1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
2.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
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National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
4.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.
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Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. was an American landscape architect and city planner known for his wildlife conservation efforts. He had a commitment to national parks, and worked on projects in Acadia. Olmsted Point in Yosemite and Olmsted Island at Great Falls of the Potomac River in Maryland are named after him and he was the son of Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. and he and his brother John C. Olmsted created Olmsted Brothers as a firm to their fathers. Olmsted was born on Staten Island, New York, the son of Frederick Law Olmsted and Mary Cleveland Perkins, after graduating from the Roxbury Latin School in 1890, he began his career as his famous fathers apprentice. He entered Harvard College where he earned his bachelors degree in 1894 and he then became a partner in his fathers Brookline, Massachusetts landscape architecture firm in 1895. Olmsted and his half brother quickly took over leadership of the firm, for the next half-century, the Olmsted brothers firm completed thousands of landscape projects nationwide. In 1900 Olmsted returned to Harvard to teach, and he established the schools first formal training program in landscape architecture. In 1901, he was appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt as a member of the Senate Park Improvement Commission for the District of Columbia, in 1910, he was approached by the American Civic Association for advice on the creation of a new bureau of national parks. I have made at different times two suggestions, one of which was, a definition of the purposes for which the national parks and monuments are to be administered by the Bureau. Olmsted and his wife, Sarah Hall Sharples, whom he married on March 30,1911, had one child, by 1920, his better-known projects included plans for metropolitan park systems and greenways across the country. And was a member and later president of the American Society of Landscape Architects. Under the leadership of John Charles Olmsted and Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. the Olmsted Brothers firm employed nearly 60 staff at its peak in the early 1930s, as the last surviving family member in the firm, Olmsted retired in 1949. The Caracas Country Club is today the place in the city were one can actually see how the valleys original natural landscape was before the city was built. In his later years, Olmsted worked for the protection of Californias coastal redwoods, redwood National Parks Olmsted Grove was dedicated to him in 1953, the same year in which he received the Pugsley Gold Medal. He was responsible for the original master plan layout of Cornell University. He also worked on the Bok Tower Gardens in Lake Wales, Florida, Olmsted died while visiting friends in Malibu, California and is buried at Old North Cemetery in Hartford, Connecticut. Landscape design at Waveny Park, New Canaan, Connecticut,1912, shelter at Casa Grande Ruins National Monument,1932 St
7.
Urban park
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The design, operation and maintenance is usually done by government, typically on the local level, but may occasionally be contracted out to a private sector company. A park is an area of space provided for recreational use. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics, trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. An early purpose-built public park, although financed privately, was Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth and this was laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, the creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of space for the benefit of townspeople. Nashs remodelling of St Jamess Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regents Park completely transformed the appearance of Londons West End. Liverpool had a presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance, frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having one of the principal influences on Olmsted. Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on 22 August 1846, in The Politics of Park Design, A History of Urban Parks in America, Professor Galen Cranz identifies four phases of park design in the U. S. As time passed and the area grew around the parks, land in these parks was used for other purposes, such as zoos, golf courses. These parks continue to draw visitors from around the region and are considered regional parks, because they require a higher level of management than smaller local parks. According to the Trust for Public Land, the three most visited parks in the United States are Central Park in New York, Lincoln Park in Chicago. In the early 1900s, according to Cranz, U. S. cities built neighborhood parks with swimming pools, playgrounds and civic buildings and these smaller parks were built in residential neighborhoods, and tried to serve all residents with programs for seniors, adults, teens and children. Green space was of secondary importance, as urban land prices climbed, new urban parks in the 1960s and after have been mainly pocket parks. One such example of a park is Chess Park in Glendale. This award-winning park was given an award by the American Society of Landscape Architects and these small parks provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and often a playground for children
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National Mall
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The National Mall is a national park in downtown Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. The National Park Service administers the National Mall, which is part of its National Mall, a smaller designation, sometimes referred to as the Mall proper, excludes both the Capitol grounds and the Washington Monument grounds, applying only to an area between them. The National Mall contains a number of museums and memorials and receives approximately 24 million visitors each year, in his 1791 plan for the future city of Washington, D. C. The National Mall occupies the site of this grand avenue. The Washington Monument stands near the site of its namesakes equestrian statue. Mathew Careys 1802 map is reported to be the first to name the area west of the United States Capitol as the Mall, during the early 1850s, architect and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing designed a landscape plan for the Mall. Over the next century, federal agencies developed several naturalistic parks within the Mall in accordance with Downings plan. Two such areas were Henry Park and Seaton Park, in addition, railroad tracks crossed the Mall on 6th Street, west of the Capitol. Near the tracks, a market and a railroad station rose on the north side of the Mall. Greenhouses belonging to the U. S. Botanic Garden appeared near the east end of the Mall, the plan differed from LEnfants by replacing the 400 feet wide grand avenue with a 300 feet wide vista containing a long and broad expanse of grass. Four rows of American elm trees planted fifty feet apart between two paths or streets would line each side of the vista. Buildings housing cultural and educational institutions constructed in the Beaux-Arts style would line each outer path or street, on the opposite side of the path or street from the elms. In subsequent years, the vision of the McMillan plan was followed with the planting of American elms. In accordance with a plan that it completed in 1976, the NPS converted the two innermost boulevards into gravel walking paths, the two outermost boulevards remain paved and open to vehicular traffic. Although the Navy intended the buildings to provide quarters for the United States military during World War I. Much of the area then became Constitution Gardens, which was dedicated in 1976. From the 1970s to 1994, a model of a triceratops named Uncle Beazley stood on the Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History. The life-size statue, which is now located at the National Zoological Park in Northwest Washington, in 2003, the 108th United States Congress enacted the Commemorative Works Clarification and Revision Act
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Meridian Hill Park
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Meridian Hill Park is a structured urban park located in the Washington, D. C. neighborhood of Columbia Heights, it also abuts the nearby neighborhood of Adams Morgan. The park was designed and built between 1912 and 1940 and this 12 acre formally landscaped site is maintained by the National Park Service as a part of Rock Creek Park, but is not contiguous with that much larger nearby park. Meridian Hill Park is bordered by 15th, 16th, W, and Euclid Streets NW, the park has also been unofficially known as Malcolm X Park by some city residents. At the time of Washington, D. C. s creation in 1791, the land beneath present-day Meridian Hill Park was owned by Robert Peter, wealthy Georgetown merchant, in 1804 President Thomas Jefferson had a geographic marker placed on this large hill. Centered exactly north of the White House, this helped to establish a longitudinal meridian for the city and the nation. After the War of 1812, Commodore David Porter, a hero of that war, acquired the hill in 1816 as part of a 110-acre tract of land that he had purchased. On the brow of this prominent hill on his new estate, the home faced south with a dramatic view of the White House and the Potomac River beyond. Meridian Hill Park today shares this view and this location was then at times referred to as being on Georgetown Heights. Shortly after the war, a badly damaged the mansion. At that time, Washington was experiencing growth and some prosperity. In 1887 former Senator John Brooks Henderson and his wife, Mary Foote Henderson, on the west side of newly extended 16th Street, the Hendersons then built an elaborate stone home, designed to resemble a castle, which became known as Henderson Castle. Mary, with friends in Congress, had grand plans for the area. She next unsuccessfully proposed that the site be used for the planned Lincoln Memorial, when these did not work out, Mary Henderson focused on a park. These formal, well-made structures today frame Meridian Hill Park and help to create a visual appearance to the area immediately around the park. In 1901, the Senate Park Commission undertook a set of changes to Washingtons civic appearance. The commission also decided, with Marys input, that a park on Meridian Hill was appropriate, Mary, strong-willed, intelligent, vigorous and well-connected, very much championed the park. Later, throughout the years of park construction, she lobbied Congress to maintain the flow of funding necessary to complete the project. By an Act of Congress on June 25,1910, Meridian Hill Park was established, the upper portion was later simplified somewhat to focus on an open mall, suitable for gatherings and performances
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Old Stone House (Washington, D.C.)
