1.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
2.
Drive shaft
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As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century, in Stovers 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. The term is not used in his original patent, another early use of the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn mowing machine. Here, the term refers to the transmitting power from the machines wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a closer to the modern sense. In 1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power. In the same year, Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle, an automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to power from a central differential, transmission. In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a drive shaft is also required to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate, The torque tube with a universal joint. This system became known as Système Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it, most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate, some vehicles, seeking improved weight balance between front and rear, use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car, in this case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the car is stationary and out of gear. A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to one rear axle. Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft, some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels
3.
Propeller (aeronautics)
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An aircraft propeller or airscrew converts rotary motion from an engine or other mechanical power source, to provide propulsive force. It comprises a rotating hub, to which are attached several radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. The blade pitch may be fixed, manually variable to a few set positions, the propeller attaches to the power sources driveshaft either directly or, especially on larger designs, through reduction gearing. Most early aircraft propellers were carved by hand from solid or laminated wood, more recently, composite materials are becoming increasingly used. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between ones hands, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, men continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. Many of these models and machines would more closely resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments, a dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long streamlined envelope with internal ballonnets that could be used for regulating lift, the airship was designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-powered propeller to a balloon, sir George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers. William Bland sent designs for his Atmotic Airship to the Great Exhibition held in London in 1851 and this was an elongated balloon with a steam engine driving twin propellers suspended underneath. Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands, in 1872 Dupuy de Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by eight men
4.
Helicopter rotor
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The blade pitch is typically controlled by a swashplate connected to the helicopter flight controls. Helicopters are one example of rotary-wing aircraft, the name is derived from the Greek words helix, helik-, meaning spiral, and pteron meaning wing. The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, the bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released, leonardo da Vinci designed a machine known as an aerial screw with a rotor based on a water screw. The Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov developed a rotor based on the Chinese toy, the French naturalist Christian de Launoy constructed his rotor out of turkey feathers. Sir George Cayley, inspired by the Chinese toy in his childhood, alphonse Pénaud would later develop the coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, powered by rubber bands. One of these toys, given as a gift by their father, before development of powered helicopters in the mid 20th century, autogyro pioneer Juan de la Cierva researched and developed many of the fundamentals of the rotor. De la Cierva is credited with development of multi-bladed, fully articulated rotor systems. This system, in its various modified forms, is the basis of most multi-bladed helicopter rotor systems and their TsAGI 1-EA helicopter was able to fly in low altitude testing in 1931-32, with Cheremukhin flying it as high as 605 meters by mid-August 1932. In the 1930s, Arthur Young improved the stability of two-bladed rotor systems with the introduction of a stabilizer bar and this system was used in several Bell and Hiller helicopter models. In the late 1940s, the making of helicopter blades was a job that inspired John T. Parsons to be a pioneer of numerical control. NC and CNC turned out to be an important new technology that affected all machining industries. The helicopter rotor is powered by the engine, through the transmission, the mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upward from—and is driven by—the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub, the rotor blades are then attached to the hub, and the hub can have 10-20 times the drag of the blade. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the rotor blades are attached. There are three classifications, hingeless, teetering, and fully articulated, although some modern rotor systems use a combination of these classifications. A rotor is a finely tuned rotating mass, and different subtle adjustments reduce vibrations at different airspeeds, the rotors are designed to operate at a fixed RPM, but a few experimental aircraft used variable speed rotors. Unlike the small diameter fans used in jet engines, the main rotor on a helicopter has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air
5.
Ducted fan
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A ducted fan is a propulsion arrangement whereby a mechanical fan, which is a type of propeller, is mounted within a cylindrical shroud or duct. Ducted fan propulsion is used in aircraft, airships, airboats, hovercraft, Ducted fans normally have more and shorter blades than propellers and thus can operate at higher rotational speeds. In aircraft applications, the speed of an unshrouded propeller is limited since tip speeds approach the sound barrier at lower speeds than an equivalent ducted fan. The most common ducted fan arrangement used in full-sized aircraft is a turbofan engine, turbofan engines are used on nearly all airliners, fighters, and bombers. However, a fan may be powered by any source of shaft power such as a reciprocating engine, Wankel engine. A kind of ducted fan, known as a fantail or by the trademark name Fenestron, is used to replace tail rotors on helicopters. Ducted fans usually have an odd number of blades to prevent resonance in the duct, Ducted fans are favored in VTOL aircraft such as the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, and other low-speed designs such as hovercraft for their higher thrust-to-weight ratio. In some cases, a shrouded rotor can be 94% more efficient than an open rotor, the improved performance is mainly because the outward flow is less contracted and thus carries more kinetic energy. Among model aircraft hobbyists, the fan is popular with builders of high-performance radio controlled model aircraft. Internal-combustion glow engines combined with ducted-fan units were the first achievable means of modeling a scaled-size jet aircraft, despite the introduction of model-scale turbojet engines, electric-powered ducted fans remain popular on smaller, lower-cost model aircraft. Some electric-powered ducted fan airplanes can reach speeds of more than 320km/h, by reducing propeller blade tip losses, the ducted fan is more efficient in producing thrust than a conventional propeller of similar diameter, especially at low speed and high static thrust level. By sizing the ductwork appropriately, the designer can adjust the fan to allow it to more efficiently at higher air speeds than a propeller would. For the same static thrust, a fan has a smaller diameter than a free propeller. Ducted fans are quieter than propellers, they shield the blade noise, Ducted fans can allow for a limited amount of thrust vectoring, something normal propellers are not well suited for. This allows them to be used instead of tiltrotors in some applications, Ducted fans offer enhanced safety on the ground. Less efficient than a propeller at cruise, good efficiency requires very small clearances between the blade tips and the duct. Requires high RPM and minimal vibration, complex duct design, and weight increase even if constructed from advanced composites. At high angle of attack, parts of the duct will stall, centrifugal fan Fan Geared turbofan Ducted propeller Pusher configuration Unducted fan Flying Car
6.
