1.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
2.
Lazio
–
Lazio is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy, situated in the central peninsular section of the country. With almost 5.9 million residents and a GDP of more than 170 billion euros, Lazio is the second most populated region of Italy and its capital is Rome, capital and largest city of Italy. Lazio comprises an area of 17,236 km2 and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south. The region is flat and hilly, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts. The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo. The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, lie opposite the southern coast, behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale, a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains. The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, the southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries. To the south of the Tiber, other groups form part of the Preapennines, the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin. The highest peak is Mount Gorzano on the border with Abruzzo, see also, History of Italy The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium. The name of the region also survives in the designation of the ancient population of Latins, Latini in the Latin language spoken by them. Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans and other Italics besides the Latini, in Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from king Latinus. Much of Lazio is in flat or rolling. The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes. This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium. The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria, the emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. However, the wars against the Longobards weakened the region. With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Bishop of Rome acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome, the strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century. Other popes tried to do the same, during the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France, the feudal lords power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome
Lazio
–
Panorama of the
Aniene Valley.
Lazio
–
Latium Lazio
Lazio
–
The
Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting
Ancient Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.
3.
Provinces of Italy
–
In Italy, a province is an administrative division of intermediate level between a municipality and a region. There are currently 107 provinces in Italy, a further 4 such cities were added later. The reorganization of the Italian provinces became operative by January 2015, a province of the Italian Republic is composed of many municipalities. Usually several provinces together form a region, the region of Aosta Valley is the sole exception – it is not subdivided into provinces, the three main functions devolved to provinces are, local planning and zoning, provision of local police and fire services, transportation regulation. The number of provinces in Italy has been growing in recent years. Usually, the name is the same as that of its capital city. According to the 2014 reform, each province is headed by a President assisted by a body, the Provincial Council, and an executive body. President and members of Council are elected together by mayors and city councilors of each municipality of the province, the Executive is chaired by the President who appoint others members, called assessori. Since 2015 the President and others members of the Council will not receive a salary, in each province there is also a Prefect, a representative of the central government who heads an agency called prefettura-ufficio territoriale del governo. The Questor is the head of States Police in the province, there is also a provinces police force depending from local government, called provincial police. Sardinia - following the outcome of the referendums of 2012 it was decreed that such institutions should be reformed or abolished by March 2013. In January 2014 the Sardinian Regional Administrative Court declared unconstitutional the abolition of the Sardinian provinces, sicily - provinces were replaced by Free Communal Consortia in 2013. In 1861, at the birth of the Kingdom of Italy, however, at that time the national territory was smaller than the current one, regions of Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino Alto Adige and Lazio were not included in the kingdom. In 1866, following the Third Independence War, territories of Veneto, Friuli, there were therefore nine more provinces, Belluno, Mantua, Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Venice, Verona, Vicenza and Udine, all previously part of the Austrian Empire. Eventually, in 1870, following the annexion of Rome and its province from the Papal States, after the First World War, new territories were annexed to Italy. The Province of Trento was created in 1920, Provinces of La Spezia, Trieste and Ionio in 1923. In 1924 the new provinces of Fiume, Pola, and Zara were created, in 1927, following a Royal charter, a general province rearrangement took place. 17 new provinces were created and the province of Caserta was suppressed, in the same year the institution of circondari, sub-provincial wards created before the unification, was abolished
Provinces of Italy
–
Italian Republic
4.
Metropolitan cities of Italy
–
The metropolitan city is an administrative division of Italy, operative since 2015. In 2009, amendments added Reggio Calabria to the list, the metropolitan areas individuated by the autonomous regions were, Trieste in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Cagliari in Sardinia, Catania, Messina and Palermo in Sicily. On 3 April 2014 the Italian Parliament approved a law that establishes 10 metropolitan cities in Italy, the new metropolitan cities have been operative since 1 January 2015. The metropolitan city is composed by the municipalities that before had been members of the same province, each metropolitan city is headed by a metropolitan mayor assisted by a legislative body, the Metropolitan council, and by a non-legislative assembly, the metropolitan conference. Members of the Metropolitan council are elected and chosen by mayors and city councilors of each municipality in the metropolitan city, the metropolitan conference is composed by the mayors of the municipalities closest to the capital. The main functions devolved to the new cities are, local planning and zoning, provision of local police services, transport. Regions of Italy Provinces of Italy Municipalities of Italy Media related to Metropolitan cities of Italy at Wikimedia Commons
Metropolitan cities of Italy
–
Metropolitan cities of Italy.
5.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
Demonym
–
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns
6.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
7.
Central European Summer Time
–
It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
8.
