1.
Daniel Defoe
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Daniel Defoe, born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer, and spy, most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe. He was also a pioneer of economic journalism, Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding De to his name, and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux and his birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659–1662, with 1660 considered the most likely. His father James Foe was a tallow chandler and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and his mother Annie had died by the time he was about ten. Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fishers boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, during this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England. Defoe entered the world of business as a merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate, in 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley, the daughter of a London merchant, receiving a dowry of £3,700 – a huge amount by the standards of the day. With his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, in 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1688, and Defoe became one of Williams close allies, some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe, who had established himself as a merchant. In 1692, Defoe was arrested for debts of £700, though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000 and his laments were loud and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest. Following his release, he travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto. By 1695, he was back in England, now using the name Defoe and serving as a commissioner of the glass duty. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex, Defoes first notable publication was An Essay upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to an army during disarmament. His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman, defended the king against the perceived xenophobia of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legions Memorial to the Speaker of the House of Commons, later his employer Robert Harley and it demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, in it, he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called occasional conformity, such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney
2.
John Pine
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Little is known of Pine’s parents or ancestry. Biographical sketches frequently refer to him as black or of African ancestry, especially in the lore of Freemasonry, however, the United Grand Lodge of England has not been able to verify such claims. Pine began his career as an apprentice goldsmith and he also apprenticed with the French engraver Bernard Picart, who was associated with a movement described by historian Margaret Jacob as the Radical Enlightenment. Pine was a friend of William Hogarth, who also began his career as an engraver. It appears likely that their careers were mutually reinforcing, even though Pine remained principally in the field of engraving while Hogarth became a famous painter, Hogarth painted Pine several times, once, in his 1749 engraving The Gate of Calais, depicting him as a fat friar. Both men served as governors of the Foundling Hospital, and both were Freemasons, an affiliation that was also a means of marketing their talents. Pine was a member of the Lodge that met at the Horn Tavern in Westminster, Pine engraved the frontispiece of the 1723 Constitutions of the Freemasons, which elevated his status as an artist and secured his position as principal engraver for the Grand Lodge. Subsequent work for the Grand Lodge included annual engraved lists of member Lodges and these engravings included miniature signs for each Lodge symbolizing their meeting place, usually a tavern. Pine’s work is an part of the record of early Freemasonry. He may have prepared the detailed plan for the town of Savannah. In 1733, Pine began work on an edition of the works of Horace and he engraved the text and illustrations for the entire work, which consisted of hundreds of pages. Subscribers who underwrote the project included the Prince of Wales, Handel, Alexander Pope, in 1735, Pine successfully collaborated with Hogarth and George Virtue in obtaining passage of a law enacted by Parliament securing copyrights for artists. This law granted specifically to him copyright on some works not otherwise original enough to receive copyright under it and he was a governor of the Foundling Hospital. In 1755 he was among those who attempted to form an academy for the arts. Pine collaborated with surveyor John Rocque on the first detailed map of London, Pine’s achievements were recognized in 1743, when he became Engraver of His Majesty’s Signet and Seals, and subsequently Bluemantle Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary. His son, Robert Edge Pine, became a portrait painter of the late eighteenth century in both England and America. He painted George II and the famous actor David Garrick before emigrating to America where he painted Washington, another son, Simon, became a miniature painter in Bath. Pine’s daughter, Charlotte, married a painter and was painted by Hogarth
3.
The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe
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The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published in 1719. Just as in its more popular predecessor, Robinson Crusoe. Although intended to be the last Crusoe tale, the novel is followed by a third, the story is speculated to be partially based on Moscow embassy secretary Adam Brands journal detailing the embassys journey from Moscow to Peking from 1693 to 1695. The book starts with the statement about Crusoes marriage in England and he bought a little farm in Bedford and had three children, two sons and one daughter. Our hero suffered a distemper and a desire to see his island and he could talk of nothing else, and one can imagine that no one took his stories seriously, except his wife. She told, in tears, I will go with you, but in the middle of this felicity, Providence unhinged him at once, with the loss of his wife. At the beginning of 1693, Crusoe made his nephew the commander of a ship, around the beginning of January 1694, Crusoe and Friday went on board this ship in the Downs on the 8th, then arrived at Crusoes Island via Ireland. He also leaves additional residents with necessary skills, on the way to the mainland once again from Crusoes island, the ship is attacked by the cannibals. Friday dies from three arrow shots during an attempt to negotiate, but the crew wins the encounter without further serious casualty. After having buried Friday in the ocean, the evening they set sail for Brazil. They stayed for a period there, then went directly over to the Cape of Good Hope. They landed on Madagascar where their nine men were pursued by three hundred natives, because one of his mariners had carried off a young native girl among the trees, the natives hanged this person, so the crew massacred 32 persons and burned the houses of the native town. Crusoe opposed all these, therefore he was marooned, and settled at the Bay of Bengal for a long time, finally, he bought a ship that later turned out to be stolen. Therefore they went to the river of Cambodia and Cochinchina or the Bay of Tonquin, until came to the latitude of 22 degrees and 30 minutes. Then they arrived on the coast of China and they visited Nanking near the river of Kilam, and sailed southwards to a port called Quinchang. An old Portuguese pilot suggested them to go to Ningpo by the mouth of a river, so they did, then it was the beginning of February, in the Old Style calendar, when they set out from Peking. Then they travelled through the places, Changu, Naum. Argun was the first town on the Russian border, then went through Nertzinskoi, Plotbus, touched a lake called Schaks Ozer, Jerawena, the river Udda, Yeniseysk
4.
Novel
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A novel is any relatively long piece of written narrative fiction, normally in prose, and typically published as a book. The genre has also described as possessing, a continuous. This view sees the novels origins in Classical Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, the latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative, Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel, a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo, a novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. Most European languages use the word romance for extended narratives, fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion, historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity. Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byrons Don Juan, Alexander Pushkins Yevgeniy Onegin, vikram Seths The Golden Gate, composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel. Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations, on the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gallantry spread with novels, the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction. However, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length, the length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty, parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities. By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy, in this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel back into the field of verse epics. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homers works to a wider public, longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the circles of High Medieval. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love
5.
Travelogue (literature)
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The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century AD, in the early modern period, James Boswells Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides helped shape travel memoir as a genre. The travel genre was a common genre in medieval Arabic literature. Travel literature became popular during the Song Dynasty of medieval China, the genre was called travel record literature, and was often written in narrative, prose, essay and diary style. One of the earliest known records of taking pleasure in travel, of travelling for the sake of travel and he states that he went to the mountaintop for the pleasure of seeing the top of the famous height. His companions who stayed at the bottom he called frigida incuriositas and he then wrote about his climb, making allegorical comparisons between climbing the mountain and his own moral progress in life. Antoine de la Sale, author of Petit Jehan de Saintre, climbed to the crater of a volcano in the Lipari Islands in 1407, councils of mad youth were his stated reasons for going. In 1589, Richard Hakluyt published Voyages, a text of the travel literature genre. In the 18th Century, travel literature was commonly known as the book of travels, in 18th century Britain, almost every famous writer worked in the travel literature form. Captain James Cooks diaries were the equivalent of todays best sellers, Other later examples of travel literature include accounts of the Grand Tour. Aristocrats, clergy, and others with money and leisure time travelled Europe to learn about the art, a very popular subgenre of travel literature started to emerge in the form of narratives of exploration, a still unexplored source for colonial and postcolonial studies. Travel books range in style from the documentary to the evocative, from literary to journalistic and they are often associated with tourism and include guide books, meant to educate the reader about destinations, provide advice for visits, and inspire readers to travel. Travel writing may be found on web sites, in periodicals and it has been produced by a variety of writers, such as travelers, military officers, missionaries, explorers, scientists, pilgrims, social and physical scientists, educators, and migrants. Travel literature often intersects with essay writing, as in V. S. Naipauls India, A Wounded Civilization, whose trip became the occasion for extended observations on a nation and this is similarly the case in Rebecca Wests work on Yugoslavia, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon. Sometimes a writer will settle into a locality for an extended period, examples of such writings include Lawrence Durrells Bitter Lemons, Deborah Talls The Island of the White Cow, and Peter Mayles best-selling A Year in Provence and its sequels. Travel and nature writing merge in many of the works by Sally Carrighar, Gerald Durrell and these authors are naturalists, who write in support of their fields of study. Another naturalist, Charles Darwin, wrote his famous account of the journey of HMS Beagle at the intersection of science, natural history, a number of writers famous in another field have written about their travel experiences. H. Lawrences Twilight in Italy and Other Essays, Mornings in Mexico and Other Essays, Rebecca Wests Black Lamb and Grey Falcon, in the world of sailing Joshua Slocums Sailing Alone Around the World is a classic of outdoor adventure literature
6.
