the event was raising around £40,000 annually
35.
Hampshire
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Hampshire is a county on the southern coast of England in the United Kingdom. The county town of Hampshire is Winchester, the capital city of England. The larger South Hampshire metropolitan area has a population of 1,547,000, Hampshire is notable for housing the birthplaces of the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force. It is bordered by Dorset to the west, Wiltshire to the north-west, Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, the southern boundary is the coastline of the English Channel and the Solent, facing the Isle of Wight. At its greatest size in 1890, Hampshire was the fifth largest county in England and it now has an overall area of 3,700 square kilometres, and measures about 86 kilometres east–west and 76 kilometres north–south. Hampshires tourist attractions include many seaside resorts and two parks, the New Forest and the South Downs. Hampshire has a maritime history and two of Europes largest ports, Portsmouth and Southampton, lie on its coast. The county is famed as home of writers Jane Austen and Charles Dickens, Hampshire takes its name from the settlement that is now the city of Southampton. Southampton was known in Old English as Hamtun, roughly meaning village-town, the old name was recorded in the Domesday book as Hantescire, and it is from this spelling that the modern abbreviation Hants derives. From 1889 until 1959, the county was named the County of Southampton and has also been known as Southamptonshire. The region is believed to have continuously occupied since the end of the last Ice Age about 12,000 BCE. At this time Britain was still attached to the European continent and was covered with deciduous woodland. The first inhabitants came overland from Europe, these were anatomically and behaviourally modern humans, notable sites from this period include Bouldnor Cliff. Agriculture had arrived in southern Britain by 4000 BCE, and with it a neolithic culture, some deforestation took place at that time, although it was during the Bronze Age, beginning in 2200 BCE, that this became more widespread and systematic. Hampshire has few monuments to show from early periods, although nearby Stonehenge was built in several phases at some time between 3100 BCE and 2200 BCE. It is maintained that by this period the people of Britain predominantly spoke a Celtic language, hillforts largely declined in importance in the second half of the second century BCE, with many being abandoned. Julius Caesar invaded southeastern England briefly in 55 and again in 54 BCE, notable sites from this period include Hengistbury Head, which was a major port. There is a Museum of the Iron Age in Andover, the Romans invaded Britain again in 43 CE, and Hampshire was incorporated into the Roman province of Britannia very quickly
36.
Ditton Park
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One of the features is the moat which surrounds the house and the immediate grounds. Park areas lie to the north and west of the moat, Ditton Park belonged to the crown in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. It then belonged to Sir Ralph Winwood and passed to Ralph Montagu, 1st Duke of Montagu, the present house which may have been first built around 1500 was badly damaged by fire in 1812. Nearby, on the Great West Road, a house known as the Montague Arms stands. The pub dates back to the early 19th century, in 1917 the property was taken over for the Admiralty Compass Observatory, which used the house and its immediate grounds. In 1920 West park started to be used for research, and this extended into the North park in 1924. It was at the Radio Research Station in Ditton Park in 1935 that the idea for the development of the British radar defence system was conceived. In the late 1990s, local concern was raised regarding the issue of radioactive contamination arising from the World War II era burial of radium based, the property was sold to Computer Associates in 1997
37.
Slough
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Slough is a large town in Berkshire, England,21 miles west of London,3 miles north of Windsor,6 miles east of Maidenhead,12 miles south-east of High Wycombe and 20 miles north-east of Reading. The A4 and the Great Western Main Line pass through the town, in 2011, Sloughs population was the most ethnically diverse in the United Kingdom outside London. With the highest proportion of adherents in England. Slough is home to the Slough Trading Estate, the largest industrial estate in single ownership in Europe. Blackberry, McAfee, Burger King and LEGO have head offices in the town, the Slough Trading Estate provides over 17,000 jobs in 400 businesses. The town is approximately 9.1 miles to the west of Heathrow Airport, the name, which means soil, was first recorded in 1195 as Slo. It first seems to have applied to a hamlet between Upton to the east and Chalvey to the west, roughly around the Crown Crossroads where the road to Windsor met the Great West Road. The Domesday Survey of 1086 refers to Upton, and a wood for 200 pigs, during the 13th century, King Henry III had a palace at Cippenham. Parts of Upton Court were built in 1325, while St Mary the Virgin Church in Langley was probably built in the late 11th or early 12th century, though it has been rebuilt and enlarged several times. From the mid-17th century, stagecoaches began to pass through Slough and Salt Hill, by 1838 and the opening of the Great Western Railway, Upton-cum-Chalveys parish population had reached 1,502. In 1849, a line was completed from Slough railway station to Windsor and Eton Central railway station, opposite Windsor Castle. In April 1920, the Government sold the site and its contents to the Slough Trading Co. Ltd, repair of ex-army vehicles continued until 1925, when the Slough Trading Company Act was passed allowing the company to establish an industrial estate. Spectacular growth and employment ensued, with Slough attracting workers from many parts of the UK, during the Second World War, Slough experienced a series of air raids, mostly in October 1940, and an emergency hospital treating casualties from London was set up in Slough. Local air raid deaths and deaths at the account for the 23 civilian lives recorded lost in the borough area. After the war, several large housing developments arose to take large numbers of people migrating from war-damaged London. In the 21st century, Slough has seen major redevelopment of the town centre, old buildings are being replaced with new offices and shopping complexes. Tesco has replaced an existing superstore with a larger Tesco Extra, the Heart of Slough Project is a plan for the large-scale redevelopment of the town centre as a focus and cultural quarter for the creative media, information and communications industries. It will create a complex, multi-functional buildings, visual landmarks
38.