Propfan
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A propfan or open rotor engine is a type of aircraft engine related in concept to both the turboprop and turbofan, but distinct from both. The European Aviation Safety Agency defines it as A turbine engine featuring contra rotating fan stages not enclosed within a casing, a propfan is typically designed with a large number of short, highly twisted blades, similar to a turbofans bypass compressor. For this reason, the propfan has been described as an unducted fan or an ultra-high-bypass turbofan. The design is intended to offer the speed and performance of a turbofan, turboprops have an optimum speed below about 450 mph. The reason is that all propellers lose efficiency at high speed and this powerful form of drag has a sudden onset, and led to the concept of a sound barrier when it was first encountered in the 1940s. In the case of a propeller, this effect can happen any time the propeller is spun fast enough that the blade tips near the speed of sound, even if the aircraft is motionless on the ground. The most effective way to counteract this problem is by adding more blades to the propeller, the major downside to this approach is that adding blades makes the propeller harder to balance and maintain and the additional blades cause minor performance penalties. But even with these sorts of measures at some point the speed of the plane combined with the rotational speed of the propeller will once again result in wave drag problems. For most aircraft this will occur at speeds over about 450 mph, a method of decreasing wave drag was discovered by German researchers in 1935—sweeping the wing backwards. Today, almost all designed to fly much above 450 mph use a swept wing. In the 1970s, Hamilton Standard started researching propellers with similar sweep, jet aircraft fly faster than conventional propeller-driven aircraft. However, they use more fuel, so that for the fuel consumption a propeller installation produces more thrust. As fuel costs become an important aspect of commercial aviation. The propfan concept was developed to deliver 35% better fuel efficiency than contemporary turbofans, in static and air tests on a modified Douglas DC-9, propfans reached a 30% improvement over the OEM turbofans. However, in 2012 GE expects that propfans can meet these noise levels by 2030 when new generations from Boeing. Airlines consistently ask for low noise, and then maximum fuel efficiency, the Hamilton Standard Division of United Technologies developed the propfan concept in the early 1970s. Numerous design variations of the propfan were tested by Hamilton Standard, the aircraft, so configured, first flew in March 1987. After an extensive test program, the modifications were removed from the aircraft, general Electrics GE36 Unducted Fan was a variation on the original propfan concept, and appears similar to a pusher configuration piston engine
7.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
8.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
9.
Wankel engine
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The Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion engine using an eccentric rotary design to convert pressure into rotating motion. The engine is referred to as a rotary engine, although this name applies also to other completely different designs. All parts rotate moving in one direction, as opposed to the reciprocating piston engine which has pistons violently changing direction. The design was conceived by German engineer Felix Wankel, Wankel received his first patent for the engine in 1929. He began development in the early 1950s at NSU, and completed a prototype in 1957. NSU subsequently licensed the design to companies around the world, who have continually added improvements, the engines produced are of spark ignition, with compression ignition engines only in research projects. The Wankel engine has the advantages of compact design and low weight over the most commonly used internal combustion engine employing reciprocating pistons, the point of power to weight has been reached of under one pound weight per horsepower output. In 1951, NSU Motorenwerke AG in Germany began development of the engine, the first, the DKM motor, was developed by Felix Wankel. The second, the KKM motor, developed by Hanns Dieter Paschke, was adopted as the basis of the modern Wankel engine, so the Wankel engine design used today was not designed by Felix Wankel, and the Paschke engine could be a more apt title. The basis of the DKM type of motor was that both the rotor and the housing spun around on separate axes, the DKM motor reached higher revolutions per minute and was more naturally balanced. However, the engine needed to be stripped to change the spark plugs, the KKM engine was simpler, having a fixed housing. The first working prototype, DKM54, produced 21 hp and ran on February 1,1957, at the NSU research and development department Versuchsabteilung TX. The KKM57 was constructed by NSU engineer Hanns Dieter Paschke in 1957 without the knowledge of Felix Wankel, in 1960, NSU, the firm that employed the two inventors, and the US firm Curtiss-Wright, signed a joint agreement. Curtiss-Wright recruited Max Bentele to head their design team, many manufacturers signed license agreements for development, attracted by the smoothness, quiet running, and reliability emanating from the uncomplicated design. Amongst them were Alfa Romeo, American Motors, Citroen, Ford, General Motors, Mazda, Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, Porsche, Rolls-Royce, Suzuki, in the United States in 1959, under license from NSU, Curtiss-Wright pioneered improvements in the basic engine design. In Britain, in the 1960s, Rolls Royces Motor Car Division pioneered a two-stage diesel version of the Wankel engine, Citroën did much research, producing the M35, GS Birotor and RE-2 Helicopter using engines produced by Comotor, a joint venture of Citroën and NSU. General Motors seemed to have concluded the Wankel engine was more expensive to build than an equivalent reciprocating engine. General Motors claimed to have solved the fuel issue
10.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
11.
Turboprop
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A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. In contrast to a turbojet, the engines exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, in its simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle. Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor, fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts. The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine, some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller, further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop. Exhaust thrust in a turboprop is sacrificed in favor of shaft power, owing to the additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is low. Consequently, the exhaust jet typically produces around or less than 10% of the total thrust, turboprops can have bypass ratios up to 50-100 although the propulsion airflow is less clearly defined for propellers than for fans. The propeller is coupled to the turbine through a gear that converts the high RPM, low torque output to low RPM. The propeller itself is normally a constant speed type similar to that used with larger reciprocating aircraft engines, unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the propeller has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower velocity for a given amount of thrust. Propellers lose efficiency as speed increases, so turboprops are normally not used on high-speed aircraft above Mach 0. 6-0.7. However, propfan engines, which are similar to turboprop engines. To increase propeller efficiency, a mechanism can be used to alter their pitch relative to the airspeed, a variable-pitch propeller, also called a controllable-pitch propeller, can also be used to generate negative thrust while decelerating on the runway. Additionally, in the event of an outage, the pitch can be adjusted to a vaning pitch. While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use axial-flow compressors, turboprop engines usually contain at least one stage of centrifugal compression, centrifugal compressors have the advantage of being simple and lightweight, at the expense of a streamlined shape. While the power turbine may be integral with the gas generator section and this enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed. Residual thrust on a turboshaft is avoided by further expansion in the turbine system and/or truncating and turning the exhaust 180 degrees, apart from the above, there is very little difference between a turboprop and a turboshaft
12.
Turboshaft
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A turboshaft engine is a form of gas turbine which is optimized to produce shaft power rather than jet thrust. In concept, turboshaft engines are similar to turbojets, with additional turbine expansion to extract heat energy from the exhaust. They are even similar to turboprops, with only minor differences. Turboshaft engines are used in applications that require a sustained high power output, high reliability, small size. These include helicopters, auxiliary units, boats and ships, tanks, hovercraft. A turboshaft engine may be made up of two major parts assemblies, the gas generator and the power section, the gas generator consists of the compressor, combustion chambers with ignitors and fuel nozzles, and one or more stages of turbine. The power section consists of stages of turbines, a gear reduction system. The gas generator creates the hot expanding gases to drive the power section, depending on the design, the engine accessories may be driven either by the gas generator or by the power section. In most designs, the gas generator and power section are mechanically separate so they can rotate at different speeds appropriate for the conditions. A free power turbine can be a useful design feature for vehicles, as it allows the design to forgo the weight and cost of complex multiple-ratio transmissions. The general layout of a turboshaft is similar to that of a turboprop, the main difference is a turboprop is structurally designed to support the loads created by a rotating propeller, as the propeller is not attached to anything but the engine itself. In contrast, turboshaft engines usually drive a transmission which is not structurally attached to the engine, the transmission is attached to the vehicle structure and supports the loads created instead of the engine. In practice, though, many of the engines are built in both turboprop and turboshaft versions, with only minor differences. Large helicopters use two or three engines for redundancy. The Mil Mi-26 uses two Lotarev D-136 at 11,400 hp each, while the Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion uses three General Electric T64 at 4,380 hp each. Early turboshaft engines were adaptations of turboprop engines, delivering power through a shaft driven directly from the gas generator shafts, examples of direct-drive turboshafts include marinised or industrial Rolls-Royce Dart engines. The first examples of a gas engine design ever considered for armoured fighting vehicles. The first true turboshaft engine for helicopters was built by the French engine firm Turbomeca, led by the founder, in 1948, they built the first French-designed turbine engine, the 100-shp 782
13.