Epistolary novel
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An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of documents. The usual form is letters, although diary entries, newspaper clippings, recently, electronic documents such as recordings and radio, blogs, and e-mails have also come into use. The word epistolary is derived from Latin from the Greek word ἐπιστολή epistolē, the epistolary form can add greater realism to a story, because it mimics the workings of real life. It is thus able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an omniscient narrator, there are two theories on the genesis of the epistolary novel. The first claims that the genre originated from novels with inserted letters, the other theory claims that the epistolary novel arose from miscellanies of letters and poetry, some of the letters were tied together into a plot. The first truly epistolary novel, the Spanish Prison of Love by Diego de San Pedro, other well-known examples of early epistolary novels are closely related to the tradition of letter-books and miscellanies of letters. The founder of the novel in English is said by many to be James Howell with Familiar Letters, who writes of prison, foreign adventure. The first novel to expose the complex play that the genre allows was Aphra Behns Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister, which appeared in three volumes in 1684,1685, and 1687. The novel shows the results of changing perspectives, individual points were presented by the individual characters. Behn furthermore explored a realm of intrigue with letters that fall into the hands, faked letters, letters withheld by protagonists. The epistolary novel as a genre popular in the 18th century in the works of such authors as Samuel Richardson, with his immensely successful novels Pamela. In Germany, there was Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, the first North American novel, The History of Emily Montague by Frances Brooke was written in epistolary form. Starting in the 18th century, the form was subject to much ridicule. The most notable example of these was Henry Fieldings Shamela, written as a parody of Pamela, in it, the female narrator can be found wielding a pen and scribbling her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikely of circumstances. Oliver Goldsmith used the form to satirical effect in The Citizen of the World, so did the diarist Fanny Burney in a successful comic first novel, Evelina. The epistolary novel slowly fell out of use in the late 18th century, although Jane Austen tried her hand at the epistolary in juvenile writings and her novella Lady Susan, she abandoned this structure for her later work. The epistolary form nonetheless saw continued use, surviving in exceptions or in fragments in nineteenth-century novels, in Honoré de Balzacs novel Letters of Two Brides, two women who became friends during their education at a convent correspond over a 17-year period, exchanging letters describing their lives. Mary Shelley employs the epistolary form in her novel Frankenstein, in the late 19th century, Bram Stoker released one of the most widely recognized and successful novels in the epistolary form to date, Dracula
7.
Castaway
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A castaway is a person who is cast adrift or ashore. While the situation usually happens after a shipwreck, some people voluntarily stay behind on a deserted island, a person may also be left ashore as punishment. The provisions and resources available to castaways may allow them to live on the island until other people arrive to take them off the island. However, such rescue missions may never happen if the person is not known to still be alive and these scenarios have given rise to the plots of numerous stories in the form of novels and film. Icelander Thorgisl set out to travel to Greenland and he and his party were first driven into a remote sound on the east coast of Greenland. Thorgisl, his infant son and several others were abandoned there by their thralls. Thorgisl and his party traveled slowly along the coast to the Eystribyggð settlement of Erik the Red on the southwest coast of Greenland, along the way they met a Viking, an outlaw who had escaped to East Greenland. This history is told in Flóamanna saga and Origines Islandicae and occurred during the years of Viking Greenland. Icelander Grettir Ásmundarson was outlawed by the assembly in Iceland, after many years on the run he and two companions went to the forbidden island of Drangey, where he lived several more years before his pursuers managed to kill him in 1031. The Portuguese Fernão Lopes was marooned on the island of Saint Helena in 1513 and he had lost his right hand, the thumb of his left hand, his nose and his ears as punishment for mutiny and apostasy for converting to Islam. In April 1520, a mutiny broke out in Magellans fleet while at the Patagonian seashore, Magellan put it down and executed some of the ringleaders. He then punished two others, the King of Spains delegate, Juan de Cartagena and the priest, Pedro Sánchez Reina and they were never heard from again. Gonzalo de Vigo was a Spanish sailor who deserted from Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosas Trinidad, part of the Spanish expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, Gonzalo de Vigo was the first recorded European castaway in the history of the Pacific Ocean. A French noblewoman, Marguerite de la Rocque was marooned in 1542 on an island in the Gulf of St Lawrence, off the coast of Quebec. She was left by her near relative Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval, the young man joined her, as did a servant woman, both of whom later died, as did the baby de la Rocque bore. Marguerite survived by hunting animals and was later rescued by fishermen. She returned to France and became well-known when her story was recorded by the Queen of Navarre in her work Heptaméron, in 1629 Jan Pelgrom de Bye van Bemel, a cabin boy, and Wouter Loos, a 24-year-old soldier, had been on board the Dutch ship Batavia. The ship was famous because it was wrecked on Morning Reef of the Wallabi Group of the Houtman Abrolhos, leading to the infamous Batavia Mutiny, when all culprits were arrested on the islets, most of them were either hanged or sent to court in the town of Batavia
8.
Desert island
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A desert island, deserted island or uninhabited island is an island that is not permanently populated by humans. Uninhabited islands are used in movies or stories about shipwrecked people. Some uninhabited islands are protected as reserves and some are privately owned. Devon Island in Canada is claimed to be the largest uninhabited island in the world, small coral atolls or islands usually have no source of fresh water, but at times a fresh water lens can be reached with a well. Uninhabited islands are also called deserted islands or desert islands. In the latter, the adjective desert connotes not desert climate conditions, the word desert has been formerly applied more widely to any wild, uninhabited region, including forest-land, and it is this archaic meaning that appears in the phrase desert island. Similarly, the deserted island does not imply that the island was previously inhabited. The term desert island is commonly used figuratively to refer to objects or behavior in conditions of social isolation. Behavior on an island is a common thought experiment, for example. Appat Island, Greenland Kermadec Islands in the South Pacific, part of New Zealand Astola Island, Baluchistan Devon Island,55,247 km2, many small islands off the coast of Greece A majority of islands in the Barra Isles archipelago. The most famous of abandoned islands is located at the southernmost point of the outer Hebrides. The protagonists in both are children living in seclusion on a deserted island, until they eventually come in contact with castaways from the outside world who are stranded on the island. The story of Theologus Autodidactus, however, extends beyond the island setting when the castaways take Kamil back to civilization with them. William Shakespeares 1610–11 play, The Tempest, uses the idea of being stranded on an island as a pretext for the action of the play. In the late 17th century, Philosophus Autodidactus inspired Robert Boyle, Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus was also eventually translated into English in the early 20th century. The novel features Man Friday, Crusoes personal assistant and it is also likely that he was inspired by the Latin or English translations of Ibn Tufails Philosophus Autodidactus. Tom Neale was a New Zealander who voluntarily spent 16 years in three sessions in the 1950s and 1960s living alone on the island of Suwarrow in the northern Cook Islands group and his time there is documented in his autobiography, An Island To Oneself. Significant novels set on deserted islands include The Swiss Family Robinson, The Coral Island, The Mysterious Island, Lord of the Flies, The Cay, juana Maria, a Native American woman, was stranded for 18 years on San Nicolas Island off California in the 19th century
9.
Trinidad
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Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela, though geographically part of the South American continent, from a socio-economic standpoint it is often referred to as the southernmost island in the Caribbean. With an area of 4,768 km2, it is also the sixth largest in the West Indies, many believe the original name for the island in the Arawaks language was Iëre which meant Land of the Hummingbird. Some believe that Iere was actually a mispronunciation or corruption by early colonists of the Arawak word Kairi which simply means Island, Christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow he had made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Caribs and Arawaks lived in Trinidad long before Christopher Columbus encountered the islands on his voyage in 1498. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands, Trinidad remained Spanish until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists from the French Caribbean, especially Martinique. In 1889 the two became a single British Crown colony. Trinidad and Tobago obtained self-governance in 1958 and independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, major landforms include the hills of the Northern, Central and Southern Ranges, the Caroni, Nariva and Oropouche Swamps, and the Caroni and Naparima Plains. Major river systems include the Caroni, North and South Oropouche, there are many other natural landforms such as beaches and waterfalls. Trinidad has two seasons per year, the rainy season and the dry season. El Cerro del Aripo, at 940 metres, is the highest point in Trinidad and it is part of the Aripo Massif and is located in the Northern Range on the island, northeast of the town of Arima. Diversity is the status quo in Trinidad and it is sometimes known as a rainbow island or more fondly a callaloo. There is a range of ethnicity, religion, and culture. As of the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, the population was 34. 22% East Indian,35. 43% African,7. 66% Mixed - African and East Indian, and 15. 16% Mixed - Other. Venezuela has also had a impact on Trinidads culture, such as introducing the music style parang to the island. Many of these groups overlap heavily due to admixture, for example Dougla is a term used to describe a person who is of African and East Indian descent. Trinidad religion primarily centers round Roman Catholic, Anglican, other Christian denominations, Hindu, catholicism constitutes the largest religious denomination of the country. There are also multiple festivals featuring the music of the Caribbean and the steelpan and these festivals include the world-famous Carnival, Jouvert, and Panorama, the national steel pan competition
10.
