1.
Social movement
–
Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or undo a social change, modern Western social movements became possible through education and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. However, others point out many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U. S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement, the systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements, there is no single consensus definition of a social movement. For Tilly, social movements are a vehicle for ordinary peoples participation in public politics. Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and he specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes - people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social movement, -it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, the Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon
2.
Progressive rock
–
Progressive rock is a broad subgenre of rock music that developed in the United Kingdom and United States throughout the mid to late 1960s. Prog is based on fusions of styles, approaches and genres, Prog saw a high level of popularity in the early-to-mid 1970s, but faded soon after. Conventional wisdom holds that the rise of rock caused this. Music critics, who labelled the concepts as pretentious and the sounds as pompous and overblown. Early groups who exhibited progressive features are described as proto-prog. In 1967, progressive rock constituted a diversity of loosely associated style codes, the Canterbury scene, originating in the late 1960s, denoted a subset of prog bands who emphasised the use of wind instruments, complex chord changes and long improvisations. Rock in Opposition, from the late 1970s, was more avant-garde, in the 1980s, a new subgenre, neo-progressive rock, enjoyed some commercial success, although it was also accused of being derivative and lacking in innovation. Post-progressive draws upon newer developments in music and the avant-garde since the mid 1970s. The term progressive rock is synonymous with art rock, classical rock, historically, art rock has been used to describe at least two related, but distinct, types of rock music. Similarities between the two terms are that they describe a mostly British attempt to elevate rock music to new levels of artistic credibility. However, art rock is likely to have experimental or avant-garde influences. Prog was devised in the 1990s as a term, but later became a transferable adjective. Although a unidirectional English progressive style emerged in the late 1960s, by 1967, critics of the genre often limit its scope to a stereotype of long solos, overlong albums, fantasy lyrics, grandiose stage sets and costumes, and an obsessive dedication to technical skill. Author Kevin Holm-Hudson believes that rock is a style far more diverse than what is heard from its mainstream groups. They each do so largely unconsciously, academic John S. Cotner contests Macans view that progressive rock cannot exist without the continuous and overt assimilation of classical music into rock. Debate about the criteria and scope of the genre continues in the 2010s. In early references to the music, progressive was partly related to progressive politics, Cotner also says that progressive rock incorporates both formal and eclectic elements, It consists of a combination of factors – some of them intramusical, others extramusical or social. One way of conceptualising rock and roll in relation to music is that progressive music pushed the genre into greater complexity while retracing the roots of romantic
3.
Music industry
–
The modern Western music industry emerged between the 1930s and 1950s, when records replaced sheet music as the most important product in the music business. In the commercial world, the recording industry–a reference to recording performances of songs and pieces, labels outside of these three major labels are referred to as independent labels. The largest portion of the music market for concerts and tours is controlled by Live Nation. Live Nation is a subsidiary of iHeartMedia Inc, which is the largest owner of radio stations in the United States. In the first decades of the 2000s, the industry underwent drastic changes with the advent of widespread digital distribution of music via the Internet. A conspicuous indicator of changes is total music sales, since 2000. In 2011, the largest recorded music retailer in the world was now a digital, Internet-based platform operated by a computer company, printed music in Europe, Music publishing using machine-printed sheet music developed during the Renaissance music era in the mid-15th century. The development of music followed the evolution of printing technologies that were first developed for printing regular books. After the mid-15th century, mechanical techniques for printing music were first developed. The earliest example, a set of chants, dates from about 1465. Prior to this time, music had to be copied out by hand, to copy music notation by hand was a very costly, labor-intensive and time-consuming process, so it was usually undertaken only by monks and priests seeking to preserve sacred music for the church. The few collections of music that are extant were commissioned and owned by wealthy aristocrats. Examples include the Squarcialupi Codex of Italian Trecento music and the Chantilly Codex of French Ars subtilior music, the use of printing enabled sheet music to reproduced much more quickly and at a much lower cost than hand-copying music notation. This helped musical styles to spread to cities and countries more quickly. With music printing, though, a composers music could be printed, as sheet music of major composers pieces and songs began to be printed and distributed in a wider area, this enabled composers and listeners to hear new styles and forms of music. A German composer could buy songs written by an Italian or English composer, and this led to more blending of musical styles from different countries and regions. The pioneer of music printing was Ottaviano Petrucci, a printer and publisher who was able to secure a twenty-year monopoly on printed music in Venice during the 16th century. Venice was one of the business and music centers during this period
4.