Charles Borromeo
–
Charles Borromeo was a cardinal who was archbishop of Milan from 1564 to 1584. Among the great reformers of the sixteenth century, Borromeo, with St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Philip Neri. He was a leading figure during the Counter-Reformation and was responsible for significant reforms in the Catholic Church and he is honoured as a saint in the Catholic Church and his feast day is November 4. Charles biography was written by three of his contemporaries, Agostino Valerio and Carlo Bascape, who wrote their contributions in Latin, and Pietro Giussanno. Father Giussannos account was the most detailed of the three, Charles was a descendant of nobility, the family of Borromeo was one of the most ancient and wealthy in Lombardy, made famous by several notable men, both in the church and state. The aristocratic Borromeo familys coat of arms included the Borromean rings, Charles father Gilbert was Count of Arona, his mother Margaret was a member of the Milan branch of the House of Medici. The third son in a family of six children, he was born in the castle of Arona on Lake Maggiore, thirty-six miles from Milan, Borromeo received the tonsure when he was about twelve years old. At this time his uncle, Julius Caesar Borromeo, turned over to him the income from the rich Benedictine abbey of Sts. Gratinian and Felin, one of the ancient perquisites of this noble family, the young man attended the University of Pavia, where he applied himself to the study of civil and canon law. Due to a slight impediment of speech, he was regarded as slow, yet his thoroughness, in 1554 his father died, and although he had an elder brother, Count Federico, he was requested by the family to take the management of their domestic affairs. After a time, he resumed his studies, and on 6 December 1559 he earned a doctorate in utroque iure, on 25 December 1559, his uncle, Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pope Pius IV. The newly elected pope required his nephew Charles Borromeo to come to Rome, shortly thereafter, on 31 January 1560, the pope created him cardinal, and thus Charles as cardinal-nephew was entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the ecclesiastical state. He was also entrusted in the government of the Papal States and appointed supervisor of the Franciscans, Carmelites, Charles committed to organize the third and last section of the Council of Trent, in 1562-63. He took a share in the creation of the Tridentine Catechism. In 1561, Borromeo founded and endowed a college at Pavia, today known as Almo Collegio Borromeo, on 19 November 1562, his older brother, Federico, suddenly died. His family urged Charles to leave the church to marry and have children, so that the name would not become extinct. Charles was appointed administrator of the Archdiocese of Milan on 7 February 1560, after his decision to put into practice the role of bishop, he decided to be ordained priest and on 7 December 1563 he was consecrated bishop in the Sistine Chapel by Cardinal Giovanni Serbelloni. Charles made his entry into Milan as archbishop on 23 September 1565
Charles Borromeo
–
Carlo Borromeo, by
Giovanni Figino. Oil on canvas, 41 × 48 cm.
Biblioteca Ambrosiana
Charles Borromeo
–
Intercession of Charles Borromeo supported by the Virgin Mary by
Rottmayr (
Karlskirche, Vienna)
Charles Borromeo
–
Painting by
Francesco Caccianiga showing an angel tending to Charles Borromeo
Charles Borromeo
–
Crypt of Charles Borromeo, in the
Duomo di Milano.
9.
Castelli Romani
–
The so-called Roman Castles are a group of comunes in the Metropolitan City of Rome. They are located at short distance south-east of the city of Rome, at the feet of the Alban Hills, the area of the castles occupies a fertile volcanic area which has allowed since ancient times a flourishing agriculture. The former crater is occupied by two lakes, the Lake of Nemi and that of Albano, families which ruled in the castles include Orsini, Colonna, Chigi, Aldobrandini, Savelli, Annibaldi and Ruspoli. The DOC red and rosés are composed of Cesanese Comune, Merlot, Montepulciano, Nero Buono, the white wines of the region are composed of Malvasia Candia, Puntinata and Trebbiano with up to 30% of other local white grape varieties. Ariccia is celebrated for its porchetta, local sweets include maritozzi, a kind of sweet bun. History of Rome History of Lazio Castelli Romani Portal of the Castelli Romani Cultural/tourist Portal of the Castles Roman Italy Travel video in English of the Castelli Romani
Castelli Romani
–
The Savelli Castle in Rocca Priora
Castelli Romani
–
The Lake Albano. In the background Castel Gandolfo
10.
Alban Hills
–
The Alban Hills are the site of a quiescent volcanic complex in Italy, located 20 km southeast of Rome and about 24 kilometres north of Anzio. The dominant peak is Monte Cavo at 950 m, there are two small calderas which contain lakes, Lake Albano and Lake Nemi. The rock of the hills is called peperino a variety of tuff, a combination of ash and small rocks that is useful for construction. The hills, especially around the shores of the lakes, have been popular since prehistoric times, from the 9th to 7th century BC, there were numerous villages. The area was inhabited by the Latini during the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, the ancient Romans called the hill Albanus Mons. In Roman times, the area was used by the rich as a way to escape the heat and crowds of Rome, as it is today as shown by the many villas. The towns and villages in the Alban Hills are known as the Castelli Romani, examination of deposits have dated the four most recent eruptions to two temporal peaks, around 36,000 and 39,000 years ago. The area exhibits small localised earthquake swarms, bradyseism, and release of carbon dioxide, the volcano emits large amounts of carbon dioxide which can potentially reach lethal concentrations if it accumulates in depressions in the ground in the absence of wind. Eight sheep were killed in an incident in October 2001
Alban Hills
–
Monte Cavo (the Alban Mount) and
Alban Lake
Alban Hills
–
The Alban Hills.
Alban Hills
–
Volcanic lakes view from
Monte Cavo.
11.
Velletri
–
Velletri is an Italian comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome, on the Alban Hills, in Lazio, central Italy. Neighbouring communes are Rocca di Papa, Lariano, Cisterna di Latina, Artena, Aprilia, Nemi, Genzano di Roma and its motto is, Est mihi libertas papalis et imperialis. Velletri was an ancient city of the Volsci tribe and it came into conflict with the Romans during the reign of Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, and in the fifth and fourth centuries, during the early Roman Republic. In the Middle Ages it was one of the few “free cities” in Lazio and it was the site of two historical battles in 1744 and 1849. It was at the centre of fighting between the Germans and the allies in 1944 after the Anglo-American landing at Anzio during the Second World War. Today, Velletri is home to a court and a prison, in addition to several colleges. It is the terminus of the Rome-Velletri railway, inaugurated by Pius IX in 1863, the territory of Velletri stretches between two distinct areas. The northern part is situated on the foothills of the Colli Albani range and was geologically formed about 150,000 years ago. The southern boundary forms around Pontine Marshes, whose reclamation started at the time of Pope Pius VI and was accomplished during the regime of Benito Mussolini, the Seismic classification of Velletris territory is Zone 2 The territory of Velletri collects water run off from many streams. These streams, most of them torrential in character or small in scale, are known as fossi, main fossi include, Fosso Minella at the edge of the municipal area to Genzano di Roma, near the Velletri frazione of SantEurosia. This stream originates from Monte Spina, elevation 731 metres above sea level, in the territory of Nemi and its named after the Minella bridge on State Road 7, Via Appia Nuova and originates at 405 metres above sea level, at the foot of Colle degli Olmi. Minella also runs parallel to the fosso delle Tre Armi, which connects to it. Fossa SantEurosia, originating from Colle degli Olmi, it goes through the village of the same name, Fossa Paganica, which originates from springs on Colle Caldaro, and on Colle Tondo. Fosso di Ponte Veloce, which arises from Colle Tondo, on Maschio dellArtemisio and this watercourse near Villa Borgia, superseded the old town of Velletri, changes name to Fossa Farina near the iron bridge of the Roma-Velletri railway. Fossa Anatolia, originating from Colle Bello, it flows at the foot of old town Velletri, other water sources include the Acqua de Ferrari, at 650 metres, underlying Monte de Ferrari at Rocca di Papa, from which is part of the municipal water supply. The area west of the city is a bit higher at San Lorenzo reaching 372 m above sea level. The remainder of the territory to the south and west is basically flat except for small hills that do not exceed 300 m above sea level. The climate of Velletri is mild, due to the Tyrrhenian Sea not being far, the climate is very rainy, with an annual average of 1,400 to 1,500 mm precipitation, making it the rainiest city of Lazio and the second in Italy
Velletri
–
Panorama of Velletri
Velletri
–
Mount Artemisio overshadows Velletri
Velletri
–
The
Athena of Velletri, found in a villa near the town.