Human cannibalism
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Cannibalism is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings. A person who practices cannibalism is called a cannibal, the expression cannibalism has been extended into zoology to mean one individual of a species consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food, including sexual cannibalism. The Island Carib people of the Lesser Antilles, from whom the word cannibalism derives, some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture. Cannibalism was practiced in New Guinea and in parts of the Solomon Islands, Fiji was once known as the Cannibal Isles. Cannibalism has been documented around the world, from Fiji to the Amazon Basin to the Congo to Māori New Zealand. Neanderthals are believed to have practiced cannibalism, and Neanderthals may have been eaten by anatomically modern humans, Cannibalism has recently been both practiced and fiercely condemned in several wars, especially in Liberia and Congo. It is still practiced in Papua New Guinea as of 2012 for cultic reasons and in ritual, Cannibalism has been said to test the bounds of cultural relativism as it challenges anthropologists to define what is or is not beyond the pale of acceptable human behavior. Cannibalism has been practiced as a last resort by people suffering from famine. Also, some mentally ill people obsess about eating others and actually do so, such as Jeffrey Dahmer, there is resistance to formally labeling cannibalism as a mental disorder. Cannibalism derives from Caníbales, the Spanish name for the Caribs, a West Indies tribe that formerly practiced cannibalism, from Spanish canibal or caribal, in some societies, especially tribal societies, cannibalism is a cultural norm. Exocannibalism is the consumption of a person from outside the community, both types of cannibalism can also be fueled by the belief that eating a persons flesh or internal organs will endow the cannibal with some of the characteristics of the deceased. In most parts of the world, cannibalism is not a societal norm, the survivors of the shipwrecks of the Essex and Méduse in the 19th century are said to have engaged in cannibalism, as did the members of Franklins lost expedition and the Donner Party. Such cases generally involve necro-cannibalism as opposed to homicidal cannibalism, in English law, the latter is always considered a crime, even in the most trying circumstances. There are numerous examples of murderers consuming their victims, often deriving some degree of satisfaction from the act of cannibalism. Notable examples include Albert Fish, Issei Sagawa and Jeffrey Dahmer, cases of autophagia, or self-cannibalism, have also been reported. A well-known case of cannibalism is that of the Fore tribe in New Guinea. Although the Fores mortuary cannibalism was documented, the practice had ceased before the cause of the disease was recognized. However, some argue that although post-mortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites
11.
Alexander Selkirk
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Alexander Selkirk was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent more than four years as a castaway after being marooned by his captain on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean. He survived that ordeal, but succumbed to illness a dozen years later while serving aboard HMS Weymouth off West Africa. Selkirk was a youth, and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on Cinque Ports, commanded by William Dampier, the ship called in for provisions at the Juan Fernández Islands, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. When he was rescued by follow-on English privateer Woodes Rogers. His story of survival was widely publicised after their return to England, Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition and he was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his indecent conduct in church, but he did not appear, being gone to sea. He was back at Largo in 1701, when he came to the attention of church authorities for beating up his brothers. Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering, in 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. Dampier was captain of St George, and Selkirk served on Cinque Ports, St Georges companion ship, by this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their party was ambushed. The easy capture of Asunción, a merchantman, revived the mens hopes of plunder. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar and flour, then set the ship free. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own, Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and probably wanted to make the needed repairs before going any farther. He declared that he would stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Glad to be rid of a troublemaker, Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, Selkirk regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board. Cinque Ports did indeed later founder off the coast of what is now Colombia, Stradling and some of his crew survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. The survivors were taken to Peru where they endured a harsh imprisonment, at first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Juan Fernández
12.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
13.
Robinson Crusoe Island
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Robinson Crusoe Island, formerly known as Más a Tierra, is the second largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, situated 670 km west of San Antonio, Chile, in the South Pacific Ocean. It is the populous of the inhabited islands in the archipelago. The island was home to the marooned sailor Alexander Selkirk from 1704 to 1709 and this was just one of several survival stories from the period that Defoe would have been aware of. To reflect the literary lore associated with the island and attract tourists, Robinson Crusoe Island has a mountainous and undulating terrain, formed by ancient lava flows which have built up from numerous volcanic episodes. The highest point on the island is 915 m above sea level at El Yunque, intense erosion has resulted in the formation of steep valleys and ridges. A narrow peninsula is formed in the part of the island called Cordón Escarpado. The island of Santa Clara is located just off the southwest coast, Robinson Crusoe Island lies to the west of the boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate, and rose from the ocean 3.8 –4.2 million years ago. A volcanic eruption on the island was reported in 1743 from El Yunque, on 20 February 1835, a day-long eruption began from a submarine vent 1.6 kilometres north of Punta Bacalao. The event was quite minor—only a Volcanic Explosivity Index 1 eruption—but it produced explosions and flames lit up the island. Robinson Crusoe has a climate, moderated by the cold Humboldt Current, which flows to the east of the island. Temperatures range from 3 °C to 34 °C, with a mean of 15.4 °C. Higher elevations are cooler, with occasional frosts. The Fernandezian Region is a region which includes the Juan Fernández Islands archipelago. It is in the Antarctic Floristic Kingdom, but often included within the Neotropical Kingdom. As World Biosphere Reserves since 1977, these islands have been considered of maximum scientific importance because of the plant families, genera. Out of 211 native plant species,132 are endemic, as well as more than 230 species of insects, Robinson Crusoe Island has one endemic plant family, Lactoridaceae. The Magellanic penguin is found there. The Juan Fernández firecrown is an endemic and critically endangered red hummingbird, the Masatierra petrel is named after the islands former name
14.
English novel
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The English novel is an important part of English literature. This article mainly concerns novels, written in English, by novelists who were born or have spent a significant part of their lives in England, or Scotland, or Wales, or Northern Ireland. Another important early novel is Gullivers Travels, by Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan Swift, the rise of the novel as an important literary genre is generally associated with the growth of the middle class in England. A noteworthy aspect of both the 18th- and 19th- century novel is the way the novelist directly addressed the reader. For example, the author might interrupt his or her narrative to pass judgment on a character, or pity or praise another, the phrase Romantic novel has several possible meanings. Here it refers to novels written during the Romantic era in literary history, but to complicate matters there are novels written in the romance tradition by novelists like Walter Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, George Meredith. In addition the phrase today is used to refer to the popular pulp-fiction genre that focusses on romantic love. Horace Walpoles 1764 novel, The Castle of Otranto, invented the Gothic fiction genre, the word gothic was originally used in the sense of medieval. This genre combines the macabre, fantastic, and supernatural and usually involves haunted castles, graveyards, later novelist Ann Radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the Gothic villain which developed into the Byronic hero. Her most popular and influential work, The Mysteries of Udolpho, is described as the archetypal Gothic novel. Vathek, by William Beckford, and The Monk, by Matthew Lewis, were notable early works in both the Gothic and horror genres. Mary Shelleys novel Frankenstein, as another important Gothic novel as well as being an example of science fiction. The vampire genre fiction began with John William Polidoris The Vampyre and this short story was inspired by the life of Lord Byron and his poem The Giaour. Varney was also the first example of the vampire, who loathes his condition but is a slave to it. Among more minor novelists in this period Maria Edgeworth and Thomas Love Peacock are worthy of comment, edgeworths novel Castle Rackrent is the first fully developed regional novel in English as well as the first true historical novel in English and an important influence on Walter Scott. Peacock was primarily a satirist in novels such as Nightmare Abbey, Jane Austens works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism. Her plots, though comic, highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social standing. Austen brings to light the hardships faced, who usually did not inherit money, could not work
15.