Experimental rock
–
Experimental rock is a subgenre of rock music which pushes the boundaries of common composition and performance technique or which experiments with the basic elements of the genre. From its inception, rock music was experimental, but it wasnt until the late 1960s that rock artists began creating extended, in 1967, the genre was as commercially viable as pop music, but by 1970, most of its leading players had incapacitated themselves in some form. In Germany, the krautrock subgenre merged elements of improvisation and psychedelic rock with avant-garde, later in the 1970s, significant musical crossbreeding took place in tandem with the developments of punk and new wave, DIY experimentation, and electronic music. Funk, jazz-rock, and fusion rhythms became integrated into experimental rock music. The first wave of 1980s experimental rock groups had few precedents for their sound. Later in the decade, avant-rock pursued a psychedelic aesthetic that differed from the self-consciousness, during the 1990s, a loose movement known as post-rock became the dominant form of experimental rock. As of the 2010s, the experimental rock has fallen to indiscriminate use, with virtually every modern rock band being categorized under prefixes such as post-, kraut-, psych-. Although experimentation had always existed in music, it wasnt until the late 1960s that new openings were created from the aesthetic intersecting with the social. In 1966, the boundaries between pop music and the avant-garde began to blur as rock albums were conceived and executed as distinct, self-taught rock musicians in the middle and late 1960s drew from the work of composers such as John Cage, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Luciano Berio. In addition, The Quietus Ben Graham described duos the Silver Apples, calling attention to the very recordedness of the album. This would also be reflected in contemporary experimental rock LPs, such as the Beach Boys Pet Sounds and Smile, the Whos The Who Sell Out and Tommy. The Velvet Underground were a group in experimental rock, according to Rosenberg. Peppers inspired a new consideration for experimental rock as commercially viable music, as progressive rock developed, experimental rock acquired notoriety alongside art rock. By 1970, most of the musicians which had been at the forefront of rock had incapacitated themselves. Groups such as Can, Faust, Neu, the ideas of minimalism and composers such as Stockhausen would be particularly influential. During this era, funk, jazz-rock, and fusion rhythms became integrated into experimental rock music, some groups who were categorized as post-punk considered themselves part of an experimental rock trajectory, with This Heat as one of the prominent players. Anderson claims that the no wave scene represented New York’s last stylistically cohesive avant-rock movement, steve Redhead noted the resuscitation of New Yorks avant-rock scene, including artists such as Sonic Youth and John Zorn, in the 1980s. In the late 1980s, avant-rock pursued a frazzled, psychedelia-tinged, blissed out aesthetic that differed from the self-consciousness, the UK shoegaze scene was seen by some as a continuation of an experimental rock tradition
5.