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The Old Stone House is the oldest unchanged building in Washington, D. C. The house is also Washingtons last Pre-Revolutionary Colonial building on its original foundation, built in 1765, Old Stone House is located at 3051 M Street, Northwest in the Georgetown neighborhood. Unlike many Colonial homes in the area, sentimental local folklore preserved the Old Stone House from being demolished, the Old Stone House was constructed in three phases during the 18th century and is an example of vernacular architecture. During its history, the house was started as a one-story building, after a renovation by the National Park Service in the 1950s, the Old Stone House was turned into a house museum. The Old Stone House stands among the stores and restaurants as an example of local history for tourists, shoppers. The building is part of the Rock Creek Parkway urban natural area and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, the Old Stone House is also a contributing property to the Georgetown Historic District, a National Historic Landmark. Today, the home is 85% original to its 18th-century construction, in 1764, Christopher and Rachel Layman bought Lot Three, a piece of land in Georgetowns commercial district. And financed the construction of a simple one-room house the following year, the lot faced Bridge Street, now known as M Street, NW. The Laymans only possessions were Christophers tools, a stove, Bibles, when Christopher died unexpectedly in 1765, Rachel remarried two years later and sold the house to another widow, Cassandra Chew. Chew was a member of the class and owned several properties in. Because of her wealth, Chew was able to finance the construction of a kitchen in 1767. The third floor originated in a property line dispute during the 1790s, Chew used the opportunity to add the upper floor and was completed by 1790. Following the American Revolutionary War, government officials had carved out land from Virginia, pierre Charles LEnfant, appointed by President George Washington to design the city layout, arrived in Georgetown on March 9,1791 and began his work. Washington and LEnfant held their meetings at Suters Tavern, a building owned by John Suter near 31st and K Streets. At the time, John Suter Jr. was renting a room at the Old Stone House and for years, locals believed that Washington. This folklore is the reason the house was never demolished, and for years a sign hung over the front door which said. After some research done by the National Park Service, they found out that the folklore was not true, by the time they had found that out, they already owned the House and the property. When Chew died in 1807, she bequeathed Old Stone House to one of her daughters, Mary Smith Brumley, like her mother, Brumley was a businesswoman and ran a successful merchants shop inside the home
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Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)
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Georgetown is a historic neighborhood, commercial, and entertainment district located in northwest Washington, D. C. situated along the Potomac River. Founded in 1751 in the Province of Maryland, the port of Georgetown predated the establishment of the federal district, Georgetown remained a separate municipality until 1871, when the United States Congress created a new consolidated government for the whole District of Columbia. A separate act passed in 1895 specifically repealed Georgetowns remaining local ordinances, Georgetown is home to the main campus of Georgetown University and numerous other landmarks, such as the Volta Bureau and the Old Stone House, the oldest unchanged building in Washington. The embassies of Cameroon, France, Kosovo, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Mongolia, Sweden, Thailand, Ukraine, situated on the fall line, Georgetown was the farthest point upstream that oceangoing boats could navigate the Potomac River. In 1632, English fur trader Henry Fleet documented a Native American village of the Nacotchtank people called Tohoga on the site of present-day Georgetown, the area was then part of the Province of Maryland, an English colony. George Gordon constructed a tobacco inspection house along the Potomac in approximately 1745, the site was already a tobacco trading post when the inspection house was built. Warehouses, wharves, and other buildings were constructed around the inspection house. It did not take long before Georgetown grew into a port, facilitating trade. In 1751, the legislature of the Province of Maryland authorized the purchase of 60 acres of land from Gordon, a survey of the town was completed in February 1752. Since Georgetown was founded during the reign of George II of Great Britain, another theory is that the town was named after its founders, George Gordon and George Beall. The Maryland Legislature formally issued a charter and incorporated the town in 1789, robert Peter, an early area merchant in the tobacco trade, became Georgetowns first mayor in 1790. Col. John Beatty established the first church in Georgetown, a Lutheran church on High Street, Stephen Bloomer Balch established a Presbyterian Church in 1784. In 1795, the Trinity Catholic Church was built, along with a parish school-house, construction of St. Johns Episcopal Church began in 1797, but paused for financial reasons until 1803, and the church was finally consecrated in 1809. Banks in Georgetown included the Farmers and Mechanics Bank, which was established in 1814, other banks included the Bank of Washington, Patriotic Bank, Bank of the Metropolis, and the Union and Central Banks of Georgetown. Newspapers in Georgetown included the Republican Weekly Ledger, which was the first paper, the Sentinel was first published in 1796 by Green, English & Co. Charles C. Fulton began publishing the Potomac Advocate, which was started by Thomas Turner. Other newspapers in Georgetown included the Georgetown Courier and the Federal Republican, magruder, the first postmaster, was appointed on February 16,1790, and in 1795, a custom house was established on Water Street. General James M. Lingan served as the first collector of the port, in the 1790s, City Tavern, the Union Tavern, and the Columbian Inn opened and were popular throughout the 19th century. Of these taverns, only the City Tavern remains today, as a social club located near the corner of Wisconsin Avenue
12.
Civil War Defenses of Washington
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Civil War Defenses of Washington is a collection of National Park Service properties in and around Washington, D. C. joined by a similar historic theme. Other forts have become state and city parks, in the area, together they commemorate the defense of the capital during the American Civil War. The Washington area had 68 major enclosed forts, as well as 93 prepared batteries for field guns, there were also twenty miles of rifle pits and thirty miles of connecting military roads. These were Union forts, and the Confederacy never captured one, indeed, most never came under enemy fire. These were used to house soldiers and store artillery and other supplies, the following forts are listed in the National Register of Historic Places nomination form. The NCPC was authorized to begin purchasing land occupied by the old forts, records indicate that the site of Fort Stanton was purchased for a total of $56,000 in 1926. During the Great Depression, crews from the Civilian Conservation Corps embarked on projects to improve and maintain the parks, at Fort Stanton, CCC members trimmed trees and cleared brush, as well as maintaining and constructing park buildings. Various non-park buildings were also discussed for the land, the Second World War interrupted these plans, and post-war budget cuts instituted by President Harry S. Truman postponed the construction of the Fort Drive once more. Though land for the parks had mostly been purchased, construction of the road connecting them was pushed back again and again. Other projects managed to find funding, however, in 1949, President Truman approved a supplemental appropriation request of $175,000 to construct a swimming pool and associated facilities at Fort Stanton Park. The plan to link the parks via a grand drive was quietly dropped in the years that followed. Forts Foote, Greble, Stanton, Ricketts, Davis, Dupont, Chaplin, Mahan, forts Bunker Hill, Totten, Slocum, Stevens, DeRussy, Reno, Bayard, Battery Kemble, and Battleground National Cemetery are administered by Rock Creek Park. Fort Marcy is administered by George Washington Memorial Parkway, National Park Service, Civil War Defenses of Washington Civil War Fort Sites, NRHP Defenses of Washington, NRHP Floyd, Dale E. Civil War Defenses of Washington, D. C. National Cable Satellite Corporation, March 14,2012
13.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
14.
Rock Creek (Potomac River tributary)
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Rock Creek is a free-flowing tributary of the Potomac River, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean via the Chesapeake Bay. The creek is 32.6 miles long, with an area of about 76.5 square miles. The last quarter-mile of the creek is affected by tides, the creek rises from a spring near Laytonsville in Montgomery County, in the U. S. state of Maryland, and joins the Potomac near Georgetown and the Watergate in Washington, D. C. Beginning in the Derwood–Rockville area in Maryland, the flows through Rock Creek Regional Park southward to the D. C. boundary. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal joins Rock Creek in Georgetown, at the Tidewater Lock, the creek empty into the Potomac River. This area, called the Rock Creek Basin by the Canal Company, which included a mole, causeway, subject to silting up, it was dredged several times for the Canals use. The Maryland portion of the watershed comprises the second-largest watershed in Montgomery County, about 21 percent of the creeks watershed is in Washington. Total land usage in the watershed is 896 acres of wetlands or water,22,272 acres of residential and commercial areas,15,488 acres of forest or grasslands, the creek has a fairly steep gradient, with rapid changes in elevation. The man-made Lake Needwood is located on the creek, north of Rockville, in Maryland, most of the northern Rock Creek watershed has good to excellent water quality, according to studies conducted by the county government. In 2004, to water quality in partially developed areas. The southern portion of the Maryland watershed is highly urbanized, most of this portion of the creek and its tributaries have poor water quality. The county is managing several stream restoration projects throughout the watershed, the D. C. segment of Rock Creek also has poor water quality. In addition to typical urban stormwater pollution problems such as runoff from streets and other impervious surfaces, the D. C. government, which has a stormwater discharge permit from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, is improving its stormwater management to raise water quality in Rock Creek. Fish species observed in Rock Creek and its tributaries include eastern blacknose dace, bluntnose minnow, yellow bullhead, satinfin shiner, swallowtail shiner, longnose dace, and American eel. The effort is designed to restore American shad, river herring, an estimated two million fish migrate up the creek each year. The D. C. government completed a project on the Milkhouse Run. As of 2014, ongoing restoration projects in the include the Broad Branch
15.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
16.