External combustion engine
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An external combustion engine is a heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine, produces motion, the fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused, or dumped, and cool fluid pulled in. Combustion refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat, the working fluid can be of any composition and the system may be single phase or dual phase. Gas is used in a Stirling engine, single-phase liquid may sometimes be used. Steam, as in an engine, is another option. In the case of the engine, or the Organic Rankine cycle the fluid changes phases between liquid and gas
14.
Steam aircraft
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A steam aircraft is an aircraft propelled by a steam engine. Steam aircraft were unusual devices because of the difficulty in producing a powerplant with a high enough power-to-weight ratio to be practical and they are distinct from airships that use steam as their lifting gas and are known as thermal airships. 1842, The Aerial Steam Carriage of William Samuel Henson and John Stringfellow was patented,1852, Henri Giffard flew a 3-horsepower steam-powered dirigible over Paris, it was the first powered aircraft. 1861 Gustave Ponton dAmécourt made a small steam-powered craft, coining the name helicopter,1874, Félix du Temple flew a steam-powered aluminium monoplane off a downhill run. While it did not achieve flight, it was the first manned heavier-than-air powered flight. 1877, Enrico Forlanini built and flew a model steam-powered helicopter in Milan,1882, Alexander Mozhaisky built a steam-powered plane but it did not achieve sustained flight. The engine from the plane is in the Central Air Force Museum in Monino,1890, Clément Ader built a steam-powered, bat-winged monoplane, named the Eole. Ader flew it on October 9,1890, over a distance of 50 metres and his flight did prove that a heavier-than-air flight was possible. Ader made at least three attempts, the last two on 12 and 14 October 1897 for the French Ministry of War. There is controversy whether or not he attained controlled flight. Ader did not obtain funding for his project, and that points to its probable failure,1896, Samuel Pierpont Langley successfully flew unpiloted steam-powered models. 1897, Carl Richard Nybergs Flugan developed steam-powered aircraft over a period from 1897 to 1922,1899, Gustave Whitehead built, and was purported to have flown, a steam-powered airplane in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Stoker/passenger Louis Darvarich was said to have been injured when the plane crashed into a story of an apartment building. Whitehead later claimed to have flown an aircraft in Hartford, Connecticut. Mainstream aviation historians remain unconvinced of the Whitehead claims, the flights have never been verified satisfactorily, there are no photographs, news stories, or other media from 1899 to confirm them. Likewise, the visit of the Wright brothers to Whitehead is apocryphal, other than affidavits taken over thirty years after the fact. 1902 Lyman Gilmore claimed in 1927 to have flown an aircraft on 15 May 1902. 1920, The Bristol Tramp was to have been a steam-powered aeroplane, but the turbine was over-powered,1931 Harry Crossland Pfaff of Chicago designed and made a steam-powered aircraft
15.
Reaction engine
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A reaction engine is an engine or motor which provides thrust by expelling reaction mass, in accordance with Newtons third law of motion. This law of motion is most commonly paraphrased as, For every action there is an equal. Examples include both jet engines and rocket engines, and more uncommon variations such as Hall effect thrusters, ion drives, mass drivers, for all reaction engines which carry their propellant onboard prior to use some energy must go into accelerating the reaction mass. Every engine will waste some energy, but even assuming 100% efficiency, the engine will need energy amounting to 12 M V e 2, which is simply the energy to accelerate the exhaust. Interestingly, if the impulse is fixed, for a mission delta-v. This comes to an exhaust velocity of about ⅔ of the mission delta-v. Where the vehicle performance is limited, e. g. if solar power or nuclear power is used. Hence the time to reach a required delta-v is proportional to v e, thus the latter should not be too large. On the other hand, if the exhaust velocity can be made to vary so that at each instant it is equal and opposite to the vehicle velocity then the absolute minimum energy usage is achieved. When this is achieved, the exhaust stops in space ^ and has no energy. However, in most cases this uses an impractical quantity of propellant, some drives actually can significantly vary their exhaust velocity. This can help reduce propellant usage and improve acceleration at different stages of the flight, however the best energetic performance and acceleration is still obtained when the exhaust velocity is close to the vehicle speed. Proposed ion and plasma drives usually have exhaust velocities enormously higher than that ideal, for a mission, for example, when launching from or landing on a planet, the effects of gravitational attraction and any atmospheric drag must be overcome by using fuel. It is typical to combine the effects of these and other effects into an effective mission delta-v, for example, a launch mission to low Earth orbit requires about 9. 3–10 km/s delta-v. These mission delta-vs are typically numerically integrated on a computer, all reaction engines lose some energy, mostly as heat. Different reaction engines have different efficiencies and losses, for example, rocket engines can be up to 60-70% energy efficient in terms of accelerating the propellant. The rest is lost as heat and thermal radiation, primarily in the exhaust, reaction engines are more energy efficient when they emit their reaction mass when the vehicle is travelling at high speed. Dividing by length of time of motion we get, E t = P = F × d t = F × v Hence, P = F × v where P is the useful power and v is the speed
16.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
17.
Motorjet
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A motorjet is a rudimentary type of jet engine which is sometimes referred to as thermojet, a term now commonly used to describe a particular and completely unrelated pulsejet design. At the heart the motorjet is a piston engine, but instead of driving a propeller. The compressed air is channeled into a chamber, where fuel is injected and ignited. The high temperatures generated by the cause the gases in the chamber to expand and escape at high velocity from the exhaust. Motorjet engines provide greater thrust than a propeller mounted on a piston engine. A jet engine also can provide thrust at higher speeds where a propeller becomes less efficient or even ineffective, in fact and this gives better efficiency in either operating range than an aircraft powered by just a propeller or a jet. The same is true of the dual-powerplant aircraft experimented with after the turbojet became practicable, the term motor jet was established in a patent filed in Britain by J. H. Harris of Esher, U. K. in 1917. It was next explored by Secondo Campini in the early 1930s, although it was not until 1940 that an aircraft, Campini established the misnomer thermojet at this time to describe his motorjet. Japanese engineers developed the Tsu-11 motorjet engine to power Ohka aircraft as an alternative to the rocket engines that these aircraft were then using. The Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich I-250 designed in 1944 used an engine to drive both a propeller at the nose of the plane, and a motorjet compressor leading to a jet exhaust at the tail. Between 10 and 50 I-250 aircraft were produced, serviced, a similar Sukhoi Su-5 plane had been designed, but never produced. One of the advantages of the motorjet layout was that the reciprocating engine provided power for the compressor. A motorjet history and research webpage Nye Thermodynamics Thermojet
18.