Henry Cow
–
Henry Cow were an English avant-rock group, founded at Cambridge University in 1968 by multi-instrumentalists Fred Frith and Tim Hodgkinson. Henry Cows personnel fluctuated over their decade together, but drummer Chris Cutler and bassoonist/oboist Lindsay Cooper were important long-term members alongside Frith, an inherent anti-commercial attitude kept them at arms length from the mainstream music business, enabling them to experiment at will. While it was thought that Henry Cow took their name from 20th-century American composer Henry Cowell. According to Hodgkinson, the name Henry Cow was in the air in 1968 and it had no connection to anything. Fred Frith met Tim Hodgkinson, a student, in a blues club at Cambridge University in May 1968. Recognizing their mutual open-minded approach to music the two performing together, playing a variety of musical styles, including dada blues and neo-Hiroshima. One of Henry Cows first concerts was supporting Pink Floyd at the Architects Ball at Homerton College, Cambridge on 12 June 1968, in October 1968 Henry Cow expanded when they were joined by Andy Powell, David Attwooll and Rob Brooks. They performed with this line-up until December that year when Frith, Hodgkinson and Powell split off from the rest of the group, Powell at the time was studying music at Kings College under Roger Smalley, the resident composer. Smalley was influential in Henry Cows early development and he exposed them to a variety of new music from bands and musicians like Soft Machine, Captain Beefheart and Frank Zappa. Smalley also introduced them to the idea of writing long and complex musical pieces for rock groups and it was at this time that Henry Cow began writing music to challenge their collective ability to play, then using it to improve on themselves. In April 1969 Powell left and the reverted to a duo again, with Frith playing violin. In October 1969 philosopher Galen Strawson auditioned for the band, in May 1971 Martin Ditcham replaced Jenkins on drums, and with this line-up they played at several events, including the Glastonbury Festival alongside Gong in June 1971. Ditcham left in July 1971 and it was not until September that year that the seat was filled again. The band then relocated to London where they began an aggressive rehearsal schedule, after having entered John Peels Rockortunity Knocks contest in 1971, Henry Cow recorded a John Peel session for BBC Radio 1 in February 1972. They later went on to record another session in October that year, in April 1972 Henry Cow wrote and performed the music for Robert Walkers production of Euripides The Bacchae. This involved an intense and demanding three-week period of concentrated work that changed the band completely and it was during this time that Geoff Leigh on woodwinds joined and Henry Cow became a quintet. It was Smith who later did the paint sock art work on three of Henry Cows LP covers, for the first time, Henry Cow started getting some attention from the rock press and the then emerging Virgin Records label. After much negotiation and deliberation, Henry Cow signed a contract with Virgin in May 1973, within two weeks of signing the contract, Henry Cow began recording their debut album Legend at Virgins Manor Studios in Oxfordshire
6.
Continental Europe
–
Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe, or, by Europeans, simply the Continent, is the continuous continent of Europe, excluding surrounding islands. This historical core of Carolingian Europe was consciously invoked in the 1950s as the historical basis for the prospective European integration. In both Great Britain and Ireland, the Continent is widely and generally used to refer to the mainland of Europe, an apocryphal British newspaper headline supposedly once read, Fog in Channel, Continent Cut Off. It has also claimed that this was a regular weather forecast in Britain in the 1930s. In addition, the word Europe itself is regularly used to mean Europe excluding the islands of Great Britain, Iceland. The term mainland Europe is also sometimes used, derivatively, the adjective continental refers to the social practices or fashion of continental Europe. Examples include breakfast, topless sunbathing and, historically, long-range driving often known as Grand Touring. Differences include electrical plugs, time zones for the most part, the use of traffic, and for the United Kingdom, currency. Britain is physically connected to continental Europe through the undersea Channel Tunnel and this route is popular with refugees and migrants seeking to enter the UK. Especially in Germanic studies, continental refers to the European continent excluding the Scandinavian peninsula, Britain, Ireland, and Iceland. The reason for this is that although the Scandinavian peninsula is attached to continental Europe, kontinenten is a vernacular Swedish expression that refers to the area excluding Sweden, Norway, and Finland but including Denmark and the rest of continental Europe. In Norway, similarly, one speaks about Kontinentet as an entity, usually referring to Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Benelux countries. Today, the Scandinavian peninsula is accessible by train and road with several bridge/tunnel structures connecting the Danish peninsula of Jutland to Scania in Sweden. The Continent may sometimes refer to the part of Italy, the continental part of Spain, the continental part of France. The term is used from the perspective of the residents of each country to describe the continental portion of their country or the continent as a whole. Continental philosophy Geopolitical divisions of Europe Geographical midpoint of Europe Mainland Western Europe Hajnal line
7.