Benjamin Harrison
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Before ascending to the presidency, Harrison established himself as a prominent local attorney, Presbyterian church leader, and politician in Indianapolis, Indiana. Harrison unsuccessfully ran for governor of Indiana in 1876, the Indiana General Assembly elected Harrison to a six-year term in the U. S. Senate, where he served from March 4,1881, to March 4,1887. A Republican, Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888, defeating the Democratic incumbent, hallmarks of Harrisons administration included unprecedented economic legislation, including the McKinley Tariff, which imposed historic protective trade rates, and the Sherman Antitrust Act. Harrison also facilitated the creation of the national forest reserves through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891, during his administration six western states were admitted to the Union. Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term, the spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 mid-term elections. Cleveland defeated Harrison for re-election in 1892, due to the unpopularity of the high tariff. Harrison returned to life and his law practice in Indianapolis. In 1900 Harrison represented the Republic of Venezuela in a case against the United Kingdom. Harrison traveled to Europe as part of the case and after a brief stay returned to Indianapolis and he died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 of complications from influenza. S. Historians, however, have not questioned Harrisons commitment to personal and official integrity, Harrisons paternal ancestors were the Harrison family of Virginia, whose immigrant ancestor, Benjamin Harrison, arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1630. Benjamin, the president, was born on August 20,1833, in North Bend, Ohio. Benjamin was also a grandson of U. S. Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected U. S. president, although Harrisons family was distinguished, his parents were not wealthy. John Scott Harrison, a two-term U. S. congressman from Ohio, despite the familys modest resources, Harrisons boyhood was enjoyable, much of it spent outdoors fishing or hunting. Benjamin Harrisons early schooling took place in a log cabin near his home, fourteen-year-old Harrison and his older brother, Irwin, enrolled in Farmers College near Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1847. In 1850, Harrison transferred to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio and he joined the Phi Delta Theta fraternity, which he used as a network for much of his life. He was also a member of Delta Chi, a law fraternity which permitted dual membership, classmates included John Alexander Anderson, who became a six-term U. S. congressman, and Whitelaw Reid Harrisons vice presidential running mate in 1892. At Miami, Harrison was strongly influenced by history and political economy professor Robert Hamilton Bishop, Harrison also joined a Presbyterian church at college and, like his mother, became a lifelong Presbyterian. Carolines father, a Presbyterian minister, performed the ceremony, the Harrisons had two children, Russell Benjamin Harrison, and Mary Mamie Scott Harrison
17.
Charles C. Glover
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Charles Carroll Glover was a banker and philanthropist who made major contributions to the modern landscape of Washington, D. C. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Glover played a role in the creation of Rock Creek Park, the National Zoo, the National Cathedral, Potomac Park. National Park Service historian Cornelius W. Heine, in a 1952 study of Glovers contributions, described him as both a businessman and a poet. In his account, the parks that Glover directly helped to create in the District of Columbia together represented some 3,200 acres, Glover was born in Macon County, North Carolina, the son of Charles Glover and Caroline Piercy Glover. He moved to Washington at age eight to live there with his grandmother and he started working at Riggs Bank in 1866, rising to Partner in 1873, and was its effective leader in 1881 at the time of the death of George Washington Riggs. In 1896, the bank was converted into a national bank, in the early 1900s he oversaw the construction of the new Riggs National Bank headquarters facing the US Treasury Building. He retired from the bank in 1921, Glover was active in the debate that led to the eventual adoption of the Federal Reserve Act and presented a plan for economic relief to the U. S. Congress in 1908. He is mentioned by Robert L. Owen together with Frank A. Vanderlip as a source of inspiration for key amendments to the Aldrich–Vreeland Act passed in 1914 and he married Annie Cunnigham Poor, daughter of Charles Henry Poor, on January 10,1878. In 1881, Glover started to promote the reclamation of the Potomac mud flats that extended West and South of the National Mall and this idea was met with stubborn opposition from railroad companies which then had facilities on the Mall and wanted to extend them further. The reclamation work started in 1882 under the leadership of Peter Conover Hains and this paved the way for the McMillan Plan a few years later. The Lincoln Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, in 1888, Glover became the leading promoter of the creation of Rock Creek Park. The project of protecting the area around Rock Creek had emerged a generation earlier. In 1898, Glover was one of the members of the Washington Board of Trade. Glover made major contributions to the landscape of Massachusetts Avenue NW, the construction of the National Cathedral was launched under Glovers leadership at a meeting in his house on Lafayette Square in 1891. In 1896, anticipating on the extension beyond Rock Creek, he built his country house and estate, Westover. About a decade later, he moved there permanently and used the avenue for his daily commute downtown, Glover was also a trustee of American University, and was instrumental in its establishment on its current main campus, immediately northwest of Westover. Fittingly, when a new bridge was built in the late 1930s to carry Massachusetts Avenue over Rock Creek, in addition to promoting the creation of parkland through his efforts in Congress, Glover also donated land of his own. In 1924 he gave some 80 acres of land which, together with a gift from oil heiress Anne Archbold
18.
National Zoological Park (United States)
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The National Zoological Park, commonly known as the National Zoo, is one of the oldest zoos in the United States. It is part of the Smithsonian Institution and does not charge for admission, founded in 1889, its mission is to provide engaging experiences with animals and create and share knowledge to save wildlife and habitats. The National Zoo has two campuses, the first is an 163-acre urban park located in Northwest Washington, D. C. that is 20 minutes from the National Mall by Metro. The other campus is the 3, 200-acre Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute in Front Royal, on this land, there are 180 species of trees,850 species of woody shrubs and herbaceous plants,40 species of grasses, and 36 different species of bamboo. The SCBI is a facility devoted to training wildlife professionals in conservation biology and to propagating rare species through natural means. The National Zoo is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, altogether, the two facilities host about 1,800 animals of 300 different species. About one-fifth of them are endangered or threatened, most species are on exhibit at the Zoos Rock Creek Park campus. The best known residents are the giant pandas, but the zoo is home to birds, great apes, big cats, Asian elephants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, aquatic animals, small mammals. The SCBI facility houses between 30 and 40 endangered species at any time depending on research needs and recommendations from the zoo. The zoo was one of the first to establish a research program. Because it is a part of the Smithsonian Institution, the National Zoo receives federal appropriations for operating expenses, a new master plan for the park was introduced in 2008 to upgrade the parks exhibits and layout. The National Zoo is open day of the year except for December 25. The zoo first started as the National Museums Department of Living Animals in 1886, by an act of Congress in 1889, for the advancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people the National Zoo was created. In 1890, it became a part of the Smithsonian Institution, william Temple Hornaday was the curator of all 185 animals when the park was first opened. Together, they designed a new zoo to animals for the public and to serve as a refuge for wildlife, such as bison and beaver. For the first 50 years, the National Zoo, like most zoos around the world, the number of many species in the wild began to decline drastically because of human activities. In 1899, the Kansas frontiersman Charles Buffalo Jones captured a bighorn sheep for the zoo, the fate of animals and plants became a pressing concern. Many of these species were favorite zoo animals, such as elephants and tigers, hence the staff began to concentrate on the long-term management, in the mid-1950s, the zoo hired its first full-time permanent veterinarian, reflecting a priority placed on professional health care for the animals
19.
Yellowstone National Park
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Yellowstone National Park is a national park located in the U. S. states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. It was established by the U. S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1,1872. Yellowstone was the first National Park in the U. S. and is widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many features, especially Old Faithful Geyser. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is the most abundant and it is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion. Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years, aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior. However, the U. S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916, in 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles, comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years, half of the worlds geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earths northern temperate zone, hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous location in the Continental United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park, the Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the each year, in the large forest fires of 1988. Yellowstone has numerous opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing
20.