Velletri
–
Triumph of
Charles III at the Battle of Velletri by
Francesco Solimena. Oil on canvas, 1744.
12.
Rocca Priora
–
Rocca Priora is a small town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome, Lazio, Italy. It is one of the Castelli Romani on the Alban Hills about 25 kilometres southeast of Rome, Rocca Priora occupied the area of the old Latins town of Corbium, here several battles, described by famous historians, were fought by Italic peoples. After the destruction of Tusculum in 1191, the population increased, in the 14th century the Savelli family rose to prominence in the area, after Pope Sixtus V endorsed Rocca Priora as a feudal possession for them. They held the town and its castle until the 17th century, according to some sources, the town was destroyed by Renzo da Ceris troops during the conflict between Pope Clement VII and the Colonna, and by the imperial troops in the wake of the Sack of Rome. After a period as a direct Papal rule, it was sold in part to the Rospigliosi family, who held it until 1870, sohland an der Spree, Germany Gregorius Maltzeff, painter Marco Amelia, football player
Rocca Priora
–
Rocca Priora
Rocca Priora
–
Rocca Priora castle.
13.
Monte Compatri
–
Monte Compatri is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome in the Italian region Latium, located about 20 kilometres southeast of Rome on the Alban Hills. It is one of the Castelli Romani, monte Compatri has been identified with the ancient Labicum, a colony of Alba Longa. In the Middle Ages it was a fief of the Counts of Tusculum, then of the Annibaldi, the Altemps, parish church of Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo, erected by will of Scipione Borghese. The campanile is the former communal tower, diplomat Alessandro Moreschi last castrato singer in the Sistine Chapel Calahorra, Spain Official website Centro Culturale Laghetto
Monte Compatri
–
Apse of the Assunta Baroque parish church.
14.
Grottaferrata
–
Grottaferrata is a small town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome, situated on the lower slopes of the Alban Hills,20 kilometres south east of Rome. Nearby communes include Frascati, Rocca di Papa, Marino and Rome, the history of Grottaferrata identifies largely with that of the Basilian Monastery of Santa Maria, founded here in 1004 by Saint Nilus the Younger. The founding legend narrates that, at the spot where the now stands. Its iron window grates gave the site the name, first of Cryptoferrata then of Grottaferrata, from the site, a Roman bronze of a man and a cow attracted the antiquarian attention of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, who had the group removed to Lucera. Nilus died soon afterwards in the Sant Agata monastery in Tusculum, the monastic building was carried out by his successors, especially the fourth abbot, Saint Bartholomew, who is usually considered the second founder. Building materials scavenged from the villa were incorporated into the new structure, marble columns, sections of carved cornice. The sanctuary was complete enough in 1024 to be consecrated by the Tusculan Pope John XIX, the high repute of the monks attracted many gifts, eleventh- and thirteenth-century mosaics remain, but of the ambitious ensemble of Cosmatesque inlay, only the polychrome stone paving remains. The abbeys possessions in lands were numerous and widespread, and in 1131 King Roger II of Sicily made the abbot Baron of Rossano with an extensive fief. Between the 12th and 15th centuries the monastery suffered from the strife of warring factions, Romans and Tusculans, Guelphs and Ghibellines, popes and antipopes, Colonna. From 1163 till the destruction of Tusculum in 1191, the part of the monastic community sought refuge in a dependency of the abbey. In the middle of the 13th century the Emperor Frederick II made the abbey his headquarters during the siege of Rome, the fifteenth century saw the bloody feuds of the Colonna and the Orsini raging round the walls. According to the humanist Ambrogio Traversari, in 1432 the appearance of the abbey was that of a rather than a monastery. In 1462 began a line of non-resident abbots in commendam, fifteen in number, of whom all, the most distinguished were the Greek Bessarion, Giulio della Rovere, and the last of the line, Cardinal Consalvi, secretary of state to Pius VII. Cardinal Bessarion, himself a Basilian monk, increased the scanty and impoverished community, Cardinal Giulio della Rovere, for more selfish motives, erected the castle and surrounded the whole monastery with the imposing fortifications that still exist. Cardinal Alessandro Farnese replaced the ceiling, gian Lorenzo Bernini was commissioned by Cardinal Francesco Barberini to provide the high altar, completed in 1665. Till 1608 the community was ruled by priors dependent on abbots in commendam, the revenues of the community were separated from those of the commendatory abbots, and the first of a series of triennially appointed regular abbots was appointed. The triennial system survived the suppression of the commendam and lasted till the end of the century, with one break from 1834 to 1870. In 1901, new constitutions came into force and Arsenio Pellegrini was installed as the first perpetual regular abbot since 1462
Grottaferrata
–
Grottaferrata
15.