Virgin Records
–
Virgin Records is a British-founded record label originally founded by English entrepreneurs Richard Branson, Simon Draper, Nik Powell, and musician Tom Newman in 1972. It was later sold to Thorn EMI in 1992, today, the operations of Virgin Records America, Inc. are still active and headquartered in Hollywood, California, as it operates exclusively under the Capitol Music Group since 2007. US artists include Knox Hamilton, LTric and Rise Against, in fact the first real store was above a shoe shop at the Tottenham Court Road end of Oxford Street. After making the shop into a success, they turned their business into a fully fledged record label, the name Virgin, according to Branson, arose from Tessa Watts, a colleague of his, when they were brainstorming business ideas. She suggested Virgin – as they were all new to business – like virgins, the original Virgin logo was designed by English artist and illustrator Roger Dean, a young naked woman in mirror image with a large long-tailed serpent and the word Virgin in Deans familiar script. A variation on the logo was used for the spin-off Caroline Records label and this was soon followed by some notable krautrock releases, including electronic breakthrough album Phaedra by Tangerine Dream, and The Faust Tapes and Faust IV by Faust. The Faust Tapes album retailed for 49p and as a result allowed this relatively unknown band to reach number 12 in the album charts, other early albums include Gongs Flying Teapot, which Daevid Allen has been quoted as having never been paid for. Under the guidance of Tessa Watts, Virgins Head of Publicity, shortly afterwards, the Notting Hill record shop was raided by police for having a window display of the Sex Pistols album Never Mind the Bollocks, Heres the Sex Pistols in the window. After modified versions of the label came the red, white and blue design introduced in 1975. The current Virgin logo was created in 1978, commissioned by Simon Draper, brian Cooke of Cooke Key Associates commissioned a graphic designer to produce a stylised signature. In 1983 Virgin purchased Charisma Records, renaming it Charisma/Virgin, then later Virgin/Charisma, before folding the label in 1986, in the process they acquired Genesis and comedy group Monty Python. The Charisma label was reactivated in the US in 1990 and enjoyed success with such as Maxi Priest, Right Said Fred,38 Special. When this Charisma label was retired in 1992, all of its artists were, as before, in 1987, Venture Records was created for new age and modern classical artists including Klaus Schulze, who had been associated with Virgin since the early 1970s. 10 Records Immortal Records Delabel Caroline Records was a label used from 1973 to 1977. The name and logo were used for some American editions of Virgin records in the 1980s and 1990s. Caroline was primarily used for independent distribution until the label was reactivated in 2013, today, Caroline Records acts as an independent label taking the place of EMI Label Services, after Virgins former parent company EMI was purchased by Universal Music Group. Front Line Records was a label for issuing Jamaican and English reggae music from 1978 to approximately 1987, a short-lived associated label, Dindisc, had Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark and The Monochrome Set during its brief existence, after which its recordings became part of Virgins catalogue. Noo Trybe Records was a hip hop label that existed from 1994 to 1999
8.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
9.