Robinsonade
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Robinsonade is a literary genre that takes its name from the 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe. The success of this novel spawned so many imitations that its name was used to define a genre, the word robinsonade was coined by the German writer Johann Gottfried Schnabel in the Preface of his 1731 work Die Insel Felsenburg. It is often viewed as a subgenre of survivalist fiction, Robinson Crusoe and robinsonades share plot elements with William Shakespeares The Tempest, but the story emphasis and story message are markedly different. Later works expanded on and explored this mythology, in the archetypical robinsonade, the protagonist is suddenly isolated from the comforts of civilization, usually shipwrecked or marooned on a secluded and uninhabited island. He must improvise the means of his survival from the resources at hand. Some of the themes include, Isolation A new beginning for some of the characters Encounters with natives or apparent natives Commentary on society See also themes for subgenres below. Unlike Thomas Mores Utopia and romantic works which depicted nature as idyllic, Crusoe made it unforgiving, the protagonist survives by his wits and the qualities of his cultural upbringing, which also enable him to prevail in conflicts with fellow castaways or over local peoples he may encounter. However, he manages to wrest survival and even an amount of civilisation from the wilderness. Works that followed went both in the more utopian direction and the dystopian direction, there are many works which do not fall into one of the listed subgenres. Swiss Family Robinson, for example, is not a robinsonade proper because it sees nature as more bountiful than in Robinson Crusoe, the robinsonade genre also includes many space-travel science fiction works. The basic premise is that our astronauts arrive at new worlds, terraform them if necessary, then live and prosper there, a classic example of an SF robinsonade which has all the elements of the robinsonade proper is Tom Godwins The Survivors. Another recent example is Andy Weirs 2012 The Martian, dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index, however, exempts the The Revelation of John and other biblical apocalyptic passages from this cataloging rule. Robinson Crusoe on Mars is the story of the survivor of a ship crash on the planet Mars. Enemy Mine is the SF story of a human and enemy alien who crash land on a barren planetoid, the Martian is the story of a human astronaut stranded on Mars after a storm forces the rest of the crew to depart and the effort to recover him. The first appearance of a space-faring Robinson family was in a book published by Gold Key Comics, The Space Family Robinson. Space Family Robinson was published as a total of 59 issues, the first issue was published in December 1962. With issue #15, the Lost in Space title was added to the cover, rather than sue CBS or Irwin Allen, Western decided to reach a settlement which allowed them to use Lost in Space for the title of the comic book. Since CBS and Irwin Allen licensed shows to Western, Western didnt want to antagonize them, also, the TV show title probably helped sales of the comic book
16.
Kingston upon Hull
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Kingston upon Hull, usually abbreviated to Hull, is a city and unitary authority in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It lies upon the River Hull at its confluence with the Humber estuary,25 miles inland from the North Sea, the town of Hull was founded late in the 12th century. The monks of Meaux Abbey needed a port where the wool from their estates could be exported and they chose a place at the confluence of the rivers Hull and Humber to build a quay. The exact year the town was founded is not known but it was first mentioned in 1193, renamed Kings-town upon Hull by King Edward I in 1299, Hull has been a market town, military supply port, trading hub, fishing and whaling centre, and industrial metropolis. Hull was a theatre of battle in the English Civil Wars. Its 18th-century Member of Parliament, William Wilberforce, took a prominent part in the abolition of the trade in Britain. The city is unique in the UK in having had a municipally owned telephone system from 1902, sporting cream, not red, telephone boxes. After suffering heavy damage in the Second World War, Hull weathered a period of decline, gaining unfavourable results on measures of social deprivation, education. In the early 21st-century spending boom before the late 2000s recession the city saw large amounts of new retail, commercial, housing, tourist attractions include the historic Old Town and Museum Quarter, Hull Marina and The Deep, a city landmark. The redevelopment of one of Hulls main thoroughfares, Ferensway, included the opening of St Stephens Hull, spectator sports include Premier League football and Super League Rugby. The KCOM Stadium houses Hull City football club and Hull F. C. rugby club, Hull is also home to the English Premier Ice Hockey League Hull Pirates. The University of Hull was founded in 1927 and now more than 16,000 students. It is ranked among the best in the Yorkshire and the Humber region and located in the leafy Newland suburb, in 2013, it was announced that Hull would be the 2017 UK City of Culture. In 2015 it was announced that the Ferens Art Gallery will be hosting the annual art prize, The Turner Prize. The prize is held outside London every other year, Kingston upon Hull stands on the north bank of the Humber estuary at the mouth of its tributary, the River Hull. The valley of the River Hull has been inhabited since the early Neolithic period, the area was attractive to people because it gave access to a prosperous hinterland and navigable rivers but the site was poor, being remote, low-lying and with no fresh water. It was originally a part of the hamlet of Myton. The name is thought to either from a Scandinavian word Vik meaning inlet or from the Saxon Wic meaning dwelling place or refuge
17.
Barbary pirates
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This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast, a term derived from the name of its Berber inhabitants. The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Christian slaves for the Ottoman slave trade as well as the general Muslim slavery market in North Africa and the Middle East. In that period Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli came under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, similar raids were undertaken from Salé and other ports in Morocco. Corsairs captured thousands of ships and repeatedly raided coastal towns, as a result, residents abandoned their former villages of long stretches of coast in Spain and Italy. The raids were such a problem coastal settlements were seldom undertaken until the 19th century, from the 16th to 19th century, corsairs captured an estimated 800,000 to 1.25 million people as slaves. Some corsairs were European outcasts and converts such as John Ward, Hayreddin Barbarossa and Oruç Reis, Turkish Barbarossa Brothers, who took control of Algiers on behalf of the Ottomans in the early 16th century, were also notorious corsairs. The European pirates brought advanced sailing and shipbuilding techniques to the Barbary Coast around 1600, the effects of the Barbary raids peaked in the early to mid-17th century. However, the ships and coasts of Christian states without such effective protection continued to suffer until the early 19th century. Following the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15, European powers agreed upon the need to suppress the Barbary corsairs entirely and the threat was largely subdued. Occasional incidents occurred, including two Barbary wars between the United States and the Barbary States, until terminated by the French conquest of Algiers in 1830. Piracy by Muslim populations had been known in the Mediterranean since at least the 9th century, in the 14th century Tunisian corsairs became enough of a threat to provoke a Franco-Genoese attack on Mahdia in 1390, also known as the Barbary Crusade. The Barbary pirates had long attacked English and other European shipping along the North Coast of Africa and they had been attacking English merchant and passengers ships since the 1600s. Regular fundraising for ransoms was undertaken generally by families and local church groups, the government did not ransom ordinary persons. The English became familiar with captivity narratives written by Barbary pirates prisoners and ransomed captives, during the American Revolution the pirates attacked American ships. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as the U. S. s oldest non-broken friendship treaty with a foreign power, in 1778 Morocco became the first nation to recognize the new United States. As late as 1798, an islet near Sardinia was attacked by the Tunisians, throughout history, geography was on the pirates side on the Northern coast of Africa. The coast was ideal for their wants and needs, with natural harbours often backed by lagoons, it provided a haven for guerrilla warfare, such as attacks on shipping vessels venturing through their territory. On the coast, mountainous areas provided ample reconnaissance for the corsairs as well, ships were spotted from afar, the pirates had time to prepare their attacks and surprise the ships
18.
Moors
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Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
19.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
20.
Colonial Brazil
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Slaves, especially those brought from Africa, provided most of the working force of the Brazilian export economy after a brief period of Indian slavery to cut brazilwood. The boom and bust economic cycles were linked to export products, gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through the end of the colonial era. Brazilian cities were largely port cities and the administrative capital was moved several times in response to the rise. Unlike Spanish America that fragmented in many republics, Brazil remained as an administrative unit with a monarch. Like Spanish America with European Spanish, Brazil had linguistic integrity of Portuguese, both Spanish America and Brazil were Roman Catholic. The Portuguese identified brazilwood as a red dye and an exploitable product. Its maritime exploration then proceeded down the coast of West Africa and they sought the sources of gold, ivory, and African slaves that were high value goods of the African trade. The Portuguese set up fortified trading factories, whereby permanent, fairly small commercial settlements anchored trade in a region, the initial costs of setting up these commercial posts was borne by private investors, who in turn received hereditary titles and commercial advantages. From the Portuguese crowns point of view, its realm was expanded with relatively little cost to itself, the most decisive of these treaties was the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, that created the Tordesillas Meridian, dividing the world between those two kingdoms. All land discovered or to be discovered east of that meridian was to be the property of Portugal, the Tordesillas Meridian divided South America into two parts, leaving a large chunk of land to be exploited by the Spaniards. The Treaty of Tordesillas was arguably the most decisive event in all Brazilian history, the present extent of Brazils coastline is almost exactly that defined by the treaty of Madrid, which was approved in 1750. On April 22,1500, during the reign of King Manuel I, although it is debated whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. Álvares Cabral was leading a fleet of 13 ships and more than 1000 men following Vasco da Gamas way to India. The place where Álvares Cabral arrived is now known as Porto Seguro, after the voyage of Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese concentrated their efforts on the lucrative possessions in Africa and India and showed little interest in Brazil. Between 1500 and 1530, relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to the new land to chart the coast, in Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable dye to give color to luxury textiles. Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to the land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land. In 1530, an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, ban the French, at first, Brazil was set up as fifteen private, hereditary captaincies
21.