Mackinac National Park
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The 1, 044-acre park was created in response to the growing popularity of the island as a summer resort. Its creation was largely the result of efforts by United States Senator Thomas W. Ferry, the national park covered 821 acres while the fort retained 103 acres and the remainder of the island was privately owned. The forts commander ran the park and federal troops served as park rangers, the park had the authority to construct roads and trails and to lease small numbers of lots for buildings to offset its expenses as no federal money was provided to run the park. The park lands had to be available to the army for military training, the park was established on the condition that it remain a state park or it would revert to the United States. This restriction caused a problem in the 1960s when the city proposed to land from the park for an expanded airport for the island. The lease to the city was ruled a non-park use but the park, on its own, expanded and runs the airport
21.
Sequoia National Park
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Sequoia National Park is a national park in the southern Sierra Nevada east of Visalia, California, in the United States. It was established on September 25,1890, the park is south of and contiguous with Kings Canyon National Park, the two are administered by the National Park Service together as the Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. They were designated the UNESCO Sequoia-Kings Canyon Biosphere Reserve in 1976, the park is famous for its giant sequoia trees, including the General Sherman tree, the largest tree on Earth. The General Sherman tree grows in the Giant Forest, which five out of the ten largest trees in the world. The Giant Forest is connected by the Generals Highway to Kings Canyon National Parks General Grant Grove, the parks giant sequoia forests are part of 202,430 acres of old-growth forests shared by Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. Indeed, the preserve a landscape that still resembles the southern Sierra Nevada before Euro-American settlement. Many park visitors enter Sequoia National Park through its entrance near the town of Three Rivers at Ash Mountain at 1,700 ft elevation. The last California grizzly was killed in this park in 1922, the California Black Oak is a key transition species between the chaparral and higher elevation conifer forest. At higher elevations in the front country, between 5,500 and 9,000 feet in elevation, the landscape becomes montane forest-dominated coniferous belt, found here are Ponderosa, Jeffrey, sugar, and lodgepole pine trees, as well as abundant white and red fir. Found here too are the giant sequoia trees, the most massive living single-stem trees on earth, between the trees, spring and summer snowmelts sometimes fan out to form lush, though delicate, meadows. In this region, visitors often see deer, Douglas squirrels, and American black bears. There are plans to reintroduce the bighorn sheep to this park, the vast majority of the park is roadless wilderness, no road crosses the Sierra Nevada within the parks boundaries. 84 percent of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks is designated wilderness and is only by foot or by horseback. Sequoias backcountry offers a vast expanse of high-alpine wonders, covering the highest-elevation region of the High Sierra, the backcountry includes Mount Whitney on the eastern border of the park, accessible from the Giant Forest via the High Sierra Trail. On the floor of canyon, at least two days hike from the nearest road, is the Kern Canyon hot spring, a popular resting point for weary backpackers. From the floor of Kern Canyon, the trail ascends again over 8,000 ft to the summit of Mount Whitney, in the summertime, Native Americans would travel over the high mountain passes to trade with tribes to the East. By the time the first European settlers arrived in the area, smallpox had spread to the region. The first European settler to homestead in the area was Hale Tharp, Tharp allowed his cattle to graze the meadow, but at the same time had a respect for the grandeur of the forest and led early battles against logging in the area
22.
Yosemite National Park
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Yosemite National Park is a national park spanning portions of Tuolumne, Mariposa and Madera counties in Northern California. The park, which is managed by the National Park Service, on average, about 4 million people visit Yosemite each year, and most spend the majority of their time in the seven square miles of Yosemite Valley. The park set a record in 2016, surpassing 5 million visitors for the first time in its history. Almost 95% of the park is designated wilderness, Yosemite was central to the development of the national park idea. First, Galen Clark and others lobbied to protect Yosemite Valley from development, Yosemite is one of the largest and least fragmented habitat blocks in the Sierra Nevada, and the park supports a diversity of plants and animals. The park has a range from 2,127 to 13,114 feet and contains five major vegetation zones, chaparral/oak woodland, lower montane forest, upper montane forest, subalpine zone. Of Californias 7,000 plant species, about 50% occur in the Sierra Nevada, there is suitable habitat for more than 160 rare plants in the park, with rare local geologic formations and unique soils characterizing the restricted ranges many of these plants occupy. The geology of the Yosemite area is characterized by granitic rocks, about 10 million years ago, the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and then tilted to form its relatively gentle western slopes and the more dramatic eastern slopes. The uplift increased the steepness of stream and river beds, resulting in formation of deep, about one million years ago, snow and ice accumulated, forming glaciers at the higher alpine meadows that moved down the river valleys. Ice thickness in Yosemite Valley may have reached 4,000 feet during the early glacial episode, the downslope movement of the ice masses cut and sculpted the U-shaped valley that attracts so many visitors to its scenic vistas today. The name Yosemite originally referred to the name of a tribe which was driven out of the area by the Mariposa Battalion. Before then the area was called Ahwahnee by indigenous people, as revealed by archeological finds, the Yosemite Valley has been inhabited for nearly 3,000 years, though humans may have first visited the area as long as 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The indigenous natives called themselves the Ahwahneechee, meaning dwellers in Ahwahnee and they are related to the Northern Paiute and Mono tribes. Many tribes visited the area to trade, including nearby Central Sierra Miwoks, a major trading route went over Mono Pass and through Bloody Canyon to Mono Lake, just to the east of the Yosemite area. Vegetation and game in the region were similar to that present today, acorns were a staple to their diet, as well as seeds and plants, salmon. In 1851 as part of the Mariposa Wars intended to suppress Native American resistance and he was pursuing forces of around 200 Ahwahneechee led by Chief Tenaya. Accounts from this battalion were the first well-documented reports of ethnic Europeans entering Yosemite Valley, attached to Savages unit was Dr. Lafayette Bunnell, the company physician, who later wrote about his awestruck impressions of the valley in The Discovery of the Yosemite. Bunnell is credited with naming Yosemite Valley, based on his interviews with Chief Tenaya, Bunnell wrote that Chief Tenaya was the founder of the Pai-Ute Colony of Ah-wah-nee
23.
National Capital Parks
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The National Capital Parks is an official unit of the National Park System of the United States. In 1790, Congress, through the Residence Act, authorized President George Washington to procure an area along the Potomac River to locate a new capital for the nation. L’Enfant’s plan was modified by Andrew Ellicott when he ended in a dispute with the commissioners. The design created many of the spaces which would become the National Capital Parks. The original lands of the National Capital Parks were acquired pursuant to Congress authorization, much of this land remains Federal property today and is part of the National Capital Parks. During the American Civil War, 1861–1865, the Union Army built a ring of fortifications to protect the city and these fortifications resulted in additional property becoming federally owned. In 1924, Congress created the National Capital Park Commission to acquire land in the District for the purpose of creating and preserving parklands and this is known today as the Fort Circle Parks. Although the roadway was never built, the property remains today in Federal hands, in 1933, title and control of parklands in the District was transferred to the National Park Service, creating a new unit of the National Park System called the ‘’’National Capital Parks’’’. Presidents Park – administers The White House, a center, Lafayette Square
24.
Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway
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The Parkway was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 4,2005. Built from 1923 to 1936, it is one of the examples of the earliest stage of motor parkway development. During rush hours, a reversible lane setup is used between Ohio Drive and Connecticut Avenue to permit all lanes to be used for the predominant direction of travel. More specifically, the Parkway is one-way southbound on weekdays from 6,45 a. m. to 9,30 a. m. and one-way northbound from 3,45 p. m. to 6,30 p. m. The Parkway has two points of origination on its end, one at the traffic circle around the Lincoln Memorial. The eastern portion of the Lincoln Memorial traffic circle has been closed for several years, the Ohio Drive branch is now the main originating branch. Before the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge was built, Constitution Avenue ran to the parkway, the parkways entrance is framed by two monumental statues, Music and Harvest and Aspiration and Literature, which together form a group known as The Arts of Peace. They were designed by James Earle Fraser and erected in 1951, after passing under the Roosevelt Bridge, the parkway passes the Kennedy Center for Performing Arts, including an at-grade intersection with F Street Northwest north of the building. Prior to the building of the Kennedy Center, New Hampshire Avenue ran to the parkway, beyond F Street, the parkway runs past the Watergate building, there it intersects Virginia Avenue, which provides easy access to and from the Potomac River Freeway. The Potomac River sweeps to the west at approximately this point, past Virginia Avenue, the parkway has many characteristics of a freeway, most notably limited access by ramp. The first interchange is with K Street Northwest, lying inside the newer Whitehurst Freeway/Potomac River Freeway interchange, due to the partial nature of the interchange, some movements are made via Virginia Avenue instead. Just to the west, K Street crosses Rock Creek over the L Street Bridge, with the Whitehurst Freeway overhead and separate side bridges for the ramps to, after K Street, the parkway crosses Rock Creek, paralleling it to the west for a while. Pennsylvania Avenue crosses over both the parkway and the creek on a bridge, with a single loop ramp from the southbound Parkway to Pennsylvania Avenue eastbound. Just to the north, M Street Northwest also crosses the parkway and creek together, further north, P Street Northwest crosses the parkway and creek, with ramps from P Street to the parkway both northbound and southbound and from the southbound Parkway to P Street. Just after crossing under P Street, the crosses to the east side of the creek on the Bridge near P Street. It passes under Q Street Northwests Dumbarton Bridge over the creek with no access, glover Bridge carries Massachusetts Avenue over the parkway and creek. Access to and from the south is provided via Waterside Drive, to the north, Waterside Drive merges back into the parkway, providing for all movements but a southbound offramp. Soon after, the parkway crosses to the west side of the creek on the Shoreham Hill Bridge
25.
Potomac River
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The Potomac River /pəˈtoʊmək/ is located along the mid-Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States and flows into the Chesapeake Bay. The river is approximately 405 miles long, with an area of about 14,700 square miles. In terms of area, this makes the Potomac River the fourth largest river along the Atlantic coast of the United States, over 5 million people live within the Potomac watershed. The river forms part of the borders between Maryland and Washington, D. C. on the left descending bank and West Virginia and Virginia on the right descending bank. The majority of the lower Potomac River is part of the State of Maryland, exceptions include a small tidal portion within the District of Columbia, and the border with Virginia being delineated from point to point. Except for a portion of its headwaters in West Virginia. The South Branch Potomac River lies completely within the state of West Virginia except for its headwaters, the Potomac River runs 405 miles from the Fairfax Stone in West Virginia on the Allegheny Plateau to Point Lookout, Maryland, and drains 14,679 square miles. The length of the river from the junction of its North and South Branches to Point Lookout is 302 miles, the average flow is 10,800 ft³/s. The largest flow recorded on the Potomac at Washington, D. C. was in March 1936 when it reached 425,000 ft³/s. The lowest flow recorded at the same location was 600 ft³/s in September,1966. The source of the North Branch is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker, the source of the South Branch is located near Hightown in northern Highland County, Virginia. The rivers two branches converge just east of Green Spring in Hampshire County, West Virginia, to form the Potomac. Once the Potomac drops from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain at Little Falls, tides further influence the river as it passes through Washington, D. C. salinity in the Potomac River Estuary increases thereafter with distance downstream. The estuary also widens, reaching 11 statute miles wide at its mouth, Potomac is a European spelling of Patowmeck, the Algonquian name of a Native American village, perhaps meaning something brought. Native Americans had different names for different parts of the river, calling the river above Great Falls Cohongarooton, meaning honking geese and Patawomke below the fall, meaning river of swans. The spelling of the name has many forms over the years from Patawomeke to Patawomeck, Patowmack. The rivers name was decided upon as Potomac by the Board on Geographic Names in 1931. The river itself is at least two years old, likely extending back ten to twenty million years before present when the Atlantic Ocean lowered and exposed coastal sediments along the fall line
26.
United States Park Police
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The United States Park Police is one of the oldest uniformed federal law enforcement agencies in the United States. It functions as a law enforcement agency with responsibilities and jurisdiction in those National Park Service areas primarily located in the Washington. San Francisco, and New York City areas and certain other government lands, the United States Park Police is one of the few full-service police departments in the federal government that possess both state and federal authority. The agency also provides protection for the President, Secretary of the Interior, the Park Police is a unit of the National Park Service, which is a bureau of the Department of the Interior. The Park Watchmen were first recruited in 1791 by George Washington to protect federal property only in the District of Columbia. The Watchmen were given the powers and duties as the Metropolitan Police of Washington in 1882. Their authority first began to expand outside D. C and these sites include the National Mall, the C&O Canal towpath in the region, and the parallel roadways of the George Washington Memorial Parkway in Virginia and Clara Barton Parkway in Maryland. The police functioned as an independent agency of the government until 1849. In 1867, Congress transferred the police to the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, in 1925, Congress placed the Park Police in the independent Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital. Headed by an Army officer, Lt. Col. Ulysses S. Grant III, in 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt transferred the police to the National Park Service. C. Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, New York and California, One example would be the past deployment to the Dakotas to assist the Bureau of Indian Affairs. District 1, Officers at Hains Point provide policing for the downtown D. C. area, District 2, Officers provide coverage in three states at the GWMP Station. In Virginia, Fort Hunt, Mt. Vernon and the George Washington Memorial Parkway are primary responsibilities, in the District, Humpback Bridge and Lady Bird Johnson Parks. In Maryland, the Clara Barton Parkway is policed, the Presidio is exclusive federal jurisdiction. District 9, This district is one of the two districts that make up the New York Field Office, District 9 provides patrol coverage for the Gateway National Recreation Area in Staten Island, Brooklyn and Queens. Liberty Island is exclusive federal jurisdiction, in Virginia, USPP Officers are provided with Conservator of the Peace powers as set forth in 19. 2-12 of the Code of Virginia with powers and duties provided under 19. 2-18 of the Code of Virginia. In Washington, D. C. itself, USPP Officers have the same powers, USPP Officers possess a limited arrest authority in the State of Maryland. The U. S. Park Police hold state arrest authority in New York, in California, arrest powers are provided under California Penal Code Section 830.8
27.
Battery Kemble Park
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Battery Kemble Park is a park in Northwest Washington D. C. administered by the National Park Service. Battery Kemble was a Union Army defensive site during the Civil War, the battery was located on Ridge Road, and included two 100-pound Parrott rifles, placed in such a way as to sweep Chain Bridge, Aqueduct Bridge, and Virginia beyond. Today, the parapet and gun positions are fairly well preserved, the park is located south of Nebraska Avenue along Maddox Branch. Battery Kemble Park is bounded by Chain Bridge Road, MacArthur Boulevard, 49th Street and it is considered part of the Palisades neighborhood. The park is popular for running, sledding, and nature walks, Battery Kemble was completed during the Autumn of 1861, as part of the Civil War Defenses of Washington, also known as the Fort Circle. It was named after Gouverneur Kemble of Cold Spring, New York, former superintendent of West Point Foundry, where most of the heavy Army and Navy guns were made during the Civil War. Battery Kemble is on the point of land,387 feet above mean low level of the Potomac River. The artillery had a range of 3 miles, while it is under the direct fire. The earthwork remains of the battery are distinct and well preserved, Battery Kemble was one in a chain of fortifications directly protecting the DC side of Chain Bridge. Other nearby fortifications included Battery Cameron, Battery Parrott, Battery Martin Scott, Battery Kemble was built to provide support to Fort Stevens and Fort Slocum and to guard northern approaches to the city. Wartime garrisons were manned by the 2nd U. S. Artillery, 9th New York Heavy Artillery, and Company A, 1st New Hampshire Heavy Artillery. In 1861, an Army report described the conditions there, The soldiers quarters at Battery Kemble remained unfinished. Contemporaneous accounts by Augusta Weaver, a woman of means living nearby, describe how soldiers stationed at Battery Kemble pillaged neighboring residents pantries, the property on which Battery Kemble was constructed was relinquished to the U. S. government by William A. T. Maddox, a career U. S. Marine Corps officer, the land for Battery Kemble Park was reacquired by the federal government sometime between 1916 and 1923, a period of time during which much of the land for the D. C. -area Fort Parks was acquired. The National Capital Parks and Planning Commission acquired approximately 2.8 acres for the Fort Kemble Park, however, it was almost fifteen years before the government corrected the name to Battery Kemble. By May 1965, the local newspapers extolled a new proposal by Fred Tuemmler as a substitute for the Fort Drive and it would be a place to get away from cars. Further, he saw it as a 30-mile ring of recreation and green space around the city, running from Fort Greble Park to Battery Kemble Park, with hiking and bicycle paths. Battery Kembles current superintendent is Cindy Cox, who succeeded Adrienne Coleman as Superintendent of Rock Creek Park and it is policed by the United States Park Police, Metropolitan Police Department, and occasionally U. S
28.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
29.