Arts Council of Great Britain
–
The Arts Council of Great Britain was a non-departmental public body dedicated to the promotion of the fine arts in Great Britain. The Arts Council of Great Britain was divided in 1994 to form the Arts Council of England, the Scottish Arts Council, at the same time the National Lottery was established and these three arts councils, plus the Arts Council of Northern Ireland, became distribution bodies. In 1940, during the Second World War, the Council for the Encouragement of Music, chaired by Lord De La Warr, President of the Board of Education, the Council was government-funded and after the war was renamed the Arts Council of Great Britain. A Royal Charter was granted on 9 August 1946, followed by another in 1967, the Councils first Chairman was John Maynard Keynes who used his influence in Government to secure a high level of funding despite Britains poor finances following the war. The majority of funding was directed to organisations with which Keynes had close ties such as the Royal Opera House and was restricted to Central London. After Keynes death Government funding was reduced but the Arts Council received wide recognition for its contribution to the Festival of Britain thanks to the new Chairman Kenneth Clark, artworks commissioned by the Council for the Festival were retained to form the basis of the Arts Council Collection. The Arts Council commissioned 12 sculptors and 60 painters, who made paintings,114 by 152 centimetres or more. Ultimately the works were to be given to new hospitals, libraries, schools, under the Harold Wilson Government of 1964-70 the Arts Council enjoyed a Golden Age thanks to the close relationship between Chairman Arnold Goodman and the Arts Minister Jennie Lee. This period saw the Council establish a network of organisations across the country as regular client organisations. Since 1987, the gallery has been managed by the South Bank Centre. In 2003 sculpture in the Collection was moved to a base in Yorkshire, during the 1970s and 1980s the Arts Council came under attack for being elitist and politically biased, in particular from the prominent Conservative Party minister Norman Tebbit. The Government grant to the Council was capped effecting a real reduction in funding though it was argued that any shortfall would be made up by increased sponsorship from the private sector. The Secretary-General from 1975–83, Roy Shaw, the last secretary-General to be knighted, faced the task of reconciling the needs of arts organisations with the restricted funding. William Rees-Mogg was an appointment as Chairman and proposed slimming down the Councils responsibilities. This led to a series of clashes with prominent figures from the Arts such as Peter Hall who resigned from the Council in protest, in 1987 the restructure inspired by Rees-Mogg cut by half the number of organisations receiving Arts Council funding. During the same period the Arts Council began encouraging a greater level of sponsorship for the arts. The Arts Council of Great Britain was divided in 1994 to form the Arts Council of England, Scottish Arts Council, at the same time the National Lottery was established and the Arts Council of England became one of the distribution bodies
10.
Stormy Six
–
Stormy Six were an Italian progressive and folk rock band founded in Milan in 1966. They performed and recorded until 1983, mostly as a sextet but occasionally as a quartet, a quintet, although their line-up changed considerably over the years, founding member Franco Fabbri remained with the group for its entire duration. In May 1993 they performed at a concert in Milan. Stormy Six were best known as one of the five original Rock in Opposition bands that performed at the first RIO festival in March 1978 in London and they later participated actively in the shaping of RIO as an organisation and performed across Europe with other RIO and related bands. Stormy Six began in 1966 as a rock band, opening for The Rolling Stones on their first Italian tour in 1967. After some line-up changes Stormy Six switched to left-wing/protest folk rock, in the mid 1970s their music became more complex and they started to experiment, moving into progressive rock. It also became an independent record label which the musicians managed themselves and on which Stormy Six released many of their own singles, Stormy Six played a leading role in the affairs of LOrchestra. Stormy Sixs exposure to and collaboration with foreign artists began in 1975 when English avant-rock group Henry Cow first toured Italy, Stormy Six invited Henry Cow to join LOrchestra which cemented a relationship between the two bands. Later, in 1978, Henry Cow invited Stormy Six and three other European groups to perform at a Rock in Opposition festival in London, as one of the five original RIO members, Stormy Six participated actively in the shaping of RIO as an organisation. In 1979 Stormy Six organised a second RIO festival in Milan where the now seven RIO members performed in a week-long event. Stormy Sixs sixth album, LApprendista was well received in rock circles. Henry Cows Georgie Born guested on Macchina Maccheronica and performed with Stormy Six in several of their concerts at the time, after recording one more album, Al Volo, Stormy Six broke up in 1983.1 No.3. On 10 May 1993 a Stormy Six reunion took place for a performance at the Orfeo Theatre in Milan, the concert was recorded and later released on a live album, Un Concerto. Stormy Sixs line-up changed considerably over the years, with founding member Franco Fabbri being the only constant member
11.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
12.