Pulsejet
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A pulsejet engine is a type of jet engine in which combustion occurs in pulses. A pulsejet engine can be made with few or no moving parts, Pulsejet engines are a lightweight form of jet propulsion, but usually have a poor compression ratio, and hence give a low specific impulse. There are two types of pulsejet engines, both of which use resonant combustion and harness the expanding combustion products to form a pulsating exhaust jet which produces thrust intermittently. The valved pulsejet comprises an intake with a one-way valve arrangement, the superheated exhaust gases exit through an acoustically resonant exhaust pipe. The intake valve is typically a reed valve, the two most common configurations are the daisy valve, and the rectangular valve grid. A daisy valve consists of a sheet of material to act as the reed. Each petal covers a circular hole at its tip. The daisy valve is bolted to the manifold through its centre, although easier to construct on a small scale, it is less effective than a valve grid. Valveless pulsejet engines have no moving parts and use only their geometry to control the flow of exhaust out of the engine. Valveless pulsejets expel exhaust out of both the intakes and the exhaust, though most try to have the majority of exhaust go out of the tail pipe for more efficient propulsion. The valveless pulsejet operates on the principle as the valved pulsejet. Fuel, as a gas or atomized liquid spray, is mixed with the air in the intake or directly injected into the combustion chamber. Starting the engine usually requires forced air and a source, such as a spark plug. With modern manufactured engine designs, almost any design can be made to be self-starting by providing the engine with fuel, once running, the engine only requires input of fuel to maintain a self-sustaining combustion cycle. The first working pulsejet was patented in 1906 by Russian engineer V. V, karavodin, who completed a working model in 1907. Engineer Paul Schmidt, pioneered a more efficient design based on modification of the intake valves, in 1934, Georg Madelung and Munich-based Paul Schmidt proposed to the German Air Ministry a flying bomb powered by Schmidts pulsejet. Madelung co-invented the ribbon parachute, a used to stabilise the V-1 in its terminal dive. Schmidts prototype bomb failed to meet German Air Ministry specifications, especially owing to poor accuracy, range, the original Schmidt design had the pulsejet placed in a fuselage like a modern jet fighter, unlike the eventual V-1 which had the engine placed above the warhead and fuselage
19.
Valveless pulsejet
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A valveless pulse jet is the simplest known jet propulsion device. Valveless pulsejets are low in cost, light weight, powerful and they have been used to power toy pop pop boats, model aircraft, experimental go-karts, and unmanned military aircraft such as cruise missiles and target drones. A pulsejet engine is a reaction engine that employs an ongoing sequence of discrete combustion events rather than one sustained combustion event. This clearly distinguishes it from other engine types such as rockets, turbojets and ramjets. All other reaction engines are driven by maintaining high internal pressure and this alternation is not maintained by any mechanical contrivance, but rather by the natural acoustic resonance of the rigid tubular engine structure. The combustion events driving a pulsejet are often informally called explosions, however and they are not detonations, which is the combustion event in Pulse Detonation Engines. The deflagration within the zone of a pulsejet is characterized by a sudden rise in temperature and pressure followed by a rapid subsonic expansion in gas volume. It is this expansion that performs the work of moving air rearward through the device as well as setting up conditions in the main tube for the cycle to continue. A pulsejet engine works by accelerating a contained mass of air rearward. The energy to accelerate the air mass is provided by the deflagration of fuel mixed thoroughly into the newly acquired fresh air mass and this cycle is repeated many times per second. These pulses of force, rapidly repeated over time, comprise the measurable thrust force of the engine, some basic differences between valved and valveless pulsejets are, Valveless pulsejet engines have no mechanical valve, eliminating the only internal moving part of the conventional pulsejet. In valveless engines, the section has an important role to play throughout the entire pulsejet cycle. Valveless engines produce thrust forces in two distinct but synchronized mass acceleration events per cycle, rather than just one. In a conventional valved pulsejet, like the engine of the infamous V-1 buzz bomb of World War II and these are generally known as the intake and the tailpipe. The function of the intake is to provide air for combustion. The purpose of the rear-facing tailpipe is to air mass for acceleration by the explosive blast as well as to direct the accelerated mass totally rearward. The combustion zone and tailpipe make up the tube of the engine. A flexible, low mass one-way valve separates the intake from the combustion zone, at the beginning of each cycle, air must be pulled into the combustion zone
20.
Ramjet
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A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd, is a form of airbreathing jet engine that uses the engines forward motion to compress incoming air without an axial compressor. Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, they move an aircraft from a standstill. A ramjet-powered vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust, ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3. This type of engine can operate up to speeds of Mach 6, ramjets can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple mechanism for high-speed use, such as missiles. Weapon designers are looking to use technology in artillery shells to give added range. They have also used successfully, though not efficiently, as tip jets on the end of helicopter rotors. Ramjets differ from pulsejets, which use an intermittent combustion, ramjets employ a continuous combustion process, as speed increases, the efficiency of a ramjet starts to drop as the air temperature in the inlet increases due to compression. As the inlet temperature gets closer to the exhaust temperature, less energy can be extracted in the form of thrust, to produce a usable amount of thrust at yet higher speeds, the ramjet must be modified so that the incoming air is not compressed nearly as much. This means that the air flowing through the chamber is still moving very fast, in fact it will be supersonic—hence the name Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. LAutre Monde, ou les États et Empires de la Lune was the first of three novels written by Cyrano de Bergerac, that are considered among the first science fiction stories. Arthur C Clarke credited this book with inventing the ramjet, the ramjet was conceived in 1913 by French inventor René Lorin, who was granted a patent for his device. Attempts to build a prototype failed due to inadequate materials, fonó submitted his invention to the Austro-Hungarian Army, but the proposal was rejected. In an additional patent application, he adapted the engine for subsonic speed, the patent was finally granted in 1932 after four years of examination. In the Soviet Union, a theory of supersonic ramjet engines was presented in 1928 by Boris Stechkin, yuri Pobedonostsev, chief of GIRDs 3rd Brigade, carried out a great deal of research into ramjet engines. The first engine, the GIRD-04, was designed by I. A, Merkulov and tested in April 1933. To simulate supersonic flight, it was fed by air compressed to 20,000 kilopascals, the GIRD-08 phosphorus-fueled ramjet was tested by firing it from an artillery cannon. These shells may have been the first jet-powered projectiles to break the speed of sound, in 1939, Merkulov did further ramjet tests using a two-stage rocket, the R-3. In August of that year, he developed the first ramjet engine for use as a motor of an aircraft
21.