Plantation
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
22.
Atlantic slave trade
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The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
23.
Orinoco
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The Orinoco is one of the longest rivers in South America at 2,140 kilometres. Its drainage basin, sometimes called the Orinoquia, covers 880,000 square kilometres, with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela, the Orinoco and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela and the llanos of Colombia. The Orinoco is extremely diverse and hosts a variety of flora. The mouth of the Orinoco at the Atlantic Ocean was documented by Columbus on 1 August 1498 and its source at the Cerro Delgado–Chalbaud, in the Parima range, was not explored until 1951,453 years later. The source, near the Venezuelan–Brazilian border, at 1,047 metres above sea level, was explored in 1951 by a joint Venezuelan–French team. The Orinoco Delta, and tributaries in the eastern llanos such as the Apure and Meta, were explored in the 16th century by German expeditions under Ambrosius Ehinger and his successors. In 1531 Diego de Ordaz, starting at the outlet in the delta. Antonio de Berrio sailed down the Casanare to the Meta, and then down the Orinoco, alexander von Humboldt explored the basin in 1800, reporting on the pink river dolphins. He published extensively on the flora and fauna. The first bridge across the Orinoco was the Angostura Bridge at Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela, in 2006 a second bridge was completed near Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela, known as the Orinoquia Bridge. The first powerline crossing of the Orinoco was completed in 1981 for an 800 kV TL single span of 1,200 metres using two towers 110 metres tall. In 1992, a power line crossing for two 400 kV-circuits was completed just west of Morocure, north of the confluence of Routes 1 and 19. It had three towers, and the two spans measured 2,161 metres and 2,537 metres, respectively, at its mouth, the Orinoco forms a wide delta that branches off into hundreds of rivers and waterways that flow through 41,000 km2 of swampy forests. In the rainy season, the Orinoco can swell to a breadth of 22 kilometres, most of the important Venezuelan rivers are tributaries of the Orinoco, the largest being the Caroní, which joins it at Puerto Ordaz, close to the Llovizna Falls. The Orinoco crocodile is one of the rarest reptiles in the world and its range in the wild is restricted to the Orinoco River Basin. More than 1000 fish species have recorded in the river basin. Among the fish in the river are found in brackish or salt water in the Orinoco estuary. By far the largest orders are Characiformes and Siluriformes, which account for more than 80% of the fresh water species
24.
Penguin
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Penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, with one species. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage, most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. They spend about half of their lives on land and half in the oceans, although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin live so far south, several species are found in the temperate zone, and one species, the Galápagos penguin, lives near the equator. The largest living species is the penguin, on average adults are about 1.1 m tall. The smallest penguin species is the little penguin, also known as the fairy penguin. Among extant penguins, larger penguins inhabit colder regions, while smaller penguins are found in temperate or even tropical climates. Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes, becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human, the word penguin first appears in the 16th century as a synonym for great auk. The etymology of the penguin is still debated. The English word is not apparently of French, Breton or Spanish origin, an alternative etymology links the word to Latin pinguis, which means fat or oil. Support for this etymology can be found in the alternative Germanic word for penguin, fettgans or fat-goose, the number of extant penguin species is debated. Depending on which authority is followed, penguin biodiversity varies between 17 and 20 living species, all in the subfamily Spheniscinae. Some sources consider the white-flippered penguin a separate Eudyptula species, while others treat it as a subspecies of the little penguin, similarly, it is still unclear whether the royal penguin is merely a color morph of the macaroni penguin. The status of the penguins is also unclear. Updated after Marples, Acosta Hospitaleche, and Ksepka et al, CADIC P21 Delphinornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Marambiornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1, mesetaornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Tonniornis Wimanornis Duntroonornis – possibly Spheniscinae Korora Kairuku Platydyptes – possibly not monophyletic, further examination in 1980 resulted in placement as Aves incertae sedis
25.
Pinniped
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Pinnipeds, commonly known as seals, are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous, fin-footed, semiaquatic marine mammals. They comprise the extant families Odobenidae, Otariidae, and Phocidae, there are 33 extant species of pinnipeds, and more than 50 extinct species have been described from fossils. While seals were historically thought to have descended from two lines, molecular evidence supports them as a monophyletic lineage. Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and their closest living relatives are bears and musteloids, Seals range in size from the 1 m and 45 kg Baikal seal to the 5 m and 3,200 kg southern elephant seal, which is also the largest carnivoran. They have streamlined bodies and four limbs that are modified into flippers, though not as fast in the water as dolphins, seals are more flexible and agile. Otariids use their front limbs primarily to themselves through the water, while phocids. Otariids and walruses have hind limbs that can be pulled under the body, by comparison, terrestrial locomotion by phocids is more cumbersome. Otariids have visible ears, while phocids and walruses lack these. Pinnipeds have well-developed senses—their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water, and they have a tactile system in their whiskers or vibrissae. Some species are adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water, although pinnipeds are widespread, most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They spend most of their lives in the water, but come ashore to mate, give birth, molt or escape predators, like sharks. They feed largely on fish and marine invertebrates, but a few, like the seal, feed on large vertebrates, such as penguins. Walruses are specialized for feeding on bottom-dwelling mollusks, male pinnipeds typically mate with more than one female, although the degree of polygyny varies with the species. The males of land-breeding species tend to mate with a number of females than those of ice- or water-breeding species. Male pinniped strategies for reproductive success vary between defending females, defending territories that attract females and performing ritual displays or lek mating, pups are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear almost all the responsibility for raising them. Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a short period of time while others take foraging trips at sea between nursing bouts. Walruses are known to nurse their young while at sea, Seals produce a number of vocalizations, notably the barks of California sea lions, the gong-like calls of walruses and the complex songs of Weddell seals
26.
Cannibalism
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In zoology, cannibalism is the act of one individual of a species consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food. To consume the same species or show cannibalism is an ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded for more than 1,500 species. It does not, as believed, occur only as a result of extreme food shortages or artificial conditions. Cannibalism seems to be prevalent in aquatic communities, in which up to approximately 90% of the organisms engage in cannibalism at some point of the life cycle. Cannibalism is also not restricted to species, but is commonly found in herbivores and detritivores. Sexual cannibalism is a case of cannibalism in which a female organism kills and consumes a conspecific male before, during. Sexual cannibalism has been recorded in the female spider, black widow spider, praying mantis. Size-structured cannibalism is cannibalism in which older, larger, more mature individuals consume smaller, younger conspecifics, in size-structured populations, cannibalism can be responsible for 8% to 95% of the total mortality, making it a significant and important factor for population and community dynamics. Size-structured cannibalism has commonly been observed in the wild for a variety of taxa, vertebrate examples include chimpanzees, where groups of adult males have been observed to attack and consume infants. Filial cannibalism is a type of size-structured cannibalism in which adults eat their own offspring. Though most often thought of as parents eating live young, filial cannibalism includes parental consumption of stillborn infants and miscarried fetuses as well as infertile, vertebrate examples include pigs, where savaging accounts for a sizable percentage of total piglet deaths, and cats. Filial cannibalism is common in teleost fishes, appearing in at least seventeen different families of teleosts. Within this diverse group of fish, there have been many, one of these is the energy-based hypothesis, which suggests that fish eat their offspring when they are low on energy as an investment in future reproductive success. In other words, when males of a species are low on energy, it might sometimes be beneficial for them to feed on their own offspring to survive. Another hypothesis as to the value of filial cannibalism in teleosts is that it increases density-dependent egg survivorship. In other words, filial cannibalism simply increases overall reproductive success by helping the other eggs make it to maturity by thinning out the numbers. Possible explanations as to why this is so include increasing oxygen availability to the eggs, the negative effects of accumulating embryo waste. In some species of wasps, such as P. chinensis
27.