Samla Mammas Manna
–
Samla Mammas Manna was a Swedish progressive rock band often characterized by virtuosic musicianship, circus references and silly humour, similar in many ways to the song-writing style of Frank Zappa. They were one of the members of the Rock in Opposition movement in the late 1970s. In 1979 they were Fred Friths backing band on his solo album, musically, they bore a resemblance to the Canterbury scene. The original line-up was Lars Hollmer, Hasse Bruniusson, Lars Krantz, for Måltid, jazz fusion guitarist Coste Apetrea joined the group. They were on the fringe of the Swedish political progg movement, although their lyrics were humorous, some more serious elements of the progg movement were not amused by this frivolous attitude. The band underwent line-up and name changes over the years, reinventing their sound each time, in 1999, the band reformed under their original name for a one-off release entitled Kaka. In 2002 they reunited again, this time with Japanese musician Yoshida Tatsuya on drums, for some performances, the band played their first concerts in the US in August 2003, in Chicago at Schubas, and at the annual Progday festival in North Carolina. In 2005 the band opened the international rock festival that took place in Moscow, Russia. 1983 Romantic Warriors II, A Progressive Music Saga About Rock in Opposition Samla Mammas Manna at AllMusic
13.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
14.
Belgium
–
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
15.
Etron Fou Leloublan
–
Etron Fou Leloublan, also known as EFL, were a French avant-garde rock band founded in 1973 by actor and saxophonist Chris Chanet. They recorded five albums between 1976 and 1985, and released a live album, En Public Aux Etats-Unis dAmérique recorded during a tour of the United States in 1979. Etron Fou Leloublan were best known as one of the five original Rock in Opposition bands that performed at the first RIO festival in London in March 1978. Etron Fou Leloublans music has been described as a blend of rock, jazz, French music hall, comedy satire. Etron Fou Leloublan were originally called Etron Fou, a trio comprising vocalist and saxophonist Eulalie Ruynat, Ferdinand Richard and their first concert was on 27 December 1973 when they opened for the French progressive rock band, Magma. Etron Fou then went on to produce a viable, musical alternative to both French rocknroll and French free jazz, which had stagnated at the time, in November 1976 they changed their name to Etron Fou Leloublan and recorded their first album, Batelages. Chanet left the band before the album was released, towards the end of 1977 Francis Grand replaced Chanet on saxophone and the trio recorded their second album, Les Trois Fous Perdégagnent. In March 1978, at the invitation of English avant-garde rock group Henry Cow, Etron Fou Leloublan joined Rock in Opposition and they also played at the second RIO festival in Milan in April 1979, organised by RIOs Italian representative, Stormy Six. Etron Fou Leloublan became a quartet in 1980 with Bernard Mathieu replacing Grand on saxophone, in mid-1980 the band recorded with former Henry Cow guitarist Fred Frith in France and Switzerland, and appeared on one side of Friths 1981 solo LP, Speechless. Frith produced Etron Fou Leloublans next album, Les Poumons Gonflés, for their fifth album, Les Sillons de la Terre the saxophonist changed again with Bruno Meillier replacing Mathieu. Etron Fou Leloublan recorded their last album, Face Aux Éléments Déchaînés in August 1985 as a trio of Richard, Thirion and Chenevier, Frith produced the album and guested on four of the tracks. The band broke up in 1986, plunderphonics, pataphysics & pop mechanics, an introduction to musique actuelle. At New Gibraltar Encyclopedia of Progressive Rock
16.