Berkshire
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Berkshire is a county in south east England, west of London. It was recognised as the Royal County of Berkshire because of the presence of Windsor Castle by the Queen in 1957, Berkshire is a county of historic origin and is a home county, a ceremonial county and a non-metropolitan county without a county council. Berkshire County Council was the main county governance from 1889 to 1998 except for the separately administered County Borough of Reading, in 1974, significant alterations were made to the countys administrative boundaries although the traditional boundaries of Berkshire were not changed. The towns of Abingdon, Didcot and Wantage were transferred to Oxfordshire, Slough was gained from Buckinghamshire, since 1998, Berkshire has been governed by the six unitary authorities of Bracknell Forest, Reading, Slough, West Berkshire, Windsor and Maidenhead and Wokingham. It borders the counties of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Greater London, Surrey, according to Asser, it takes its name from a large forest of box trees that was called Bearroc. Berkshire has been the scene of notable battles through its history. Alfred the Greats campaign against the Danes included the Battles of Englefield, Ashdown, Newbury was the site of two English Civil War battles, the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 and the Second Battle of Newbury in 1644. The nearby Donnington Castle was reduced to a ruin in the aftermath of the second battle, another Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688. It was the only military action in England during the Glorious Revolution. Reading became the new county town in 1867, taking over from Abingdon, boundary alterations in the early part of the 20th century were minor, with Caversham from Oxfordshire becoming part of the Reading county borough, and cessions in the Oxford area. On 1 April 1974 Berkshires boundaries changed under the Local Government Act 1972, Berkshire took over administration of Slough and Eton and part of the former Eton Rural District from Buckinghamshire. 94 Signal Squadron still keep the Uffington White Horse in their insignia, the original Local Government White Paper would have transferred Henley-on-Thames from Oxfordshire to Berkshire, this proposal did not make it into the Bill as introduced. On 1 April 1998 Berkshire County Council was abolished under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, unlike similar reforms elsewhere at the same time, the non-metropolitan county was not abolished. Berkshire divides into two distinct sections with the boundary lying roughly on a north-south line through the centre of Reading. The eastern section of Berkshire lies largely to the south of the River Thames, in two places the county now includes land to the north of the river. Tributaries of the Thames, including the Loddon and Blackwater, increase the amount of low lying land in the area. Beyond the flood plains, the land rises gently to the county boundaries with Surrey, much of this area is still well wooded, especially around Bracknell and Windsor Great Park. In the west of the county and heading upstream, the Thames veers away to the north of the county boundary, leaving the county behind at the Goring Gap
39.
National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)
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The National Physical Laboratory is the national measurement standards laboratory for the United Kingdom, based at Bushy Park in Teddington, London, England. It is the largest applied physics organisation in the UK, NPL is an internationally respected centre of excellence in measurement and materials science. Since 1900, when Bushy House was selected as the site of NPL, today it provides the scientific resources for the National Measurement System financed by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. NPL also offers a range of services, applying scientific skills to industrial measurement problems. The NPL cooperates with professional networks such as those of the IET to support scientists, NPL is at the forefront of new developments in metrology, such as researching metrology for, and standardizing, nanotechnology. NPL is mainly based on the Teddington site but also has a site in Huddersfield for dimensional metrology, Teddington was also home to the UK National Chemical Laboratory but this was closed in 1965 and some of its work was transferred to NPL. The laboratory was run by the UK government, with members of staff being part of the civil service. Administration of the NPL was contracted out in 1995 under a GOCO model, with Serco winning the bid, under this regime, overhead costs halved, third party revenues grew by 16% per annum, and the number of peer-reviewed research papers published doubled. It was decided in 2012 to change the model for NPL from 2014 onward to include academic partners. The date of the changeover was postponed for up to a year. The laboratory transferred back to Department for Business, Innovation and Skills ownership on 1 January 2015, NPL was initially sited entirely within Bushy House but grew to fill a large selection of buildings on the Teddington site. Many of these buildings were demolished and the moved to a large state-of-the-art laboratory for NPL that was built between 1998 and 2007. In January 2013 funding for a new £25m Advanced Metrology Laboratory was announced that will be built on the footprint of an unused building. H. J. Gough one of the pioneers of research into metal fatigue worked at NPL for 19 years from 1914-38, the inventor Sir Barnes Wallis did early development work there on the Bouncing Bomb used in the Dam Busters wartime raids. Sydney Goldstein and Sir James Lighthill worked in NPLs aerodynamics division during World War II researching boundary layer theory, dr Clifford Hodge also worked there and was engaged in research on semiconductors
40.