Albano Laziale
–
Albano Laziale is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome, on the Alban Hills, in Latium, central Italy. It is bounded by communes of Castel Gandolfo, Rocca di Papa, Ariccia. Located in the Castelli Romani area of Lazio and it is sometimes known simply as Albano. Albano is one of the most important municipalities of the Castelli Romani, and it was also a suburbicarian bishopric since the 5th century, a historic principality of the Savelli family, and from 1699 to 1798 the inalienable possession of the Holy See. It now houses, among other things, the Praetor of the court of Velletri. The territory of Albano is partially included in the Parco Regionale dei Castelli Romani, according to the classification given by the Geological Survey of Italy most of the territory is similar to other areas of the Colli Albani, from lands classified as v 2. The main hydrographic feature is Lake Albano, whose name is actually Lake Albano. In fact, most coastal lakes are relevant to the town of Castel Gandolfo, the lake basin is run by the Metropolitan City of Rome. Fosso of Chancellor, originates from springs from the Chancellor resort, in Ariccia common, about 118 metres above sea level, and continues to flow in a south-south-west to the Tyrrhenian Sea. Fosso di Montagnano, originates from water that is collected in the local mountains. The highest peak of the town of Albano is the Colle dei Cappuccini, from the hill, which houses a pine forest adjacent to the Capuchin Monastery, there is a remarkable overview of Lake Albano, Agro Romano and Monte Cavo. The historic center of Albano has a gradient of 11%, or 47 metres,435. Other altitudes through the center of town are Villa Altieri, at kilometre 25 of the State Road 7 Via Appia, the hill town of Castel Savelli is 280 m above sea level, while the underlying fraction of Pavona is built at 110 m above sea level. The village of Cecchina at the station is located at 212 m above sea level. In terms of climate, the area falls within the domain of the temperate Mediterranean climate with mild winters, with higher than those autumnal spring. In the area of Colli Albani, so even at Albano, presents the phenomenon called TSUE, so there will be more rainfall on the foothills of the hills, facing the sea, south southwest, and to the north. Albano, lying on the trajectory of the current wet Tyrrhenian, is rainy with 900–1000 mm annual precipitation. The winds blow mainly from the south and west, more rarely from the north, summer is hot and dry, with a mild and rainy winter with snow quite rarely and only in the presence of a marked generalised cold
Albano Laziale
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Albano Laziale
Albano Laziale
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Countryside outside Albano
Albano Laziale
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Landscape of the hilly countryside around Cecchina
Albano Laziale
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The ruins of the Roman villa of Pompey in Villa Doria Pamphili
16.
Marino, Italy
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Marino is an Italian city and comune in Lazio, on the Alban Hills, Italy,21 kilometres southeast of Rome, with a population of 37,684 and a territory of 26.10 square kilometres. It is bounded by communes, Castel Gandolfo, Albano Laziale, Rocca di Papa, Grottaferrata. Marino is famous for its wine, and for its Grape Festival. The territory of Marino was inhabited by Latin tribes from the 1st millennium BC, the ancient cities of Bovillae, Mugilla and Ferentum were part of the Latin League. Under the Roman Republic it was a resort for Roman patricians. From 1090 it was a dominium of the Counts of Tusculum, and later a fief of the Frangipane and, beginning in 1266, in 1272, San Bonaventura founded the first confraternity of Italy there. In 1347 it was besieged in vain by Cola di Rienzo, fifty years later, it was the site of the battle between Alberico da Barbiano and the French troops supporting Antipope Clement VII. In 1419 it was bought by the Colonna, who maintained it until 1914, Marino hosted famous historical figures, from Charles VIII of France to Alfonso II dEste and many others. Vittoria Colonna was born in Marino in 1492 and lived there for part of her life, in 1571, Marinos people welcomed Marcantonio Colonna, a protagonist of the Battle of Lepanto, with a triumph, remembered yearly by a festival. It became part of Italy in 1870, on 14 March 1880 the railway Rome-Ciampino-Marino was opened for service. On 1 April 1906 an electric tram replaced the former. In 1954 the electric line was replaced by buses. On 2 February 1944, during World War II, Marino was heavily bombed by USAAF B-25 aircraft from the US XII Air Force and it is in Baroque style, with an imposing façade dating to 1653, and a Latin-cross plan with a nave and two aisles. Among other works of art, it houses the Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew by Guercino and it houses a Mystery of the Holy Trinity, now recognized as from a pupil of Guido Reni. It has a nave with side chapels. It is home to a painting of St. Roch attributed to Domenichino and, in a niche at the high altar, rosario, an example of Rococo art. Palazzo Colonna Fontana dei Mori, depicting prisoners from the aforementioned Battle of Lepanto, mithraeum, with an important fresco portraying the God Mithras slaughtering the bull. Grape Festival, Every 1st Sunday of October, doughnut Festival, Every 2nd Sunday of October
Marino, Italy
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View of the historical centre.
Marino, Italy
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View of the city.
Marino, Italy
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Mithraeum of Marino
Marino, Italy
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Fountains giving wine.
17.