Kirchberg, St. Gallen
–
Kirchberg is a municipality in the Wahlkreis of Toggenburg in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland. Kirchberg is first mentioned in 1222 as Kilchberc, Kirchberg has an area, as of 2006, of 42.6 km2. Of this area,59. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land, 9% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. The municipality is located in the Toggenburg Wahlkreis and it is the most north-western municipality in the Wahlkreis and in bordered in the west by canton Thurgau and in the east by the Thur river. It consists of the village of Kirchberg on a plateau in the center of the municipality, the village of Gähwil south of Kirchberg. Additionally, scattered around the municipality, there are the hamlets of Müselbach, Dietschwil, Ötwil, Nuetenwil, Rupperswil, Bräägg, Schalkhusen, Wolfikon, Lütenriet, Buomberg, Bäbikon and Husen. The blazon of the coat of arms is Per pall Or a Lion rampant Gules crowned Argent and Or a Semi Eagle displayed issuant Azure langued Gules. Kirchberg has a population of 8,874, as of 2007, about 22. 9% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Of the foreign population,102 are from Germany,187 are from Italy,1,002 are from ex-Yugoslavia,34 are from Austria,284 are from Turkey, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 2. 3%. Most of the population speaks German, with Albanian being second most common, of the Swiss national languages,6,829 speak German,15 people speak French,134 people speak Italian, and 7 people speak Romansh. The age distribution, as of 2000, in Kirchberg is,1,148 children or 14. 5% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,235 teenagers or 15. 6% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population,901 people or 11. 4% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 1,286 people or 16. 3% are between 30 and 39,1,170 people or 14. 8% are between 40 and 49, and 792 people or 10. 0% are between 50 and 59. In 2000 there were 709 persons who were living alone in a private dwelling, there were 1,447 persons who were part of a couple without children, and 5,004 who were part of a couple with children. In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 37. 9% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the CVP, the SP and the FDP. The entire Swiss population is well educated. In Kirchberg about 63. 1% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, the remainder did not answer this question. The historical population is given in the table, The catholic parish and pilgrimage church of St. Peter
17.
Art Bears
–
Art Bears were an English avant-rock group formed during the disassembly of Henry Cow in 1978 by three of its members, Chris Cutler, Fred Frith and Dagmar Krause. The group released three albums between 1978 and 1981, and toured Europe in 1979. In 2008 Cutler, Frith and others formed Art Bears Songbook, Art Bears were formed during the recording of Henry Cows last album after disagreements arose over the albums content. Frith and Cutler favoured song-oriented material, while others in the band preferred instrumental compositions, the instrumental material appeared later on the final Henry Cow album, Western Culture. Hopes and Fears thus consisted of Henry Cow songs with the addition of new Art Bears material recorded later by Frith, Cutler, towards the end of 1978, Art Bears returned to the studio to record their first true album, Winter Songs. It comprised fourteen short songs composed by Frith around texts by Cutler inspired by carvings on the stylobate of Amiens Cathedral, in December 1978, Art Bears joined Rock in Opposition, and toured Europe in April and May 1979. For the tour, they were joined by Peter Blegvad and Marc Hollander and they rehearsed at the Cold Storage Recording Studios in Brixton, before leaving for Italy in late April. They performed in Italy, France, Belgium and Czechoslovakia, including an RIO festival on 1 May in Milan. Some of the songs recorded during the tour were added to the CD release of Hopes and Fears and The Art Box. The band returned to the studio in 1980 to make one album, The World as It Is Today. The Berlin Programme included fragments of three Art Bears songs, in 1993 Frith, Cutler and Krause worked together again on a song project, Domestic Stories by Chris Cutler and Lutz Glandien, with saxophonist Alfred Harth. While similar to Art Bears, the addition of Glandiens electronic music made Domestic Stories a distinctly different album, an Art Bears review took place in May 2008 at the world premiere of the Art Bears Songbook at the 25th Festival International de Musique Actuelle de Victoriaville in Quebec. It was performed by Cutler, Frith, Jewlia Eisenberg, Carla Kihlstedt, Zeena Parkins, Kristin Slipp, the project was so-named because Frith and Cutler did not want it to be seen as an Art Bears reunion. According to All About Jazz the Art Bears Songbook was not just a highlight, another performance of the Art Bears Songbook took place at the third edition of the French Rock in Opposition event in Carmaux in September 2010. The line-up was the same as before, except that Krause, who had agreed to out of retirement, replaced Eisenberg. Art Bearss music was deeply political in content and frequently avant-garde. They were more song oriented than Henry Cow, although much of the material on their album was actually written with the intention of being performed by the latter band. Their music was very dark in concept and in atmosphere, krauses voice contributed significantly to the mood and character of the songs
18.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
19.