Adcock antenna
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The Adcock antenna is an antenna array consisting of four equidistant vertical elements which can be used to transmit or receive directional radio waves. The Adcock array was invented and patented by British engineer Frank Adcock in 1919 as British Patent No,130,490, and has been used for a variety of applications, both civilian and military, ever since. Although originally conceived for receiving Low Frequency waves, it has also used for transmitting. In the early 1930s, the Adcock antenna became a key feature of the newly created radio navigation system for aviation, the Low Frequency radio range network, which consisted of hundreds of Adcock antenna arrays, defined the airways used by aircraft for instrument flying. The LFR remained as the main aerial navigation technology until it was replaced by the VOR system in the 1950s and 1960s, prior to Adcocks invention, engineers had been using loop antennas to achieve directional sensitivity. This created the equivalent of square loops, but without their horizontal members, the same principles remain valid today, and the Adcock antenna array and its variants are still used for radio direction finding. In the late 1920s, the Adcock antenna was adopted for navigation, in what became known as the Low Frequency radio range. Hundreds of transmitting stations, each consisting of four or five Adcock antenna towers, were constructed around the U. S. the result was a network of electronic airways, which allowed pilots to navigate at night and in poor visibility, under virtually all weather conditions. The LFR remained as the main aerial navigation system in the U. S. and other countries until the 1950s, by the 1980s all LFR stations were decommissioned. Direction finding Radio direction finder Huff-Duff
41.
Phase (waves)
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Phase is the position of a point in time on a waveform cycle. A complete cycle is defined as the interval required for the waveform to return to its initial value. The graphic to the right shows how one cycle constitutes 360° of phase, the graphic also shows how phase is sometimes expressed in radians, where one radian of phase equals approximately 57. 3°. Phase can also be an expression of relative displacement between two corresponding features of two waveforms having the same frequency, in sinusoidal functions or in waves phase has two different, but closely related, meanings. One is the angle of a sinusoidal function at its origin and is sometimes called phase offset or phase difference. Another usage is the fraction of the cycle that has elapsed relative to the origin. Phase shift is any change that occurs in the phase of one quantity and this symbol, φ is sometimes referred to as a phase shift or phase offset because it represents a shift from zero phase. For infinitely long sinusoids, a change in φ is the same as a shift in time, if x is delayed by 14 of its cycle, it becomes, x = A ⋅ cos = A ⋅ cos whose phase is now φ − π2. It has been shifted by π2 radians, Phase difference is the difference, expressed in degrees or time, between two waves having the same frequency and referenced to the same point in time. Two oscillators that have the frequency and no phase difference are said to be in phase. Two oscillators that have the frequency and different phases have a phase difference. The amount by which such oscillators are out of phase with each other can be expressed in degrees from 0° to 360°, if the phase difference is 180 degrees, then the two oscillators are said to be in antiphase. If two interacting waves meet at a point where they are in antiphase, then interference will occur. It is common for waves of electromagnetic, acoustic or other energy to become superposed in their transmission medium, when that happens, the phase difference determines whether they reinforce or weaken each other. Complete cancellation is possible for waves with equal amplitudes, time is sometimes used to express position within the cycle of an oscillation. A phase difference is analogous to two athletes running around a track at the same speed and direction but starting at different positions on the track. They pass a point at different instants in time, but the time difference between them is a constant - same for every pass since they are at the same speed and in the same direction. If they were at different speeds, the difference is undefined
42.
Oscilloscope
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Other signals can be converted to voltages and displayed. Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of a signal over time, such that voltage. The observed waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion, modern digital instruments may calculate and display these properties directly. Originally, calculation of these values required manually measuring the waveform against the scales built into the screen of the instrument, the oscilloscope can be adjusted so that repetitive signals can be observed as a continuous shape on the screen. A storage oscilloscope allows single events to be captured by the instrument and displayed for a long time. Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, automotive, general-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition system or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an electrocardiogram. Early oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element and linear amplifiers for signal processing, storage oscilloscopes used special storage CRTs to maintain a steady display of a single brief signal. CROs were later superseded by digital storage oscilloscopes with thin panel displays, fast analog-to-digital converters. DSOs without integrated displays are available at lower cost and use a digital computer to process. The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is divided into four sections. The display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is out with both horizontal and vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most display sections are equipped with three controls, a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder button. The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal and this section carries a Volts-per-Division selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the vertical input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is equipped with the vertical beam position knob. The horizontal section controls the base or sweep of the instrument. The primary control is the Seconds-per-Division selector switch, also included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is located in this section
43.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