Friday (Robinson Crusoe)
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Friday is one of the main characters of Daniel Defoes 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe. Robinson Crusoe names the man, with whom he cannot at first communicate, the character is the source of the expression Man Friday, used to describe a male personal assistant or servant, especially one who is particularly competent or loyal. Current usage also includes Girl Friday, Robinson Crusoe spends twenty-eight years on an island off the coast of Venezuela with his talking parrot Poll, his pet dog, and a tame goat as his only companions. In his twenty-fourth year, he discovers that Carib cannibals occasionally use a beach on the island to kill. Crusoe observes one of the Caribs, kept captive and about to be eaten, Crusoe ambushes two pursuers, and the others leave in their canoes without knowing what happened to their companions. The escaped captive bows in gratitude to Crusoe, who decides to employ him as a servant and he names him Friday after the weekday upon which the rescue takes place. Crusoe describes Friday as being a Native American, though very unlike the Indians of Brazil and his religion involves the worship of a mountain god named Benamuckee, officiated over by high priests called Oowokakee. Crusoe learned a few of his words that have been found in a Spanish-Térraba dictionary, so Friday may have belonged to that tribe. Friday tolerates cannibalism, and even eating the men Crusoe has killed. Crusoe teaches Friday the English language and converts him to Christianity and he tells him that cannibalism is wrong. Friday accompanies him in an ambush in which they save Fridays father, Crusoe returns to England twenty-eight years after being shipwrecked on the island, and four years after rescuing Friday. Fridays father goes with a Spanish castaway to the mainland to retrieve fourteen other Spanish castaways, Friday accompanies Crusoe home to England, and is his companion in the sequel The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, in which Friday is killed in a sea battle. In Jules Vernes LÉcole des Robinsons, the rescue a African Negro on their island who says his name is Carefinotu. T. Artelett proposes to call him Mercredi, as it is always done in the islands with Robinsons, the 1935 Mickey Mouse cartoon Mickeys Man Friday features Mickey as Crusoe, with Friday and other islanders as humanized monkey characters. The 1935 Oswald the Lucky Rabbit cartoon Robinson Crusoe Isle features Oswald applying for a job as Robinson Crusoes man Friday, Crusoes twelve previous Fridays have been eaten by cannibals, making Oswald Friday the 13th. In Luis Buñuels 1954 film Robinson Crusoe, Jaime Fernández played Friday alongside Dan OHerlihy as Crusoe, the 1964 film Robinson Crusoe on Mars recasts the Robinson Crusoe story as a space adventure. Victor Lundin played the companion of Crusoe figure Commander Christopher Draper. Man Friday, a 1975 British film, retold the story from Man Fridays point of view and it starred Richard Roundtree as Man Friday and Peter OToole as Crusoe
28.
Pyrenees
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The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain. For the most part, the main crest forms a divide between France and Spain, with the microstate of Andorra sandwiched in between. The Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre have historically extended on both sides of the range, with smaller northern portions now in France and larger southern parts now in Spain. The demonym for the noun Pyrenees in English is Pyrenean, in Greek mythology, Pyrene is a princess who gave her name to the Pyrenees. The Greek historian Herodotus says Pyrene is the name of a town in Celtic Europe, Hercules, characteristically drunk and lustful, violates the sacred code of hospitality and rapes his hosts daughter. Pyrene gives birth to a serpent and runs away to the woods, alone, she pours out her story to the trees, attracting the attention of wild beasts who tear her to pieces. After his victory over Geryon, Hercules passes through the kingdom of Bebryx again, and all the rock-cliffs and wild-beast haunts echo back Pyrene. … The mountains hold on to the name through the ages. Pliny the Elder connects the story of Hercules and Pyrene to Lusitania, the Spanish Pyrenees are part of the following provinces, from east to west, Girona, Barcelona, Lleida, Huesca, Navarra and Gipuzkoa. The French Pyrenees are part of the following départements, from east to west, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées, the independent principality of Andorra is sandwiched in the eastern portion of the mountain range between the Spanish Pyrenees and French Pyrenees. Physiographically, the Pyrenees may be divided into three sections, the Atlantic, the Central, and the Eastern Pyrenees, together, they form a distinct physiographic province of the larger Alpine System division. In the Western Pyrenees, from the Basque mountains near the Bay of Biscay of the Atlantic Ocean, at the eastern end on the southern side lies a distinct area known as the Sub-Pyrenees. On the French side the slopes of the range descend abruptly. The Pyrenees are older than the Alps, their sediments were first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, the intense pressure and uplifting of the Earths crust first affected the eastern part and moved progressively to the entire chain, culminating in the Eocene Epoch. The eastern part of the Pyrenees consists largely of granite and gneissose rocks, the massive and unworn character of the chain comes from its abundance of granite, which is particularly resistant to erosion, as well as weak glacial development. Low passes are lacking, and the roads and the railroads between France and Spain run only in the lowlands at the western and eastern ends of the Pyrenees. A notable visual feature of mountain range is La Brèche de Roland, a gap in the ridge line. Coal deposits capable of being profitably worked are situated chiefly on the Spanish slopes, the open pit of Trimoun close to the commune of Luzenac is one of the greatest sources of talc in Europe
29.
Thomas Stuart Burnett
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Thomas Stuart Burnett ARSA was a Scottish sculptor in the 19th century. He was born in Edinburgh, the son of a lithographic printer and he studied under William Brodie and at the School Board of the Trustees on Picardy Place. There he won their medal for the year in 1875. In 1876 he entered the RSA Life School, focussing upon the human form, in 1881 he is recorded as living with William Geddes at Gowan Brae Cottage, Perth Street, Perth. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1883 and he died in Edinburgh in 1888 and is buried in the north section of the original Dean Cemetery, towards the western end, with his wife Margaret Irving. The red sandstone celtic cross is eroding but has a profile head of Burnett. Low-relief bronze panels on the base of the statue to the Duke of Buccleuch on the edge of Parliament Square, the first statue on the Royal Mile
30.
Woodes Rogers
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Woodes Rogers was an English sea captain and privateer and, later, the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas. He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued marooned Alexander Selkirk, Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family, grew up in Poole and Bristol, and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain. His father held shares in ships, but he died when Rogers was in his mid-twenties. In 1707, Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier, who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish, Rogers led the expedition, which consisted of two well-armed ships, Duke and Duchess, and was the captain of Duke. In three years, Rogers and his men went around the world, capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean, en route, the expedition rescued Selkirk, finding him on Juan Fernandez Island on 1 February 1709. The expedition made Rogers a national hero, but his brother was killed, on his return, he was successfully sued by his crew on the grounds that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits, and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy. He wrote of his experiences in the book A Cruising Voyage Round the World. Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas, where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish, however, his first term as governor was financially ruinous, and on his return to England, he was imprisoned for debt. During his second term as governor, Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53, Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers, a successful merchant captain. Sometime between 1690 and 1696, Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol, in November 1697, Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans, to learn the profession of a sailor. At 18, Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven-year apprenticeship, little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans ship on the Newfoundland fleet. Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704, the following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone, daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone, who was a neighbour and close family friend. Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family, in 1706, Captain Rogers died at sea, leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes. Between 1706 and the end of 1708, Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son, at least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters. One, Whetstone Galley, named for Rogers father in law and it did not reach Africa, but was captured by the French. Rogers suffered other losses against the French, although he does not record their extent in his book and he turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses. In late 1707, Rogers was approached by William Dampier, a navigator and friend of Rogers father and this was a desperate move on the part of Captain Dampier to save his career. Commanding two frigates, Duke and Duchess, and captaining the first, Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe, the ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708
31.