Chris Cutler
–
Chris Cutler is an English percussionist, composer, lyricist and music theorist. Best known for his work with English avant-rock group Henry Cow, Cutler was also a member and drummer of bands, including Art Bears, News from Babel, Pere Ubu. He has collaborated with musicians and groups, including Fred Frith, Lindsay Cooper, Zeena Parkins, Peter Blegvad, Telectu and The Residents. Cutlers career spans four decades and he still performs actively throughout the world. Cutler created and runs the British independent record label Recommended Records and is the editor of its sound-magazine and he has given a number of public lectures on music, published numerous articles and papers, and written a book on the political theory of contemporary music, File Under Popular. Cutler also assembled and released The 40th Anniversary Henry Cow Box Set, Chris Cutler was born in January 1947 in Washington, D. C. to a British foreign correspondent and his Austrian wife. In 1948 the family moved to England, where Cutler was brought up and he never studied music but tried his hand at banjo, guitar, trumpet and flute while at school. He finally settled for drums because I wanted to be in a band, Cutler formed his first band in 1963, playing Shadows and Ventures instrumental covers, then played in several R&B and soul bands. In 1966 he joined a band called Louise which performed on the London psychedelic club circuit for three years before breaking up, looking for work, Cutler placed a series of advertisements in Melody Maker over a period of nine months in 1970. This put him in touch with a number of musicians led to Cutler and keyboardist Dave Stewart of Egg forming The Ottawa Music Company. Soon afterwards, Henry Cow, looking to replace the drummer who had just left them, responded to one of Cutlers adverts, Henry Cow had been formed in 1968 by Cambridge University students Fred Frith and Tim Hodgkinson. By 1971 the band had gone through a number of personnel changes, Frith, Hodgkinson and Cutler became Henry Cows permanent core until the band split up in 1978. Henry Cows prominence in rock circles launched the careers of many of its members. All this proved invaluable experience for Cutler that would assist him greatly in his future endeavours, the group spent most of its last three years touring Europe and many of Cutlers future collaborations resulted from contact made with musicians on these tours. In Henry Cows last few months they initiated Rock in Opposition, after Henry Cow disbanded in 1978, Cutler created Recommended Records in London, an independent label and distribution network for RIO artists. The record label quickly filled the gap left by commercial labels and soon began to also release non-RIO bands, Recommended Recordss aim was to produce records of high technical and musical quality, placing the musicians interests first and profits second. This strategy, however, led to the label experiencing financial difficulties from time to time, There are a number of musicians whose work would never have seen the light of day had it not been for Cutlers label. Cutler also founded November Books in 1982, the wing of Recommended Records
20.
Recommended Records
–
Recommended Records is a British independent record label and distribution network founded by Chris Cutler in March 1978. RēR features largely Rock in Opposition and related music, but it also distributes selected music released on independent labels. In 1989 Recommended Records became known as RēR Megacorp with a turnover of £180,000 in 1994, in 1978 these groups got together and formed Rock in Opposition. To provide a record label and distribution network for these artists, when RIO folded as an organisation in late 1979, RēR continued RIOs work by representing and promoting marginalised musicians and groups. RēR became a virtual RIO, and part of the legacy of RIO. Recommended Records grew from Ré, a record label in 1978 to RēR Megacorp in 1989. They have consistently introduced new and interesting artists from around the world and they have always put the artist first and commercial viability second. The intention was to import and distribute new, interesting and experimental music from all over the world to the United Kingdom, in 1979, Cutler established the Recommended label for releases other than his own. Recommended Distribution went on to become These Records, an affiliated label, rēR/Recommended became known as RēR Megacorp with a website and online shopping facilities. Just as Recommended Recordss name evolved over the years, so did its logo, while many of these labels are distinct operations, they share a common musical ethic. Various artists, Recommended Records Sampler Various artists, Recommended Records Sampler Various artists, article by Patrick Wright published in The Guardian, November 1995 – includes the evolution and politics of RēR