Pope Eugene III
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Pope Eugene III, born Bernardo da Pisa, was Pope from 15 February 1145 to his death in 1153. He was the first Cistercian to become Pope, in response to the fall of Edessa to the Muslims in 1144, Eugene proclaimed the Second Crusade. The crusade failed to recapture Edessa, which was the first of many failures by the Christians in the crusades to recapture lands won in the First Crusade and he was beatified on 28 December 1872 by Pope Pius IX on the account of his sanctity. Little is known about his origins and family except that he was son of a certain Godius, in 1106 he was a canon of the cathedral chapter in Pisa and from 1115 is attested as subdeacon. 1133–1138 he acted as vicedominus of the archdiocese of Pisa, between May 1134 and February 1137 he was ordained into the priesthood by Pope Innocent II, who resided at that time in Pisa. Under the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux he entered the Cistercian Order in the monastery of Clairvaux in 1138, a year later he returned to Italy as leader of the Cistercian community in Scandriglia. In Autumn 1140, Pope Innocent II named him abbot of the monastery of S. Anastasio alle Tre Fontane outside Rome, Bernardo was elected pope in February 1145 and took the pontifical name of Eugene III. The choice did not have the approval of Bernard, however, but after the choice was made, he took advantage of the qualities in Eugene III which he objected to, so as to virtually rule in his name. During nearly the whole of his pontificate, Eugene III was unable to reside in Rome, but as he would not agree to a treacherous compact against Tivoli, he was compelled to leave the city in March 1146. He stayed for some time at Viterbo, and then at Siena, at a great diet held at Speyer in 1146, Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III and many of his nobles were also incited to dedicate themselves to the crusade by the eloquence of Bernard. Eugene III held synods in northern Europe at Paris, Rheims and he also considered and approved the works of Hildegard of Bingen. In June 1148, Eugene III returned to Italy and took up his residence at Viterbo and he fled to Prince Ptolemys fortress in Tusculum on 8 April 1149 and remained there, where he met the returning Crusader king Louis VII of France and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine. He stayed there until 7 November, at the end of November 1149, through the aid of the King of Sicily, he was again able to enter Rome, but the jealousy of the republicans soon compelled him to retire. The Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa had promised to aid him against his revolted subjects, though the citizens of Rome were jealous of the efforts of Eugene III to assert his temporal authority, they were always ready to recognize him as their spiritual lord. Besides that, they deeply reverenced his personal character, accordingly, he was buried in the Vatican with every mark of respect, and his tomb soon acquired an extraordinary fame for miraculous cures. The people of Rome were quick to recognize Eugene III as a figure who was meek. His tomb acquired considerable fame due to the miracle purported to have occurred there, Pope Pius IX beatified him in 1872. Knights Templar Original text from the 9th edition of an unnamed encyclopedia, Original referred to him as Eugene – modified to match spelling on Popes list
Pope Eugene III
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Blessed Pope Eugene III
Pope Eugene III
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The episcopal consecration of Pope Eugene III.
Pope Eugene III
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The death of Pope Eugene III.
18.
Pier Luigi Farnese
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Pier Luigi Farnese was the first Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro, from 1545 to 1547. Born in Rome, Pier Luigi was the son of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. He became a soldier and participated in the sack of Rome in 1527 and his illegitimacy tormented Pier Luigi all his life, and doubtless contributed to the formation of his character. The nobility of Piacenza was frequently known to him as the bastard son of the Pope. As the eldest and beloved son he was legitimised along with his brother Paul at the age of two in 1505 by Pope Julius II and he was given a famous humanist tutor, Baldassarre Malosso di Casalmaggiore, nicknamed Tranquillus, and quickly developed a love of war and fortifications. Alexander was, however, keen to make Pier Luigi the true head of the Farnese family and so arranged a marriage alliance with Gerolama Orsini, daughter of Lodovico. In 1513 the engagement contract was drawn up, and in 1519 the wedding celebrated, despite a loveless marriage, Gerolama remained a faithful devoted wife, tolerating Pier Luigis excesses, brutality, and extravagances with dignity. Delays in the construction at the palace in Gradoli, meant the young couple had to lodge in the Castle at Valentano, the following year their first son Alexander was born. Pier Luigi Farnese quickly became the stereotype of a soldier, wild. He had courage and daring and while strong and audacious was also sufficiently brutal to offend many observers, nor did he always fight on the traditional side of the papacy, reversing the pro-Guelph sentiments of the Farnese. In 1520, at the age of seventeen, he and his brother Ranuccio were already employed as mercenaries in the pay of the Republic of Venice. As a result, he served under the standard of Charles V - remaining with the emperor until 1527, he was present at the Sack of Rome of that year, in which he took part. While his brother Ranuccio withdrew to Castel SantAngelo to defend the Pope, Pier Luigi crossed the Tiber and quartered his men in the family palace, critics accused the Farnese of backing both sides, but Pope Clement VII refused to condemn him. Finally when the hit the city, the imperial troops decided to withdraw. Pier Luigi withdrew from Rome into the Roman countryside, taxing it without mercy and permitting a climate of theft, Pope Clement, tired of this behaviour, eventually threatened him with excommunication, until Cardinal Alexander tried diplomatically to reconcile his son with the pope. In 1528 Pier Luigi, still under imperial pay, fought in Apulia against the French army, when his father was elevated to the papacy as Paul III in 1534, great festivities were celebrated at Valentano, after which Pier Luigi left for Rome. Pauls first action was to make Pier Luigis eldest son, Alessandro Farnese, but Charles V only reluctantly allowed the granting of titles to Pier Luigi over the city of Novara, agreeing an annual pension on the condition that the news was not made public. In the hope of speeding things up, Pier Luigi took direct part in the negotiations while leading troops into the occupied by his Farnese relatives
Pier Luigi Farnese
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Pier Luigi Farnese in a portrait by
Titian.
Pier Luigi Farnese
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Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome
Pier Luigi Farnese
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Basilica of San Gaudenzio, Novara
Pier Luigi Farnese
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View of Castro (1663).
19.
Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
Guglielmo Marconi
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Guglielmo Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi
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Marconi Rock, Salvan, Switzerland, site of 1895 experiments
Guglielmo Marconi
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Plaque on the outside of BT Centre commemorates Marconi's first public transmission of wireless signals.