Scramjet
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A scramjet is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. This allows the scramjet to operate efficiently at high speeds. During World War II, an amount of time and effort were put into researching high-speed jet- and rocket-powered aircraft. Except for specialized rocket research vehicles like the North American X-15 and other rocket-powered spacecraft, aircraft top speeds have remained level, in the 1950s and 1960s a variety of experimental scramjet engines were built and ground tested in the US and the UK. In 1958, an analytical paper discussed the merits and disadvantages of supersonic combustion ramjets, in 1964, Drs. Frederick S. Billig and Gordon L. Dugger submitted a patent application for a supersonic combustion ramjet based on Billig’s Ph. D. thesis. This patent was issued in 1981 following the removal of an order of secrecy, in 1981 tests were made in Australia under the guidance of Professor Ray Stalker in the T3 ground test facility at ANU. The first successful flight test of a Scramjet was performed by Russia in 1991 and it was an axisymmetric hydrogen-fueled dual-mode scramjet developed by Central Institute of Aviation Motors, Moscow in the late 1970s. The scramjet flight was flown captive-carry atop the SA-5 surface-to-air missile that included an experiment flight support unit known as the Hypersonic Flying Laboratory, Kholod. Then from 1992 to 1998 an additional 6 flight tests of the axisymmetric high-speed scramjet-demonstrator were conducted by CIAM together with France, maximum flight velocity greater than Mach 6.4 was achieved and Scramjet operation during 77 seconds was demonstrated. These flight test series also provided insight into autonomous hypersonic flight controls, in the 2000s, significant progress was made in the development of hypersonic technology, particularly in the field of scramjet engines. The HyShot project demonstrated scramjet combustion on July 30,2002, the scramjet engine worked effectively and demonstrated supersonic combustion in action. However, the engine was not designed to provide thrust to propel a craft and it was designed more or less as a technology demonstrator. A joint British and Australian team from UK defense company QinetiQ, a series of scramjet ground tests was completed at NASA Langley Arc-Heated Scramjet Test Facility at simulated Mach 8 flight conditions. These experiments were used to support HIFiRE flight 2, on May 22,2009, Woomera hosted the first successful test flight of a hypersonic aircraft in HIFiRE. The launch was one of 10 planned test flights, on 22 and 23 March 2010, Australian and American defense scientists successfully tested a hypersonic rocket. It reached a velocity of more than 5,000 kilometres per hour after taking off from the Woomera Test Range in outback South Australia. On May 27,2010, NASA and the United States Air Force successfully flew the X-51A Waverider for approximately 200 seconds at Mach 5, the Waverider flew autonomously before losing acceleration for an unknown reason and destroying itself as planned. The test was declared a success, the X-51A was carried aboard a B-52, accelerated to Mach 4.5 via a solid rocket booster, and then ignited the Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne scramjet engine to reach Mach 5 at 70,000 feet
22.
Electric aircraft
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An electric aircraft is an aircraft powered by electric motors. Electricity may be supplied by a variety of including, batteries, ground power cables, solar cells, ultracapacitors, fuel cells. Electrically powered model aircraft have flown since the 1970s, with one unconfirmed report as early as 1957. They have since developed into small battery-powered unmanned aerial vehicles or drones, between 2015 and 2016, Solar Impulse 2 completed a circumnavigation of the Earth. All electric aircraft to date have been powered by electric motors driving thrust-generating propellers or lift-generating rotors, some of the propeller-driven types have been airships. Mechanisms for storing and supplying the necessary electricity vary considerably, mechanisms used include, Batteries can retain a significant electrical charge, although their weight still limits the range achievable. Power cables connect to a ground-based supply, Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Ultracapacitors can store a limited amount of energy for short bursts of high-power use Fuel cells are similar to batteries, microwave energy has been beamed from a ground-based source. Batteries are the most common Energy carrier component of electric aircraft, Batteries were the earliest source of electricity, first powering airships in the nineteenth century. Modern battery types include Lithium-based and a number of other widely used technologies. Such batteries remain a power source today, although they still have limited life between charges and hence limited range. Batteries are also used for temporary storage of electricity generated by another source. An electrical power cable may be connected to a ground-based supply, at low altitudes this can avoid carrying heavy batteries and was used by the experimental Petróczy-Kármán-Žurovec PKZ-1 observation helicopter of 1917. However such a craft must remain tethered to a facility, and the higher it flies. A Solar cell converts sunlight directly into electricity, either for direct power or temporary storage, the power output of solar cells is small, even when many are connected together, which limits their use and is also expensive. However their use of available sunlight makes them attractive for high-altitude. For endurance flights, keeping the craft in the air all night typically requires a storage system. Its advantage over a battery is the ability to charge and discharge much faster with higher peak currents
23.
Human-powered aircraft
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A human-powered aircraft is an aircraft belonging to the class of vehicles known as human-powered vehicles. Early attempts at human-powered flight were unsuccessful because of the difficulty of achieving the high power-to-weight ratio, prototypes often used ornithopter principles which were not only too heavy to meet this requirement but aerodynamically unsatisfactory. As of 2008, human-powered aircraft have been flown over considerable distances. However, they are constructed as engineering challenges rather than for any kind of recreational or utilitarian purpose. Its title was changed from Man to Human in 1988 because of the successful flights made by female pilots. It was conditional that the designer, entrant pilot, place of construction, in 1973 Kremer increased the prize to £50,000 and opened it to all nationalities, to stimulate interest. An early human-powered aircraft was the Gerhardt Cycleplane, developed by W. Frederick Gerhardt at McCook Field in Dayton, the aircraft had seven wings stacked nearly 15 feet high. The pilot pedaled a bicycle gear that turned the propeller, in early tests the aircraft was towed into the air by an automobile, and released. With Gerhardt as the pilot, the Cycleplane was able to maintain stable and its only human-powered takeoff was a short hop of 20 feet with the craft rising 2 feet. In 1934, Engelbert Zaschka from Germany completed a large human-powered aircraft, on 11 July 1934, the Zaschka-HPA flew about 20 meters on the Berlin Tempelhof Airport, the HPA took off without assisted takeoff. A craft called HV-1 Mufli built by Helmut Hässler and Franz Villinger first flew on 30 August 1935,120 flights were made, the longest being 712 metres in 1937. However, it was launched using a cable and so was not strictly human-powered. In March 1937, a team of Enea Bossi, Vittorio Bonomi, the aircraft apparently flew short distances fully under human power, but the distances were not significant enough to win the competitions prize. Furthermore, there has been much dispute whether it took off under the pedal-power of the pilot alone. Some arguments for and against the validity of Bossis claim to have done so are presented by Sherwin, at the time the fully human-powered flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and ultimately not attainable by a typical human. As with the HV-1 Mufli, additional attempts were made using a catapult system. By being catapulted to a height of 9 metres, the aircraft met the requirement of 1 kilometre but was declined the prize due to the launch method. The first officially authenticated take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft at Lasham Airfield
24.