Robert Knox (sailor)
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Robert Knox was an English sea captain in the service of the British East India Company. He was the son of sea captain, also named Robert Knox. Born at Tower Hill in London, the young Knox spent most of his childhood in Surrey and was taught by James Fleetwood, later the Bishop of Winchester. He joined his fathers crew on the ship Anne for his first voyage to India in 1655, at the age of 14, before returning to England in 1657. That year, Oliver Cromwell issued a charter granting the East India Company a monopoly of the Eastern trade, requiring the elder Knox, the two Knoxes sailed for Persia in January 1658. They suffered the loss of the ships mast in a storm on 19 November 1659, forcing them to put ashore on Ceylon, the ship was impounded and sixteen of the crew, including the Knoxes, were taken captive by the troops of the Kandy king, Rajasinghe II. Although the crew was forbidden from leaving the kingdom, they were treated fairly leniently, both men suffered severely from malaria and the elder Knox died in February 1661 after a long illness. Robert Knox eventually escaped with one companion, Stephen Rutland, after nineteen years of captivity, the two men were able to reach Arippu, a Dutch fort on the north-west coast of the island. The Dutch treated Knox generously and transported him to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies, from where he was able to home on an English vessel. He arrived back in London in September 1680, during the voyage Knox wrote the manuscript of An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, an account of his experiences on Ceylon, which was published in 1681. The book was accompanied by engravings showing the inhabitants, their customs and it attracted widespread interest at the time and made Knox internationally famous, influencing Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe as well as sparking a friendship with Robert Hooke of the Royal Society. It is one of the earliest and most detailed European accounts of life on Ceylon and is seen as an invaluable record of the island in the 17th century. Knox became a friend and collaborator of Robert Hooke, for whom he frequently brought back gifts from his travels. In return, Hooke took Knox to the local coffeehouses for chocolate and tobacco, Knox was present when Hooke died on 3 March 1703 after a long illness and took on the responsibility of arranging his friends burial. Knox continued to work for the East India Company for thirteen years after his return from the East and he enjoyed only mixed success and quarrelled with the company, which eventually dismissed him in 1694. Four years later he set himself up on his own trading vessel, the Mary and he returned permanently to England in 1701 and spent his retirement writing about Ceylon and his life. He died, prosperous but unmarried, at St Peter le Poer in the City of London in June 1720 and was buried at St Marys Church, book of the Month – An historical relation of the Island of Ceylon – March 2004. An historical relation of the island Ceylon, in the East Indies, harry Williams, With Robert Knox in Ceylon, Frederick Muller Limited
32.
Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
33.
An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon
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It describes his experiences some years earlier on the South Asian island now best known as Sri Lanka. It provides one of the most important contemporary accounts of 17th century Ceylonese life, Knox spent 19 years on Ceylon after being taken prisoner by King Râjasimha II. He survived by knitting caps, selling goods and lending rice and he finally escaped with one companion in 1679 and reached Arippu, a Dutch settlement on the north-west coast of the island, from where he was able to return to England in 1680. The book was written during the voyage to England and it came to the attention of Knoxs employers, the directors of the British East India Company, who recommended its publication. The historian and biographer John Strype, Knoxs cousin, helped him to prepare the book for publication with the encouragement of the natural philosopher and it was printed by Richard Chiswell, the printer to the Royal Society, under the imprimaturs of the Society and the Company. When the book was published in 1681 it was read and was translated in Knoxs lifetime into German. It made Knox internationally famous and was an influence on the works of Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe. The Relation has a wider importance in influencing the development of the English novel. Knox uses direct and idiomatic language to provide detailed descriptions of the reality that he saw during his time on Ceylon. He paints a portrait of himself as a practical, self-sufficient and robust individual and it is divided into four parts, the first three describe the kingdom of Kandy, and the final part details Knoxs escape from captivity. The preface provides maps and descriptions of Tamil royal and rural life in the country Vanni which he stumbled into in the north, the book is accompanied by seventeen copperplate engravings of unknown provenance to illustrate topics addressed by Knox. The engravings are not particularly artistically accomplished, but they do fit the text well, however, the artist suffers from evidently not having seen his subjects, H. A. I. Goonetileke comments that the animals are near caricatures and the subjects are obviously based on more familiar European models. The non-English editions of the book imitate or adapt the original English engravings, an Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon at Project Gutenberg Downloadable copy of the 1817 edition
34.
Tim Severin
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Tim Severin is a British explorer, historian and writer. Severin is noted for his work in retracing the legendary journeys of historical figures, Severin was awarded both the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society and the Livingstone Medal of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. He received the Thomas Cook Travel Book Award for his 1982 book The Sindbad Voyage and he was born Timothy Severin in Assam, India in 1940. Severin attended Tonbridge School and studied geography and history at Keble College and they travelled from Venice through Turkey, Persia, and Afghanistan, surviving sandstorms, floods, motorcycle accidents, and time spent in jail. Severin and his guides rode camels through Deh Bakri pass to identify the Persian apples of Paradise and they were unable to complete the voyage due to visa problems at the border of China and returned to England by sea from Bombay. Convinced that the legend was based in truth, in 1976 Severin built a replica of Brendans currach. Between May 1976 and June 1977, Severin and his crew sailed the Brendan 4,500 miles from Ireland to Peckford Island, Newfoundland, stopping at the Hebrides, Severins account of the expedition, The Brendan Voyage, became an international best seller, translated into 16 languages. The boat is now featured at the Craggaunowen open-air museum in County Clare, the famous adventures of the medieval sailor Sindbad, as recorded in One Thousand and One Nights, became the inspiration for Severins next voyage. After three years of researching the legend and early Arab and Persian sketches of ships, he brought the project to Sur. The ship was constructed in seven months of hand-sawn wooden planks together with nearly 400 miles of hand-rolled. Sohar left Oman on 21 November 1980, navigating by the stars, Severin and his crew of 25 travelled nearly 6,000 miles in eight months. From Sur they sailed east across the Arabian Sea, south down Indias Malabar Coast to Lakshadweep and on to Calicut, the next phase of their voyage took them down the coast of India to Sri Lanka. They were becalmed in the doldrums for nearly a month, suffered broken spars, and were run down by freighters. The epic poem Argonautica, first written down by Apollonius of Rhodes in Alexandria in the late 3rd century BC and he began his research into ancient Greek ships and the details of the text in 1981. Master shipwright Vasilis Delimitros of Spetses hand built a 54-foot replica of a Bronze Age galley based on a scale model of the Argo. Along the way they identified many of the landmarks visited by Jason and his Argonauts, Severin recounted the expedition in The Jason Voyage. Once again making use of the Argo from The Jason Voyage, in 1985 Severin followed the route of Ulysses voyage home in The Odyssey, from Troy to Ithaca in the Ionian islands. Along the way, Severin made tentative or conclusive identifications of The land of the Lotus-eaters, King Nestors palace, the Halls of Hades, the Roving Rocks, and the Sirens Scylla and Charybdis
35.
James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth
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James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, 1st Duke of Buccleuch, KG, PC was an English nobleman. Originally called James Crofts or James Fitzroy, he was born in Rotterdam in the Netherlands and he served in the Second Anglo-Dutch War and commanded English troops taking part in the Third Anglo-Dutch War before commanding the Anglo-Dutch brigade fighting in the Franco-Dutch War. In 1685 he led the unsuccessful Monmouth Rebellion, an attempt to depose his uncle, the rebellion failed, and Monmouth was beheaded for treason on 15 July 1685. Born in Rotterdam in the Netherlands, to Lucy Walter, and her lover, Charles II, when the child grew to manhood, contemporaries observed that he bore a strong resemblance to Sidney. The unfounded voices had probably originated from the Duke of York, brother of King Charles II and he had a younger sister Mary Crofts, who may also have been a daughter of Charles although Theobald Taaffe, 1st Earl of Carlingford is considered another potential father. Mary married the Irishman William Sarsfield and was a sister-in-law of the Jacobite general Patrick Sarsfield, as an illegitimate son, James was not eligible to succeed to the English or Scottish thrones, though there were rumours that Charles and Lucy did marry secretly. Monmouth later himself always claimed his parents were married and that he possessed their marriage lines, Charles, as King, later testified in writing to his Council that he had never been married to anyone except his queen, Catherine of Braganza. In March 1658, young James was kidnapped by one of the Kings men, sent to Paris and he briefly attended a school in Familly. On 20 April 1663, he was married to the heiress Anne Scott, James took his wifes surname upon marriage. The day after his marriage, the couple were made Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, Earl and Countess of Dalkeith, in 1665, at the age of 16, Monmouth served in the English fleet under his uncle the Duke of York in the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In June 1666, he returned to England to become captain of a troop of cavalry, on 16 September 1668 he was made colonel of the His Majestys Own Troop of Horse Guards. He acquired Moor Park in Hertfordshire in April 1670, at the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672, a brigade of 6,000 English and Scottish troops was sent to serve as part of the French army, with Monmouth as its commander. He became Lord Lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire and Governor of Kingston-upon-Hull in April 1673, in the campaign of 1673 and in particular at the Siege of Maastricht in June 1673, Monmouth gained a considerable reputation as one of Britains finest soldiers. He was reported to be replacing Marshal Schomberg as commander of Englands Zealand Expedition, in March 1677 he also became Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire. Monmouth may have come to believe that his parents had been married. As his popularity with the masses increased Monmouth was obliged to go into exile in the Dutch United Provinces in September 1679. On King Charles IIs death in February 1685 Monmouth led the Monmouth Rebellion, Monmouth declared himself King at various places along the route including Axminster, Chard, Ilminster and Taunton. On 8 July 1685 Monmouth was captured and arrested near Ringwood in Hampshire, the events surrounding his capture are recorded in detail in Taits Edinburgh Magazine
36.