Guglielmo Marconi
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Marconi watching associates raising the kite (a "Levitor" by B.F.S. Baden-Powell) used to lift the antenna at
St. John's, Newfoundland, December 1901
20.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
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Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
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The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
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Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
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Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
21.
Nazi German
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
Nazi German
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Hitler became Germany's head of state, with the title of
Führer und Reichskanzler, in 1934.
Nazi German
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Flag
Nazi German
–
Joseph Goebbels,
Reich Minister of Propaganda
Nazi German
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Ethnic Germans in
Saaz, Czechoslovakia, greet German soldiers with the
Nazi salute, 1938
22.
85th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 85th Infantry Division also known as Custer Division was an infantry division of the United States Army. The division was first activated 25 August 1917 at Camp Custer, Michigan, and comprised the 169th and 170th Infantry brigades, after a year of training the division left the United States for England. Accompanying the 339th were the 1st Battalion, 310th Engineers, the 337th Ambulance Company, after arrival in France as part of the American Expeditionary Forces, the remainder of the division was broken up to support other units. The Headquarters was stationed in Lorraine as a division and therefore did not participate in any combat operations. Doughboys of the Division served in other Divisions at the Battles for St. Mihiel, Marbache, after the war the division remained on occupation duty in Germany and by August 1919, the last elements of the division returned to the United States. On 15 May 1942, five months after the United States entered World War II, Divisions in the U. S. Army at that time were triangularized with three combat regiments instead of the four regiment structure square division used during World War I. The 340th Infantry Regiment was redesignated as the 410th Quartermaster Battalion, basic infantry training was begun in June 1942 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi. In April 1943, it participated in army training in the Louisiana Maneuvers near Leesville. In August, the division was moved to Camp Coxcomb, California for desert warfare training, in October, the division was transferred to Fort Dix, New Jersey, for final preparations before shipment overseas. Coulter was transferred as commander and retained this position throughout the war, the Assistant Division Commander throughout the war was Brigadier General Lee S. Gerow. It received amphibious training at Port aux Poules near Arzew and Oran, Algeria,1 February to 23 March, then embarked for Naples, Italy, the 339th Regimental Combat Team was the first division element to depart Port-Aux-Poules for movement to the Italian Campaign. The 85th Division, under II Corps of the U. S, fifth Army under Mark W. Clark, was committed to action as a unit,10 April 1944, north of the Garigliano River, facing the Gustav Line, and held defensive positions for a month. On 11 May, it launched its attack, taking Solacciano, Castellonorato, itri fell,19 May, and the 85th continued to mop up the Gaeta Peninsula. Terracina was taken and the road to the Anzio beachhead was opened, the division pursued the enemy to the hills near Sezze until pinched out by friendly forces from Anzio. The Gustav Line had been smashed and the 85th started for a rest area on 29 May, but was ordered to the Lariano sector which the division cleared by the 31st. Driving on Rome, the 85th pushed through Monte Compatri and Frascati, entered the Italian capital of Rome on 5 June 1944, after rehabilitation and training, the 85th took over the defense of the Arno River line from 15 to 26 August. The division attacked the defenses of the Gothic Line on 13 September. From 27 October to 22 November 1944, defense areas near Pizzano were held, on the 23d, the division was relieved for rest and rehabilitation
85th Infantry Division (United States)
–
85th Infantry Division shoulder sleeve insignia
23.
Paul III
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Pope Paul III, born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527. He convened the Council of Trent in 1545 and he was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. It is to Pope Paul III that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, alessandro’s humanist education was at the University of Pisa and the court of Lorenzo de Medici. Initially trained as a notary, he joined the Roman Curia in 1491. Farnese’s sister, Giulia was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, for this reason, he was sometimes mockingly referred to as the Borgia brother-in-law, just as Giulia was mocked as the Bride of Christ. More disparagingly he was referred to as Cardinal Fregnese, as Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar general, Bartolomeo Guidiccioni. This led to the future pope breaking off the relationship with his mistress, under Pope Clement VII he became Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and dean of the College of Cardinals, and on the death of Clement VII in 1534, was elected as Pope Paul III. As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a dissolute life, taking for himself a mistress. By Silvia Ruffini, he fathered Pier Luigi Farnese, whom he created Duke of Parma, others included Ranuccio Farnese, the fourth pope during the period of the Protestant Reformation, Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism. Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project, in 1536, Paul III invited nine eminent prelates, distinguished by learning and piety alike, to act in committee and to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. This report was printed not only at Rome, but at Strasburg, yet the Pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. Yet it is clear that the Concilium bore no fruit in the situation. On the other hand, serious political complications resulted, in order to vest his grandson Ottavio Farnese with the dukedom of Camerino, Paul forcibly wrested the same from the duke of Urbino. He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by the imposition of burdensome taxes, perugia, renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Pauls son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers of Colonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished, after this the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy. In 1540, the Church officially recognized the young society forming about Ignatius of Loyola, the second visible stage in the process becomes marked by the institution, or reorganization, in 1542, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition. On another side, the Emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs toward a recovery of the German Protestants
Paul III
–
Pope Paul III
Paul III
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Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, later Pope Paul III, by
Raphael, 1509–1511 (
Museo di Capodimonte,
Naples).
Paul III
–
Cardinal Ascanio Sforza
Paul III
–
Pope Paul III and his Grandsons Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese (left), and
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right), II Duke of Parma since 1547. A triple portrait by
Titian, 1546
24.