Hydrogen-powered aircraft
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A hydrogen-powered aircraft is an aeroplane that uses hydrogen fuel as a power source. Hydrogen can either be burned in some kind of jet engine, or other kind of internal combustion engine, according to research at the Pennsylvania State University in 2006, large commercial hydrogen aircraft could be built by 2020 but will probably not enter service until closer to 2040. In aircraft heavy containers are not an option, and therefore regular carbon fibre tanks are often used and this is significantly lower compared to steel hydrogen containers which can sustain 500 to 700 bar. This limitation decreases the amount of energy that can be spent on the propulsion by about half, alternatively, as with some rockets, cryogenic liquid hydrogen could be employed. If hydrogen were available in quantity from renewable sources, its use in aircraft would produce fewer greenhouse gases than current aircraft. Currently, however, very little hydrogen is produced using renewable energy sources, due to the way it is produced, and the relative inefficiencies of its production given current technology, hydrogen is a much more expensive fuel than fossil fuels. Liquid hydrogen has about four times the volume for the amount of energy of kerosene based jet-fuel. In addition, its volatile nature precludes storing the fuel in the wings. Therefore, most liquid hydrogen aircraft designs store the fuel in the fuselage, leading to a fuselage length. This lowers the performance due to the wetted area of the fuselage. The larger fuselage size causes more skin friction drag and wave drag, on the other hand, hydrogen is about one-third of the weight of kerosene jet-fuel for the same amount of energy. This means that for the range and performance, the hydrogen aircraft would have about one-third of the fuel weight. For a Boeing 747-400 type aircraft, this would reduce the gross weight from 360,000 to 270,000 kg. Thus, the performance of an aircraft is a trade-off of the larger wetted area. This trade-off depends essentially on the size of the aircraft, the Russian manufacturer Tupolev built a prototype hydrogen-powered version of the Tu-154 airliner, named the Tu-155, which made its first flight in 1989. This was the first experimental aircraft in the world operating on liquid hydrogen, Boeing Research & Technology Europe made a civilian aircraft from a 2-seat Diamond Aircraft Industries DA20 motor glider running on a fuel cell. Lange Aviation GmbH also made a hydrogen-powered aeroplane with its Antares DLR-H2 airplane and these aircraft are of course configured in such fashion that the current low energy output from hydrogen propulsion do not pose a problem. For example, the Boeing Theator airplane only required 45 kW to take off, in July 2010 Boeing also unveiled its hydrogen powered Phantom Eye UAV, that uses two Ford Motor Company internal combustion engines converted to operate on hydrogen
25.
Nuclear-powered aircraft
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A nuclear-powered aircraft is a concept for an aircraft intended to be powered by nuclear energy. Some unmanned missile designs included nuclear powered supersonic cruise missiles, the ANP program included provisions for studying two different types of nuclear-powered jet engines, General Electrics Direct Air Cycle and Pratt & Whitneys Indirect Air Cycle. ANP planned for Convair to modify two B-36s under the MX-1589 project, the first operation of a nuclear aircraft engine occurred on January 31,1956 using a modified General Electric J47 turbojet engine. The Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program was terminated after the Presidents annual budget message to Congress in 1961, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory researched and developed nuclear aircraft engines. Two shielded reactors powered two General Electric J87 turbojet engines to full thrust. Two experimental engines complete with reactor system, are at the EBR-1 facility south of the Idaho National Laboratory 43°30′42. 22″N 113°0′18″W, the U. S. designed these engines for use in a new, specially-designed nuclear bomber, the WS-125. In 1957, the Air Force and the U. S, atomic Energy Commission contracted with the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory to study the feasibility of applying heat from nuclear reactors to ramjet engines. This research became known as Project Pluto and this program was to provide engines for an unmanned cruise missile, called SLAM, for Supersonic Low Altitude Missile. The program succeeded in producing two test engines, which were operated on the ground, on May 14,1961, the worlds first nuclear ramjet engine, Tory-IIA, mounted on a railroad car, roared to life for just a few seconds. On July 1,1964, seven years and six months after it was born, completed about six months ago, this aircraft has been flying in the Moscow area for at least two months. It has been observed both in flight and on the ground by a variety of foreign observers from Communist and non-Communist countries. An editorial on the topic accompanied the article and these concerns caused continued but temporary funding of the USs own program. The aircraft in the photographs was later revealed to be the entirely conventional Myasishchev M-50 Bounder, the design was considered a failure, never entered service, and was revealed to the public on Soviet Aviation Day in 1963 at Monino, putting the issue to rest. The Soviet program of aircraft development resulted in the experimental Tupolev Tu-119. It had 4 conventional turboprop engines and a nuclear reactor. The Tu-119 completed 34 research flights, most of which were made with the shut down. The main purpose of the phase was examining the effectiveness of the radiation shielding. Massive protection so reduced radiation levels that development could continue, but, as in the US, the obvious potential of the ICBM made the expensive program superfluous, and around the mid-1960s it was cancelled
26.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
27.
Rocket engine
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A rocket engine is a type of jet engine that uses only stored rocket propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. Rocket engines are reaction engines, obtaining thrust in accordance with Newtons third law, most rocket engines are internal combustion engines, although non-combusting forms also exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines are commonly called rockets, since they need no external material to form their jet, rocket engines can perform in a vacuum and thus can be used to propel spacecraft and ballistic missiles. Compared to other types of jet engines, rocket engines have the highest thrust, are by far the lightest, the ideal exhaust is hydrogen, the lightest of all gases, but chemical rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the exhaust velocity. Rocket engines become more efficient at high velocities, since they do not require an atmosphere, they are well suited for uses at very high altitude and in space. Here, rocket is used as an abbreviation for rocket engine, chemical rockets are powered by exothermic chemical reactions of the propellant. Thermal rockets use a propellant, heated by a power source such as electric or nuclear power. Solid-fuel rockets are chemical rockets which use propellant in a solid state, liquid-propellant rockets use one or more liquid propellants fed from tanks. Hybrid rockets use a propellant in the combustion chamber, to which a second liquid or gas oxidiser or propellant is added to permit combustion. Monopropellant rockets use a single propellant decomposed by a catalyst, the most common monopropellants are hydrazine and hydrogen peroxide. Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust fluid which has accelerated to a high speed through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure combustion of solid or liquid propellants, consisting of fuel and oxidiser components, within a combustion chamber. The nozzle uses the energy released by expansion of the gas to accelerate the exhaust to very high speed. An alternative to combustion is the rocket, which uses water pressurised by compressed air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or manual pumping. Chemical rocket propellants are most commonly used, which undergo exothermic chemical reactions which produce hot gas which is used by a rocket for propulsive purposes. Alternatively, a chemically inert reaction mass can be heated using a power source via a heat exchanger. Solid rocket propellants are prepared as a mixture of fuel and oxidising components called grain, liquid-fuelled rockets force separate fuel and oxidiser components into the combustion chamber, where they mix and burn. Hybrid rocket engines use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants, both liquid and hybrid rockets use injectors to introduce the propellant into the chamber
28.