Montgomery County, Maryland
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Montgomery County, officially the County of Montgomery, is a county in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, the population was 971,777 and it is the most populous county in Maryland. The county seat and largest municipality is Rockville, although the place of Germantown is the most populous place. Montgomery County is included in the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV Metropolitan Statistical Area, as one of the most affluent counties in the United States, it also has the highest percentage of residents over 25 years of age who hold post-graduate degrees. In 2011, it was ranked by Forbes as the 10th richest in the United States, the Maryland state legislature named Montgomery County after Richard Montgomery, the county was created from lands that had at one point or another been part of Frederick County. The name use of Montgomery and Washington County were seen as further defiance to Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War, the countys nickname of MoCo is derived from Montgomery County, after the pattern of SoHo, Manhattan. The countys motto, adopted in 1976, is Gardez Bien, the countys motto is also the motto of its namesakes family. Before European immigration, the now known as Montgomery County was covered in a vast swath of forest crossed by the creeks and small streams that feed the Potomac. A few small villages of the Piscataway, members of the Algonquian people, were scattered across the southern portions of the county. Captain John Smith of the English settlement at Jamestown was probably the first European to explore the area, during his travels along the Potomac River and throughout the Chesapeake region. These lands were claimed by Europeans for the first time when George Calvert and he and other early claimants had no intention of settling their families. They were little more than speculators, securing grants from the colonial leadership, thus, it was not until approximately 1715 that the first British settlers began building farms and plantations in the area. Most of these settlers were small farmers, growing wheat. Many of the farmers owned slaves and they transported the tobacco they grew to market through the Potomac River port of Georgetown. Sparsely settled, the farms and taverns were nonetheless of strategic importance as access to the interior. General Edward Braddocks army traveled through the county on the way to its disastrous defeat at Fort Duquesne during the French, like other regions of the American colonies, the region that is now Montgomery County saw protests against British taxation in the years before the American Revolution. In 1774, local residents met at Hungerfords Tavern and agreed to break off commerce with Great Britain, following the signing of the Declaration of Independence, representatives of the area helped to draft the new state constitution and began to build a Maryland free of proprietary control. The leaders of the new county chose as their county seat an area adjacent to Hungerfords Tavern near the center of the county, the newly formed Montgomery County supplied arms, food and forage for the Continental Army during the Revolution, in addition to soldiers
30.
William H.G. FitzGerald Tennis Center
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The William H. G. FitzGerald Tennis Center is a public tennis center located in Rock Creek Park in Washington, D. C. It is named after a Washington-based private investor who was active in philanthropies and it houses 15 hard courts and 10 clay courts. There are also five indoors courts which are heated and available in winter, the main stadium seats 7,500 spectators. The center is the home of the Citi Open, an annual ATP World Tour, Rock Creek Park tennis William H. G. FitzGerald Tennis Center map
31.
Carter Barron Amphitheatre
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The Carter Barron Amphitheatre is a 4, 000-seat outdoor performance venue in Washington, D. C. Located in Rock Creek Park, the amphitheatre opened in 1950 in honor of the 150th Anniversary of Washington, DC as the nations capital. The National Park Service operates Carter Barron, offering a variety of quality performances, including reggae, Latin, classical, gospel, musicals, pop, R&B, jazz, new age, theater, many of the performances are provided free of charge. The adjacent William H. G. Fitzgerald tennis stadium is part of the Carter Barron recreational facility, the Carter Barron Amphitheatre is located in Rock Creek Park. Initial plans for an amphitheatre in the Brightwood area of Washington, DC began in 1943 when Frederick Law Olmsted, the original plan called for benches to seat about 1,500 and a stage equipped with a movie screen. This plan was expanded upon by Carter T. Barron in 1947 as a way to memorialize the 150th Anniversary of Washington, the Commission approved the drawings of National Capital Parks Architect William M. Hausman for the new 4, 200-seat Sesquicentennial Amphitheatre. The amphitheatre opened on August 5,1950, paul Green, Pulitzer Prize winning playwright and author of the symphonic outdoor drama The Lost Colony, was commissioned to write the opening season production. Faith of Our Fatherswas a tribute to George Washington and it met with mixed reviews while the press and theater professionals hailed the Sesquicentennial Amphitheatre itself as the best outdoor theater ever seen. The placement of the amphitheatre maximized the natural acoustics of the bowl of the hill, the original design has been changed little. In 1965, a curtain and track were added to the stage, in the early 1990s, the NPS renovated the public restrooms, repaired the roofs, and did some electrical upgrades in the backstage area. Between the 2003 and 2004 summer performance seasons, all new seats were installed, electrical service and wiring was also updated. A major renovation project to the area is planned for the future. After the first two seasons of Faith of Our Fathers, the CBA began to feature a variety of acts, in 1952, CBA hosted military bands and the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo. In 1953, Washington Festival, Inc. operated by television celebrity Constance Bennett Coulter, won the contract for the summer season which featured Show Boat, Annie Get Your Gun. Audiences did not attend in large numbers and Washington Festival lost $200,000 in its first, CBA was left in search of a savior. The Feld brothers, Irvin and Israel, won the contract to host the 1954 season and their company, Super Attractions, hosted performances such as the National Symphony Orchestra, The Mikado, and numerous musicals. Their 1963 lineup changed performances to more music and less ballet. Israel Feld died in December 1972 and his wife, Shirley and they scheduled acts such as Kool and the Gang, Bruce Springsteen, U. S. Navy Band, National Symphony Orchestra, Shakespeare Festival, Richard Pryor, Chick Corea, and the D. C
32.
Inline skating
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Inline skating is a sport practiced widely internationally. Inline skates typically have 2 to 5 polyurethane wheels, arranged in a single line, the in-line design allows for greater speed than roller skates and better maneuverability. The in-line wheels are coupled with boots designed for skating over, inline-skating is practiced and performed using inline skates designed for race tracks, skate parks, Urban areas, and off-road. Inline skating is known as roller blading due to the popular brand of inline skates. A term used to refer to inline skates on a vert ramp, vert skating is a form of gymnastics performed with skates. The purpose of vert skating is to higher than the coping. It focuses on complicated aerial maneuvers, such as spins. The intent of the skater is to speed until they are of sufficient height above the edge of the ramp to perform various aerial acrobatics. In competitions skaters have limited time, often less than a minute, to impress the judges by landing numerous, the sport was included in the first X Games in 1995. Vert skating is used in a lot of such as the X Games. Vert ramps are present in most skateparks of today. In addition to speed, fitness, artistic, or skating for fun, types of aggressive skating include Park and Street. The range of size for aggressive inline skates range from 40mm to 72mm. Park skating refers to doing tricks within a skatepark, meaning a space that is designed for skating, designed, Street skating specifically refers to tricks performed on non-allocated obstacles. Freestyle skating is a form of inline skating performed on flatland, currently the IFSA has defined three disciplines which must be offered by any competition they sanction, freestyle slalom, speed slalom, and free jump. Two additional disciplines, high jump and jam, are also defined, hockey performed in a special rink on inline skates Originally thought up by ice hockey players who wanted to continue training in their off season. Hockey rollerblades have wheel sizes generally in the 70-78mm range, the toe end of the boot is characteristically squared off
33.
P Street Bridge
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The first bridge at this site was constructed in 1855 and was replaced in 1935 by the current structure. The bridge reopened on July 15,2004, after a year-long, $3. 5-million reconstruction project, present at the renaming ceremony were French Ambassador Jean-David Levitte, Jacques Bossiere, and representatives of the D. C. Daughters of the American Revolution and D. C, list of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Washington, D. C. DC-48, P Street Bridge P Street Bridge at Structurae
34.
Dumbarton Bridge (Washington, D.C.)