Emperor Louis IV
–
Louis IV, called the Bavarian, of the house of Wittelsbach, was King of the Romans from 1314, King of Italy from 1327, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1328. He obtained the titles Count of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, Louis was born in Munich, the son of Louis II, Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and Matilda, a daughter of King Rudolph I. A civil war against his brother Rudolf due to new disputes on the partition of their lands was ended in 1313, in the same year, on November 9, Louis defeated his Habsburg cousin Frederick the Fair who was further aided by duke Leopold I. Originally, he was a friend of Frederick, with whom he had been raised. However, armed conflict arose when the guardianship over the young Dukes of Lower Bavaria was entrusted to Frederick, even though the late Duke Otto III, on 9 November 1313, Frederick was defeated by Louis in the Battle of Gamelsdorf and had to renounce the tutelage. This victory caused a stir within the Holy Roman Empire and increased the reputation of the Bavarian Duke, the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII in August 1313 necessitated the election of a successor. Henrys son John, King of Bohemia since 1310, seemed too powerful to most prince-electors, the most likely choice was Frederick the Fair, the son of Henrys predecessor, Albert I, of the House of Habsburg. In reaction, the party among the prince electors settled on Louis as its candidate to prevent Fredericks election. On 19 October 1314, Archbishop Henry II Cologne chaired an assembly of four electors assembled at Sachsenhausen and these four elector chose Frederick as King. The Luxemburg party did not accept this election and the day a second election was held. Upon the instigation of Peter of Aspelt, Archbishop of Mainz, five different electors convened at Frankfurt, in the following conflict between the kings, Louis recognized in 1316 the independence of Switzerland from the Habsburg dynasty. After several years of war, victory finally seemed within the grasp of Frederick. However, Fredericks army was defeated in the Battle of Mühldorf on 28 September 1322 on the Ampfing Heath. In this agreement, Frederick recognized Louis as legitimate ruler and undertook to return to captivity if he did not succeed in convincing his brothers to submit to Louis. As he did not manage to overcome Leopolds obstinacy, Frederick returned to Munich as a prisoner, Louis, who was impressed by such nobility, renewed the old friendship with Frederick, and they agreed to rule the Empire jointly. However, after Leopolds death in 1326, Frederick withdrew from the regency of the Empire and he died on 13 January 1330. After the reconciliation with the Habsburgs in 1326, Louis marched to Italy and was crowned King of Italy in Milan in 1327. Already in 1323 Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the Kingdom of Naples, but now the Lord of Milan Galeazzo I Visconti was deposed since he was suspected of conspiring with the pope
Emperor Louis IV
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Portrait of Louis IV (on a late gothic graveplate made of red marble in 1468 by Hans Haldner), tomb in the
Frauenkirche of
Munich
Emperor Louis IV
–
Battle of Mühldorf (1322), contemporary illustration
Emperor Louis IV
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Golden Bull of Louis IV 1326
Emperor Louis IV
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Edward III becomes Vicar to the Emperor Louis IV.
25.
Monte Cavo
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Monte Cavo, or less occasionally, Monte Albano, is the second highest mountain of the complex of the Alban Hills, near Rome, Italy. An old volcano extinguished around 10,000 years ago, it lies about 20 km from the sea and it is the dominant peak of the Alban Hills. The current name comes from Cabum, an Italic settlement existing on this mountain, volcanic activity under king Tullus Hostilius on the site was reported by Livy in his book of Roman history. there had been a shower of stones on the Alban Mount. On the Mons Albanus, between January and March, the Latin Festivals were held, the newly chosen Consuls had to sacrifice to Jupiter Latiaris and to announce the Latin Holidays. When the Consul obtained a victory in war he also had to celebrate the triumph on the Alban Mount, here in the Latium temple were celebrated every year the Feriae Latinae for four days by the representatives of 47 cities. In 531 BC, King Tarquinius Superbus built here a temple shared with the Latins, the Hernici and the Volsci, in return, Jupiter Latiaris conferred upon whoever was elected head of the Latin confederation, the power of dictator latinus. A triumphal procession along this sacred way left the Appian Way at Ariccia, more than 5 km of this way is well preserved through the woods. The history of the Pagan temple of Iuppiter Latiaris was interrupted in the early Middle Ages and it was visited by Pope Pius II in 1463, and subsequently by Pope Alexander VII. After the Dalmatian hermits the Polish religious order of Edmondo of Buisson was established there, then the Trinitarian Spaniards, then the hermitage was converted to a monastery. The Passionists came in 1758 and restored it in 1783, using the materials of the temple of Jupiter, as found and raised by Henry Benedict Stuart, Duke of York, bishop of Frascati. During this period there were guests in the monastery, the king Francis II of Naples in 1865, the contemplative-missionaries abandoned the monastery in 1889. From 1942 the hotel was used as base for radio communications by the German Wehrmacht. On June 3,1944, soldiers of 142nd Regiment-36th Infantry Division, in the post-war era the structure became a telecommunications station. Access is prohibited to unauthorized persons, a few blocks of the ancient temple are still visible behind the fenced area. The unsightly presence of the antennae has been a cause of some civil complaint, strabo - Geographica book V chapter 3 - Rome 20 BC This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. T. J. Cornell - The beginnings of Rome, Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to Punic War - London 1995 - ISBN 0-415-01596-0 Livy, Ab urbe condita Book I cap
Monte Cavo
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Monte Cavo (on the right of
Alban Hills)
Monte Cavo
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Hotel Monte Cavo at the beginning of the 20th century.
Monte Cavo
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The same structure used as a telecommunications station at the end of the 20th century.
26.