Airbreathing jet engine
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They are typically gas turbine engines. Most modern jet engine designs are turbofans, which have largely replaced turbojets and these features combine to give a high efficiency, relative to a turbojet. A few jet engines use simple ram effect or pulse combustion to give compression, the original air-breathing gas turbine jet engine was the turbojet. It was a concept brought to life by two engineers, Frank Whittle in England United Kingdom and Hans von Ohain in Germany, the turbojet compresses and heats air and then exhausts it as a high speed, high temperature jet to create thrust. While these engines are capable of giving high thrust levels, they are most efficient at high speeds, due to the low-mass-flow. Modern turbofans are a development of the turbojet, they are basically a turbojet that includes a new section called the fan stage. The fan stage accelerates a large volume of air through a duct, bypassing the engine core and this high-speed, hot-gas exhaust blends with the low speed, cool-air exhaust from the fan stage, and both contribute to the overall thrust of the engine. Depending on what proportion of air is bypassed around the engine core. Low bypass engines were the first turbofan engines produced, and provide the majority of their thrust from the hot core exhaust gases, while the fan stage only supplements this. These engines are commonly seen on military fighter aircraft, since they provide more efficient thrust at supersonic speeds and have a narrower frontal area. Airbreathing jet engines are always internal combustion engines that obtain propulsion from the combustion of fuel inside the engine. Oxygen present in the atmosphere is used to oxidise a fuel source, the burning mixture expands greatly in volume, driving heated air through a propelling nozzle. Turbojets consist of an inlet, a compressor, a combustor, a turbine, modern jet propelled aircraft are powered by turbofans. These engines, with their lower exhaust velocities, produce less jet noise and use less fuel, turbojets are still used to power medium range cruise missiles, due to their high exhaust speed, low frontal area and relative simplicity. Most modern jet engines are turbofans, the low pressure compressor, usually known as a fan, compresses air into a bypass duct whilst its inner portion supercharges the core compressor. The fan is often a part of a multi-stage core LPC. The bypass airflow either passes to a separate nozzle or mixes with low pressure turbine exhaust gases. In the 1960s there was little difference between civil and military jet engines, apart from the use of afterburning in some applications, today, turbofans are used for airliners because they have an exhaust speed that is better matched to the subsonic flight speed of the airliner
29.
Gliding flight
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Gliding flight is heavier-than-air flight without the use of thrust, the term volplaning also refers to this mode of flight in animals. It is employed by gliding animals and by such as gliders. This mode of flight involves flying a greater distance horizontally than vertically, although the human application of gliding flight usually refers to aircraft designed for this purpose, most powered aircraft are capable of gliding without engine power. As with sustained flight, gliding generally requires the application of an airfoil, such as the wings on aircraft or birds, however, gliding can be achieved with a flat wing, as with a simple paper plane, or even with card-throwing. However some aircraft with lifting bodies and animals such as the snake can achieve gliding flight without any wings by creating a flattened surface underneath. The types of aircraft that are used for sport and recreation are classified as gliders and these two latter types are often foot-launched. The design of all three types enables them to climb using rising air and then to glide before finding the next source of lift. When done in gliders, the sport is known as gliding, for foot-launched aircraft, it is known as hang gliding and paragliding. Radio-controlled gliders with fixed wings are also soared by enthusiasts, in addition to motor gliders, some powered aircraft are designed for routine glides during part of their flight, usually when landing after a period of a powered flight. See list List of airline flights that required gliding flight, a number of animals have separately evolved gliding many times, without any single ancestor. Birds in particular use gliding flight to minimise their use of energy, the great frigatebird in particular is capable of continuous flights up to several weeks. To assist gliding, some mammals have evolved a structure called the patagium and this is a membranous structure found stretched between a range of body parts. It is most highly developed in bats, for similar reasons to birds, bats can glide efficiently. In bats, the forming the surface of the wing is an extension of the skin of the abdomen that runs to the tip of each digit. This form of locomotion, is common in tropical regions such as Borneo and Australia. In flying squirrels, the stretches from the fore- to the hind-limbs along the length of each side of the torso. In the sugar glider, the patagia extend between the finger of each hand to the first toe of each foot. This creates an aerofoil enabling them to glide 50 metres or more and this gliding flight is regulated by changing the curvature of the membrane or moving the legs and tail
30.
JATO
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JATO, is a type of assisted take-off for helping overloaded aircraft into the air by providing additional thrust in the form of small rockets. The term JATO is used interchangeably with the term RATO, for rocket-assisted take-off, early experiments using rockets to boost gliders into the air were conducted in Germany in the 1920s, and later both the Royal Air Force and the Luftwaffe introduced such systems in World War II. After firing, the rocket was released from the back of the plane to fall into the water, the task done, the pilot would fly to friendly territory if possible or parachute from the plane, hopefully to be picked up by one of the escort vessels. Over two years the system was only employed nine times to attack German aircraft with eight kills recorded for the loss of a single pilot. The use of reaction-assisted takeoff methods became especially important late in the war when the lengths of usable runways were severely curtailed due to the results of Allied bombing. A parachute pack at the front of the motors exterior housing was used to slow its fall after being released from the plane. Two prototypes of the Heimatschützer versions of the Me 262 were built and test flown, in late 1941 von Kármán and his team attached several 50-pound thrust, solid fuel Aerojet JATOs to a light Ercoupe plane, and Army Captain Homer Boushey took off on test runs. On the last run they removed the propeller, attached six JATO units under the wings, and Boushey was thrust into the air for a short flight, both armed services used solid fuel JATO during the war. As the take-off thrust of jet engines has grown, JATO has fallen from favor and it is still used, however, when heavily-laden aircraft need to take off from short runways or when operating in Hot and high conditions. The US Air Force used a modified Republic F-84, designated EF-84G, the Soviet VVS used a modified MiG-19 fighter, designated SM-30, launched from a special launcher, and using a nearly identical solid-fueled rocket booster design to that of the EF-84G. The F-100 and F-104 were also used for zero-length launch experiments, the JATO Junior was an attempt by Aerojet Engineering to introduce smaller JATO units to small commercial aircraft, but was blocked by the U. S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics. The Boeing 727 had provision for Aerojet JATO assist for use in hot, the JATO Rocket Car is an urban legend that relates the story of a car equipped with JATO units that is later found smashed into a mountainside. This story is given as an example of a Darwin Award, it appears to be apocryphal. The legend has been examined several times on the Discovery Channel show MythBusters, for the first attempt, in a 2003 pilot episode, the crew replicated the scene and the thrust of the JATO with some commercially available amateur rocket motors. The car did go very fast, outrunning the chase helicopter, but nowhere near the 300 mph reported in the original story, and failed to become airborne. The myth was revisited in 2007, using a different configuration of rockets in an attempt to make the car fly, the myth was again revisited in 2013 in the 1st Episode of Mythbusters Series 12 - as a celebration for the 10th year on air. A JATO-equipped 1958 Dodge Coronet car on the El Mirage dry lake was used for a TV advertisement to demonstrate the power of their total contact brakes and this was broadcast during The Lawrence Welk Show in the late 1950s. Notes Video of the Heinkel He 111 fitted with Walters rocket boosters Birth of JATO, popular Science, July 1946, pp. 74–75
31.