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The Dumbarton Bridge, also known as the Q Street Bridge and the Buffalo Bridge, is a historic masonry arch bridge in Washington, D. C. Dumbarton Bridge was built between 1914 and 1915 to convey Q Street Northwest across Rock Creek Park between the citys Dupont Circle and Georgetown neighborhoods, around 1905, the residents of Georgetown wanted to reduce traffic to Washington along M Street. One frequently proposed idea was to divert the water of Rock Creek through a tunnel under current-day 27th Street NW, then fill in Rock Creeks beds, many Georgetown residents disliked Rock Creek because it was filled with stagnant water and trash. The cost of diverting and filling in the creek was estimated to be $4.5 million, estimates to build the bridge ranged from $150,000 to $200,000, while the estimate to divert and fill in the creek and extend streets $1,300,000. Another idea was to move the Woodley Lane Bridge to the Q Street location rather than build a new bridge altogether, legislation to fund the bridges construction was introduced to Congress in December 1910, and Congress approved it two months later. Congress appropriated $275,000 to build the bridge and $75,000 to condemn property, including a land west of Rock Creek being used as a car yard. The bridges design was by Glenn Brown, and the design was by Daniel B. The bridge is significant as showing the impact of the City Beautiful movement in Washington, the architects studied photographs of bridges around the world choosing as models a Roman aqueduct and a mountain bridge in Italy with intent to set a precedent for further city bridges. The color of the stone was intended to evoke the warm tones of Spain. Along with the theme the arches are decorated by Indian head designs by Glenn Brown based on a life mask of the Sioux Chief Kicking Bear in the Smithsonian Institution. The curved design is due to need to match the section of Q Street NW in Dupont Circle that is north of the section in Georgetown. The District requested bids to construct the bridge in June 1913, the plans were modified so that there would only be five spans rather than seven in order to save costs. The project went out to bid again in November, a. L. Guidone won the construction bid. Its four buffalo sculptures, the largest cast in a piece of bronze, are by Alexander Phimister Proctor. The budget to build the bridge was set at $275,000, construction of the bridge began on March 14,1914. Construction of the bridge was completed by October 1915, although it took two months to grade and pave the roads leading up to the bridge. The bridge was opened at 4 p. m. on December 24,1915. It was then known as the Q Street Bridge, the bridge was lit by incandescent lamps
35.
Taft Bridge
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The Taft Bridge, also known as the Connecticut Avenue Bridge or William Howard Taft Bridge, is a historic bridge located in the Northwest quadrant of Washington, D. C. It carries Connecticut Avenue over the Rock Creek gorge, including Rock Creek and it is situated to the southwest of the Duke Ellington Bridge. On July 3,2003, the Taft Bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places, the Classical Revival bridge was built between 1897–1907. It was designed by engineer George S. Morison and architect Edward Pearce Casey and it is an arch bridge with unreinforced concrete arches and a reinforced concrete deck. The total length of the bridge is 274.5 meters and it has been called an engineering tour de force and the largest unreinforced concrete structure in the world. In 1931, the bridge was renamed in honor of U. S. President William Howard Taft, during early planning for the Washington Metro in the 1960s, the Red Line was slated to run across the bridge to connect Dupont Circle and Woodley Park. Instead, the metro was built underground, the bridge is guarded by four large male lions, two on each end of the bridge. Two of the lions rest on all fours with their heads tilted upwards and mouths slightly open while the pair lie with their eyes closed. They were originally designed and sculpted by Roland Hinton Perry in 1906 out of cast concrete and were installed in 1907, in 1964 the lions were restored and weatherproofed by Washington based sculptor Renato Luccetti, although this restoration proved to be less than entirely successful. When a major rehabilitation of the began in 1993, the lions. They may have stored in the Air Rights Tunnel on southbound I-395. The sculptures were found to be beyond restoring. The same molds were used to cast bronze lions installed at the pedestrian entrance to the National Zoo farther north on Connecticut Avenue in 2002. Twenty-four lampposts are equally spaced along both sides of the Taft Bridge, created by sculptor Ernest Bairstow in 1906 the lampposts are composed of concrete bases with painted iron lampposts set in them. The pedestals are decorated with garland and a column featuring acanthus leaves at the top. Above the leaves is a bracket with two globes hanging from each side of the column. Each lamppost is topped with a painted iron eagle with its wings spread, a replica of the Bairstow eagles is seen in a World War I monument in Middletown, Delaware. List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Washington, list of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D. C
36.
Duke Ellington Bridge
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The Duke Ellington Bridge, named after Duke Ellington, carries Calvert Street NW over Rock Creek in Washington, D. C. It connects 18th Street NW in Adams Morgan with Connecticut Avenue NW in Woodley Park, originally called the Calvert Street Bridge, it was designed by Paul Philippe Cret in a neoclassical style and built in 1935. It was rededicated as the Duke Ellington Bridge following the death of the Washington native and it is a limestone structure with three graceful 146-foot arches. There are four reliefs on the abutments measuring three feet high by four feet wide. The classical reliefs by Leon Hermant represent the four modes of travel, automobile, train, ship, the bridge replaced one built in 1891 by the Rock Creek Railway to carry streetcars. The bridge was a trestle bridge with wooden decking,750 feet long and 130 feet high. List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Washington, Duke Ellington Bridge, from Cultural Tourism DC Historic American Engineering Record No. DC-23, Calvert Street Bridge Calvert Street Bridge at Structurae
37.
Peirce Mill
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The Peirce Mill is a historic mill building located in Rock Creek Park, at Tilden Street and Beach Drive, Northwest, Washington, D. C. Issac Peirce, a millwright, built the mill either in 1820 or 1829, Peirce rebuilt this mill according to Oliver Evanss ideas for milling, with much of the automated machinery on the upper floors. During the 1860s, as many as 12 wagonloads of wheat arrived for grinding and it was possible to grind 70 bushels per day per set of millstones. The last commercial load was ground in 1897, when the shaft broke. The building served as a public teahouse until the 1930s, the United States Government bought the mill as part of Rock Creek Park in 1892. Peirce Mill was restored as a Public Works Administration project, completed in March 1936, operation began on October 27,1936, under the supervision of miller Robert A. Little. The mill was shut down in April,1993, in 1997, a restoration effort was begun by the Friends of Peirce Mill. The mill was restored with the support of the American Recovery, the mill officially reopened in October,2011. The NPS typically runs mill operation demonstrations on the 2nd and 4th Saturday of each month, historic Peirce Mill in Rock Creek Park, Washington DC USA. The mill has three pairs of millstones, the millstones are 4 1/2 feet across and weigh about 2,400 lbs, and rotate at about 125 rpm. About 60% of the power is used to turn the millstones, the Peirce family themselves were not millers and did not operate the mill, but instead had other millers do so. There was a Pierce mill on the Potomac River, not to be confused with Peirce mill, the other mill is listed in the NPS records and was near Fletchers Boathouse. Rock Creek Park Friends of Peirce Mill
38.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
39.
Jean Jules Jusserand
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Jean Adrien Antoine Jules Jusserand was a French author and diplomat. He was the French Ambassador to the United States during World War I, Jean Jules Jusserands career started in 1878 when he applied to the Foreign Affairs national competition, at the age of 23. He first started as a student-consul, and he was kept as a help-consul in London under the direction of Mr. Langlet. In 1880, he became sous-chef of the cabinet de Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire and his literatry work enabled him to reach a higher status as Paul Cambons partner, Minister of France in Tunisia, in 1882. Where he will be in charge of the organisation of the protectorate. He is named a respected diplomate, thanks to his contributions to the humanization of the protectorate. Jusserand came back to the Quai d’Orsay in 1887, in a delicate moment, in 1898 he exerced in the role of emissary near Saint-Siège, then Minister of France in Copenhagen. He will be finally named ambassador in Washington in 1902, under the presidency of Loubet and he was born on 18 February 1855 in Lyon. Jusserand studied at the University of Lyon and then a Ph. D. in history, Jusserand entered the diplomatic service in 1876. Two years later, he became consul in London, after an interval spent in Tunis, he returned to London in 1887 as a member of the French Embassy. In 1890, Jusserand became French minister at Copenhagen, in 1902, he was transferred to Washington, where he married an American citizen, Eliza Richards, and remained there until 1925. He represented France during the Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Warren Harding and he was a confidant of President Theodore Roosevelt and part of his secret du roi group. During the Polish-Soviet War, Jusserand took part in a mission to the Second Polish Republic. In 1919 he was involved with the Treaty of Versailles and he died on 18 July 1932 at his home in Paris. A pink granite bench in Rock Creek Park honoring Jusserand was dedicated by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on 7 November 1936 and it is the first memorial erected on Federal property to a foreign diplomat. In 2014 Washington City Paper called it the best obscure memorial in D. C, with Americans of Past and Present Days, for which he earned the first Pulitzer Prize for History. What Me Befell, The Reminiscences of J. J. Jusserand and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Jusserand, Jean Adrien Antoine Jules. Works by Jean Jules Jusserand at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Jean Jules Jusserand at Internet Archive
40.