Monmouth Rebellion
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James II was a Roman Catholic, and some Protestants under his rule opposed his kingship. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, an son of Charles II, claimed to be rightful heir to the throne. The Monmouth rebellion was coordinated with a rebellion in Scotland, where Archibald Campbell, the Duke of Monmouth had been popular in the South West of England, so he planned to recruit troops locally and take control of the area before marching on London. Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis on 11 June 1685, Monmouths forces were unable to compete with the regular army and failed to capture the key city of Bristol. The rebellion ended with the defeat of Monmouths army at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 by forces led by Feversham, Monmouth was executed for treason on 15 July 1685. Many of his supporters were tried during the Bloody Assizes, led by Judge Jeffreys, James II was then able to consolidate his power. He reigned until 1688, when he was overthrown in a coup détat by William of Orange in the Glorious Revolution, Monmouth was an illegitimate son of Charles II. There had been rumours that Charles had married Monmouths mother, Lucy Walter, but no evidence was forthcoming, Monmouth had been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the English Army by his father in 1672 and Captain general in 1678, enjoying some successes in the Netherlands in the Third Anglo-Dutch War. The English Civil War had left resentment among some of the population about the monarchy, the South West of England contained several towns where opposition remained strong. Fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II, a defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates, spoke of a Popish Plot to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne. The Earl of Shaftesbury, a government minister and a leading opponent of Catholicism. Some members of Parliament even proposed that the go to Charless illegitimate son, James Scott. Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason, after the Rye House Plot of 1683, an attempt to assassinate both Charles and James, Monmouth went into self-imposed exile in the Netherlands, and gathered supporters in The Hague. Monmouth was a Protestant and had toured the South West of England in 1680, so long as Charles II remained on the throne, Monmouth was content to live a life of pleasure in Holland, while still hoping to accede peaceably to the throne. The accession of James II and coronation at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685 put an end to these hopes, the Monmouth rebellion was planned in Holland and coordinated with another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, the Earl of Argyll. Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland, where Jamess nephew and son-in-law, William of Orange, had not detained them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland and, on arriving there, raised mainly from his own clan. He had previously involved in the Rye House Plot of 1683
37.
J. Taylor
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John J. Taylor is a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from the 177th Legislative District of Pennsylvania, United States, since 1984. He is Republican Chairman of the House Liquor Control Committee and a member of the House Urban Affairs Committee, Taylor was the chairman of the Republican City Committee from June 2013 to February 2016. Taylor was first elected in 1984 at the age of 29 and he has been re-elected to every succeeding session of the House. Taylor is currently of counsel to the Philadelphia law firm of Pelino & Lentz P. C. Taylor is Ward Leader of the 25th Ward Republican Executive Committee in Philadelphia. Taylor is a 1980 graduate of the University of Central Florida in 1980 and he resides in the Northwood section of Philadelphia with his wife, Evelyn. They have four children, two sons and two daughters, representative John Taylors official web site
38.
Paternoster Row
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The prayers said at these processions may have also given the names to nearby Ave Maria Lane and Amen Corner. An alternative etymology is the traders who sold a type of prayer bead known as a pater noster. The area was a centre of the London publishing trade, with operating from the street. In 1819 Paternoster Row was described as almost synonymous with the book trade, trübner & Co. was one of the publishing companies on Paternoster Row. Note, Before c.1762 premises in London had signs rather than numbers. The Globe - T. Cooper No.1 - J Van Voorst No.2 - Orr and Co. J. W. Myers No.3 Jan Van Voorst No.9 - S. W. Partridge and Co. No.12 - Trubner and Co No.15 - Bagster and Sons No.20 &21 - F. Pitman, later F. Pitman Hart and Co. Ltd. No.21 J. Parsons, No.23 Piper, Stephenson, and Spence No.24 - George Wightman No.31 - Sheed & Ward No.33 - Hamilton and Co. No.37 - James Duncan, Blackwood and Sons, No.39 - Longman, Hust, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, later Longman and Co. later Longmans, Green, sampson Low Thomas Nelson Hawes, Clarke and Collins H. Woodfall & Co. C Davis No,27 Ivy Lane, Paternoster Row - Walton and Maberly No.60 - Friendly Female Society, for indigent widows and single women of good character, entirely under the management of ladies. The Paternoster Gang are a trio of Victorian detectives aligned with the Doctor in the television series Doctor Who, in the episode Young England of the 2016 television series Victoria, a stalker of Queen Victoria indicates that he lives on Paternoster Row. London Past and Present, Its History, Associations, and Traditions
39.
Miskito people
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The Miskito are a Native American ethnic group in Central America, of whom many are mixed race. In the northern end of their territory, the people are primarily of African-Native American ancestry, others are of mixed African-Native American and their territory extends from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Río Grande, Nicaragua, along the Mosquito Coast, in the Western Caribbean Zone. The indigenous people speak a native Miskito language, but large groups also speak Miskito creole English, Spanish, which is the language of education and government, the Miskito language is a part of the Misumalpan langauage family. The creole English came about through frequent contact with the British for trading, the name Miskito derives from the Miskito-language ethnonym Mískitu, their name for themselves. It is not related to the Spanish word mosquito, which derives from the word mosca, meaning fly, before the arrival of Europeans in the region, the area was divided into numerous small, egalitarian indigenous groups, possibly speaking languages related to Sumu. The Spanish listed 30 nations in Taguzgalpa and Tologalpa provinces, as the Spanish understood their geography, karl Offens analysis of this historic data suggests there were about a half dozen entities, groups who were distinct by their language dialects, who were situated in the river basins. The Spanish were unable to conquer this region during the sixteenth century, much of the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and northeastern Honduras was outside any Spanish authority. The region became a haven for northern Europeans, especially Dutch, a number of Africans reached the coast from shipwrecked slave ships, notably one in the mid-seventeenth century. The survivors of shipwrecks, and/or escaped slaves from the Providence Island colony and they intermarried with the indigenous people. The Spanish referred to their descendants as Mosquito Zambos. Those Miskito living in the region were less racially mixed. Modern scholars have classified them as Tawira Miskito, rivalries between these two groups and competition for territory often led to wars, which were divisive in the eighteenth century. English privateers working through the Providence Island Company made informal alliances with the Miskito and these English began to crown Miskito leaders as kings, their territory was called the Mosquito Kingdom. A1699 written account of the kingdom described it as spread out in various communities along the coast and it probably did not include the settlements of English traders. The king did not have total power, the 1699 description noted that the kings and governors had no power except in war time, even in matters of justice. Otherwise the people were all equal and their superior leaders were named by the English as the king, a governor, a general and, by the 1750s, an admiral. Historical information on kings is obscure as many of the kings were semi-mythical. In the late seventeenth and early centuries, the Miskito Zambo began a series of raids attacking Spanish-held territories
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Queen's Gardens, Hull
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Queens Gardens is a sequence of gardens in the centre of Kingston upon Hull, England. They are set out within a 9. 75-acre area that until 1930 was filled with the waters of Queens Dock, as the dock was not fully filled in, the gardens are largely below the level of the surrounding streets. The gardens have an avenue of trees aligned with the Wilberforce Monument to the east. The statue of William Wilberforce atop a large Doric column was moved to site in 1935. However, the construction of Sir Frederick Gibberds building for Hull College behind the column in 1962 has reduced its impact, most visitors approach the gardens from the west, through a circus of flower gardens at street level around the Rosebowl fountain. Slopes and steps lead down from this area into the area of the sunken gardens. Either side of the avenue there are broad areas of lawn, interspersed with smaller borders filled with perennials. The formal central axis of the gardens is now diminished by post-war planting of Japanese cherry trees in the avenue, many of which are now over-mature. Vistas from the Rosebowl gardens into the gardens are also blocked by overgrown shrubberies on the slope between the two levels. The plaque includes the quotation, Had I the sense to return to Hull, the Peace Garden, at the eastern end of the park, was instituted by Hull City Council for the UNs International Year of Peace in 1986. This was led by Alice Tulley, a councillor and a Quaker, Peace events were held there with the mayor in attendance. Since then the Quakers have held a Meeting there each year to commemorate Hiroshima Day and this falls on the Sunday nearest the anniversary of the Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Victoria Square is at end of the gardens, leading to the Princes Quay shopping centre. The gardens are used, particularly by the local student population. In 2005 the new BBC development was completed at the north-west corner of the gardens and this incorporates a tall apartment block
- text and audio at Ciff Ciaff
Robinson Crusoe public domain audiobook at LibriVox