Lake Albano
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Lake Albano is a small volcanic crater lake in the Alban Hills of Lazio, at the foot of Monte Cavo,20 kilometres southeast of Rome. Castel Gandolfo, overlooking the lake, is the site of the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo, in Roman times it was known as Albanus Lacus and lay not far from the ancient city of Alba Longa. With a depth of about 170 m, Lake Albano is the deepest in Lazio. The lake is 3.5 km long by 2.3 km wide, plutarch reports that in 406 BC the lake surged over the surrounding hills, despite there being no rain nor tributaries flowing into the lake to account for the rise in water level. The ensuing flood destroyed fields and vineyards before eventually pouring into the sea and it is thought to have been caused by volcanic gases, trapped in sediment at the bottom of the lake and gradually building up until suddenly releasing, causing the water to overflow. Around 395 BC, during the wars between Rome and Veii, a tunnel was built crossing the crater walls. It served as an emissary whenever the water level overflowed its mouth, the emissary is at 293 meters over the sea level. The tunnel ends at a spot called Le Mole, below Castel Gandolfo and it hosted the canoeing and rowing events of the 1960 Summer Olympic Games that were held in Rome. The lane marking system developed for these events is referred to as the Albano buoy system. Lakes of Italy Britannica. com Italian Tourism - Lakes The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition | Date,2008 | The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press
Lake Albano
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The lake.
Lake Albano
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Provinces
Lake Albano
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Painting by
Sylvester Shchedrin, before 1825
Lake Albano
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Lake Albano,
George Inness, 1869
27.
Venerable English College, Rome
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The Venerable English College, commonly referred to as the English College, is a Roman Catholic seminary in Rome, Italy, for the training of priests for England and Wales. It was founded in 1579 by William Allen on the model of the English College, the current Rector is Monsignor Philip Whitmore. English pilgrims had paid extortionate prices to stay in damp and filthy hostels far from St Peters Basilica, innkeepers gave rooms designed to accommodate four people to groups of eight or more and often treated the pilgrims with violence and extortion. Many had drowned in the Tiber after the collapse of a temporary bridge, the foundation of the Hospice was in direct response to this situation, with the stated aim of caring for poor, infirm, needy and wretched persons from England. The Hospice of St Thomas grew into the centre for English visitors. In 1376 a Chapel was erected on the site of the present College Church, the new Chapel attracted royal patronage, and by the reign of Henry VII the institution had become known as The Kings Hospice, with a Warden appointed by the Crown. Evidence of this royal connection may be seen in the present day building, which contains a corbel of fumed oak. Robert Neweton, described in 1399 as chaplain procurator of the Hospice of the Holy Trinity & St Thomas the Martyr, may have been a warden as might William Holdernes. During the 237 years of its existence the English Hospice received many thousands of pilgrims, one of the most famous being the saintly mystic, Margery Kempe, in 1481,218 pilgrims stayed here, and during the plague of 1482 the Hospice cared for 96 sick pilgrims. However, two events in the sixteenth century led to a radical decline in the fortunes of the Hospice. The decision of Henry VIII to break with Rome almost entirely impeded the flow of English pilgrims to Rome, Pope Paul III took over the Hospice in the year 1538 and placed it in the hands of Cardinal Reginald Pole, himself cousin to Henry VIII. When Pole returned to England as Archbishop of Canterbury under Mary I, it seemed that the Hospice would revive as a pilgrim institution, but the accession of Elizabeth I brought darker days. Acting as little more than a refuge for a few decrepit chaplains and exiles, in 1576, with the encouragement of Gregory XIII, William Allen converted the moribund Hospice into a seminary, known as the Collegium Anglorum or English College. Allen had already founded a seminary, the English College at Douai in 1568 and had drawn to it 240 students and its first students arrived there from Douai in 1577 and Gregory XIII issued the Bull of Foundation in 1579. The Pope gave the new English College a yearly grant and property, division and disorder overhung the first years of the English College. A Welshman, Maurice Clenock, was made perpetual warden in 1578 and he was accused of unduly favouring his Welsh fellow-countrymen at the expense of the English students, who numbered thirty-three as against seven Welsh students. Clenock, together with Owen Lewis, an influential curial official, students were encouraged to learn Italian so that they could take up posts in Italy while they waited for Englands conversion. However, many of the students shared the ideals of the Society of Jesus
Venerable English College, Rome
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Chiesa di San Tommaso di Canterbury
Venerable English College, Rome
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Interior of the Church of the Venerable English College
Venerable English College, Rome
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Plan for an oval church
28.
Skygazing
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Amateur astronomy is a hobby whose participants enjoy watching the sky, and the abundance of objects found in it with the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Many amateurs are beginners or hobbyists, while others have a degree of experience in astronomy and often assist. Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, people have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework, without any formal method of funding. It is only within about the past century, however, that amateur astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from professional astronomy, collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep sky objects such as clusters, galaxies. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, one branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum, non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were built for astronomy research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example, Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky, depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is common for amateur astronomers to build their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy, although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Amateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings, although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences. The Internet is a tool of amateur astronomers. The popularity of CCD imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images, much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists, a great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their observing sessions using tools such as the Clear Sky Chart
Skygazing
–
Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the
Perseid meteor shower.
Skygazing
–
An image of the
Cat's Paw Nebula created combining the work of professional and amateur astronomers. The image is the combination of the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope of the La Silla Observatory in Chile and a 0.4-meter amateur telescope.
29.
Amateur astronomy
–
Amateur astronomy is a hobby whose participants enjoy watching the sky, and the abundance of objects found in it with the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Many amateurs are beginners or hobbyists, while others have a degree of experience in astronomy and often assist. Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, people have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework, without any formal method of funding. It is only within about the past century, however, that amateur astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from professional astronomy, collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep sky objects such as clusters, galaxies. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, one branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum, non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were built for astronomy research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example, Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky, depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is common for amateur astronomers to build their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy, although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Amateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings, although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences. The Internet is a tool of amateur astronomers. The popularity of CCD imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images, much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists, a great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their observing sessions using tools such as the Clear Sky Chart
Amateur astronomy
–
Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the
Perseid meteor shower.
Amateur astronomy
–
An image of the
Cat's Paw Nebula created combining the work of professional and amateur astronomers. The image is the combination of the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope of the La Silla Observatory in Chile and a 0.4-meter amateur telescope.
Landsberg am Lech, Germany