Washington City Paper
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The Washington City Paper is a U. S. alternative weekly newspaper serving the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area. It was started in 1981 by Russ Smith and Alan Hirsch, for its first year it was called 1981. The name was changed to City Paper in January 1982 and in December 1982 Smith and Hirsch sold 80% of it to Chicago Reader, in 1988, Chicago Reader, Inc. acquired the remaining 20% interest. In July 2007 both the Washington City Paper and the Chicago Reader were sold to the Tampa-based Creative Loafing chain, in 2012, Creative Loafing Atlanta and the Washington City Paper were sold to SouthComm Communications. The City Paper is distributed on Thursdays, its circulation in 2006 was 85,588. The papers editorial mix is focused exclusively on news and arts. Michael Schaffer was named editor in April,2010, two months after Erik Wemple resigned to run the new local startup TBD, amy Austin, the longtime general manager, was promoted to publisher in 2003. The owner of the Washington Redskins Daniel Snyder filed a lawsuit against the City Paper for a story that portrayed him in a negative light. Also published are several syndicated features, Savage Love, by Dan Savage The Straight Dope, by Cecil Adams Washington City Paper Ink Well Crosswords Washington D. C
41.
Dressage
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Dressage is a highly skilled form of riding performed in exhibition and competition, as well as an art sometimes pursued solely for the sake of mastery. Competitions are held at all levels from amateur to the Olympic Games, at the peak of a dressage horses gymnastic development, the horse responds smoothly to a skilled riders minimal aids. The rider is relaxed and appears effort-free while the horse performs the requested movement. The discipline has a history with ancient roots in the writings of Xenophon. Much about training systems used today reflects practices of classical dressage, in modern dressage competition, successful training at the various levels is demonstrated through the performance of tests, prescribed series of movements ridden within a standard arena. A score of 9 is very good and is a high mark, all riding horses can benefit from use of dressage principles and training techniques. The most popular horse breeds seen at the Olympics and other international FEI competitions are warmblood horses bred for dressage, in classical dressage training and performances that involve the airs above the ground, the baroque breeds of horses are popular and purposely bred for these specialties. There are two sizes of arenas, small and standard, each has letters assigned to positions around the arena for dressage tests to specify where movements are to be performed. Cones with letters on them are positioned on the sidelines of the arena for reference as to where a movement is to be performed. The small arena is 20 by 40 m and is used for the levels of eventing in the dressage phase. Its letters around the edge, starting from the point of entry. Letters also mark locations along the line in the middle of the arena. Moving down the line from A, they are D-X-G. The standard arena is 20 by 60 m, and is used for tests in both dressage and eventing. The standard dressage arena letters are A-K-V-E-S-H-C-M-R-B-P-F, the letters on the long sides of the arena, nearest the corners, are 6 m in from the corners, and are 12 m apart from each other. The letters along the line are D-L-X-I-G, with X again being halfway down the arena. There is speculation as to why these letters were chosen, most commonly it is believed because the German cavalry had a 20 × 60-meter area in-between the barracks which had the letters posted above the doors. At the start of the test, the horse enters the arena at an opening at A, ideally this opening is then closed for the duration of the test, however, this is not always logistically possible, particularly at smaller competitions with few volunteers
42.
Gristmill
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A gristmill grinds grain into flour. The term can refer to both the mechanism and the building that holds it. The Greek geographer Strabo reports in his Geography a water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor, before 71 BC. The early mills had horizontal paddle wheels, an arrangement which became known as the Norse wheel. The paddle wheel was attached to a shaft which was, in turn, the turning force produced by the water on the paddles was transferred directly to the runner stone, causing it to grind against a stationary bed, a stone of a similar size and shape. This dependence on the volume and speed of flow of the water meant that the speed of rotation of the stone was highly variable. Vertical wheels were in use in the Roman Empire by the end of the first century BC, and these were described by Vitruvius. The peak of Roman technology is probably the Barbegal aqueduct and mill where water with a 19-metre fall drove sixteen water wheels, giving a grinding capacity estimated at 2.4 to 3.2 tonnes per hour. Water mills seem to have remained in use during the post-Roman period, from this time onward, water wheels began to be used for purposes other than grist milling. In England, the number of mills in operation followed population growth, limited extant examples of gristmills can be found in Europe from the High Middle Ages. An extant well-preserved waterwheel and gristmill on the Ebro River in Spain is associated with the Real Monasterio de Nuestra Senora de Rueda, the Cistercians were known for their use of this technology in Western Europe in the period 1100 to 1350. Geared gristmills were built in the medieval Near East and North Africa. Gristmills in the Islamic world were powered by water and wind. The first wind-powered gristmills were built in the 9th and 10th centuries in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran, early mills were almost always built and supported by farming communities and the miller received the millers toll in lieu of wages. Most towns and villages had their own mill so that farmers could easily transport their grain there to be milled. These communities were dependent on their local mill as bread was a part of the diet. Classical mill designs are usually water powered, though some are powered by the wind or by livestock, in a watermill a sluice gate is opened to allow water to flow onto, or under, a water wheel to make it turn. In most watermills the water wheel was mounted vertically, i. e. edge-on, in the water, later designs incorporated horizontal steel or cast iron turbines and these were sometimes refitted into the old wheel mills
43.
Horse tack
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Tack is a piece of equipment or accessory equipped on horses in the course of their use as domesticated animals. Saddles, stirrups, bridles, halters, reins, bits, harnesses, martingales, equipping a horse is often referred to as tacking up. A room to store equipment, usually near or in a stable, is a tack room. Some western saddles will also have a second strap known as a flank or back cinch that fastens at the rear of the saddle, there are many types of saddle, each specially designed for its given task. Saddles are usually divided into two categories, English saddles and Western saddles according to the riding discipline they are used in. Other types of saddles, such as racing saddles, Australian saddles, sidesaddles and they provide greater stability for the rider but can have safety concerns due to the potential for a riders feet to get stuck in them. If a rider is thrown from a horse but has a foot caught in the stirrup, to minimize this risk, a number of safety precautions are taken. First, most riders wear riding boots with a heel and a smooth sole, next, some saddles, particularly English saddles, have safety bars that allow a stirrup leather to fall off the saddle if pulled backwards by a falling rider. Other precautions are done with stirrup design itself, Western saddles have wide stirrup treads that make it more difficult for the foot to become trapped. A number of saddle styles incorporate a tapedero, which is covering over the front of the stirrup that keeps the foot from sliding all the way through the stirrup. The English stirrup has several variations which are either shaped to allow the riders foot to slip out easily or are closed with a very heavy rubber band. The invention of stirrups was of historic significance in mounted combat. Bridles, hackamores, halters or headcollars, and similar equipment consist of arrangements of straps around the horses head. A halter or headcollar consists of a noseband and headstall that buckles around the horses head and allows the horse to be led or tied. The lead rope is separate, and it may be short for everyday leading and tying, or much longer for tasks such as for leading packhorses or for picketing a horse out to graze. Some horses, particularly stallions, may have an attached to the lead rope. Most of the time, horses are not ridden with a halter, as it offers insufficient precision and control. In Australian and British English, a halter is a rope with a running loop around the nose and another over the poll
44.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
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The United States Army Corps of Engineers, also sometimes shortened to CoE is a U. S. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, the Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24% of U. S. hydropower capacity. The corps mission is to Deliver vital public and military engineering services, partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nations security, energize the economy and their most visible missions include, Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal mandates. Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, Air Force, Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve and other Defense and Federal agencies. The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washingtons first chief engineer, however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill, the first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI. that the said Corps. Shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York, until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer. During the first half of the 19th century, West Point was the major and, for a while, the General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U. S and it was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War, many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, the versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of supply lines. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a function in making the war effort logistically feasible. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern, from the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military, included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon
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District of Columbia
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