Tail-sitter
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A tail-sitter or tailsitter is a type of VTOL aircraft that takes off and lands on its tail, then tilts horizontally for forward flight. The concept of an aircraft was included in a patent by Nikola Tesla in 1928. The Focke-Wulf Triebflügel fighter was a German tail-sitter project during the Second World War, three wings were mounted radially as a rotor on a rotating section of the fuselage and driven by small jet engines on the wingtips. The aircraft was to be propelled by this wing rotation, for takeoff and landing it would fly vertically as a helicopter, then tilt over horizontally to fly as a self-propelled wing generating both lift and thrust. The SNECMA Coléoptère was a postwar French development of the wing concept. It flew in both vertical and horizontal flight modes but never achieved the transition between the two, meanwhile the USA was experimenting with propeller-driven design configurations with relatively conventional fixed wings. A later jet-powered design, the Ryan X-13 Vertijet, first flew in 1955, two prototypes were made, both flew, made successful transitions to and from horizontal flight, and landed. The final test flight was near Washington DC in 1957, an inherent problem with all these tail-sitter designs was poor pilot visibility, especially of the ground, during vertical descent and landing. This led to the concept being abandoned once a more form of VTOL appeared. An unmanned UAV does not suffer the problem of pilot attitude, the Dornier Aerodyne is of ducted-fan configuration similar to a coleopter, and a test UAV flew successfully in hover mode in 1972, before development was discontinued. Thrust vectoring Tiltrotor Tiltjet Tiltwing Coleopter VTOL
32.
Interceptor aircraft
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An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically to prevent successful missions by enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. For daytime operations, conventional fighters normally fill the interceptor role, few aircraft can be considered dedicated daytime interceptors. Night fighters and bomber destroyers are, by definition, interceptors of the heavy type, examples of classic interceptors of this era include the F-106 Delta Dart, Sukhoi Su-15 and English Electric Lightning. Dedicated interceptor designs became rare, with the widely used examples designed after the 1960s being the Tornado F3, Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat. The first dedicated interceptor squadrons were formed up during World War I in order to defend London against attacks by Zeppelins, early units generally used aircraft withdrawn from front-line service, notably the Sopwith Pup. They were told about their targets prior to take-off from a centralized command center in the Horse Guards building. The Pup proved to have too low performance to intercept the Gotha G. IV bombers. Before Second World War started, offensive bomber speeds had improved so much that it appeared that the mission would be effectively impossible. The visual and acoustic detection had a range on the order of a few miles. This could be addressed by a cover of aircraft. The conclusion at the time was that the bomber will always get through, the introduction of radar upset this equation. Radar was able to detect aircraft at long range, on the order of 100 miles even for early systems and this provided enough time for fighters to start up, climb to altitude and chase down their targets. The introduction of jet power increased speeds from perhaps 200 miles per hour to 600 miles per hour in a single step, although radars also improved in performance, the gap between offense and defense was dramatically reduced. Large attacks could so confuse the defenses ability to communicate information to the pilots that the method of manual ground controlled interception was increasingly seen as inadequate. In the United States, this led to the introduction of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment to computerize this task. In the 1950s, during the Cold War, an interceptor force was crucial for the great powers. Hence for a period of time they faced rapid development. Thus, the doctrine of mutually assured destruction replaced the trend of defense strengthening and their utility waned as the role became blurred into the role of the heavy air superiority fighters dominant in military thinking at the time
33.
Space plane
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A spaceplane is an aerospace vehicle that operates as an aircraft in Earths atmosphere, as well as a spacecraft when it is in space. Typically, it takes the form of a spacecraft equipped with wings, the propulsion to reach space may be purely rocket based or may use the assistance of airbreathing jet engines. The spaceflight is then followed by an unpowered glide return to landing, all five are considered rocket gliders. As of 2015, only these aircraft and rockets have succeeded in reaching space, three are vertical takeoff horizontal landing vehicles relying upon rocket lift for the ascent phase in reaching space and atmospheric lift for reentry, descent and landing. Of the five vehicles, three have been piloted by astronauts, with the Buran and X-37 flying unmanned missions, significant features distinguish spaceplanes from spacecraft. All aircraft utilize aerodynamic surfaces in order to generate lift, for spaceplanes a variety of wing shapes can be used. Delta wings are common, but straight wings, lifting bodies, typically the force of lift generated by these surfaces is many times that of the drag that they induce. The Space Shuttle thermal protection system, for example, protects the orbiter from surface temperatures that could reach as high as 1,650 °C. A spaceplane operates as an aircraft in Earths atmosphere, Aircraft may land on firm runways, helicopter landing pads, or even water, snow or ice. To land, the airspeed and the rate of descent are reduced such that the aircraft descends at a slow rate to allow for a gentle touch down. Landing is accomplished by slowing down and descending and this speed reduction is accomplished by reducing thrust and/or inducing a greater amount of drag using flaps, landing gear or speed brakes. Splashdown is a technical feat to accomplish, requiring only the deployment of a parachute. Project Geminis original concept design was as a spaceplane, with paraglider, however, this concept was abandoned in favor of parachute splashdowns, because of expensive technical failures during testing and development. Whereas Project Geminis splashdown parachutes took only 5 months to develop in 1963, all spaceplanes to date have used rocket engines with chemical fuels. As the orbital insertion burn has to be done in space, a difference between rocket based and air-breathing aerospace plane launch systems is that aerospace plane designs typically include minimal oxidizer storage for propulsion. Air-breathing aerospace plane designs include engine inlets so they can use oxygen for combustion. Since the mass of the oxidizer is, at takeoff, the single largest mass of most rocket designs, types of air breathing engines proposed for spaceplanes include scramjet, liquid air cycle engines, precooled jet engines, pulse detonation engine and ramjets. Some engine designs combine several types of features into a combined cycle
34.
Lippisch Ente
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The Ente was the world’s first rocket-powered full-size aircraft. It was designed by Alexander Lippisch as a sailplane and first flown under power on June 11,1928, during the late 1920s, Fritz von Opel had undertaken a variety of publicity stunts involving rocket-powered vehicles for the Opel company. He was assisted in these endeavours by pyrotechnics manufacturer Friedrich Sander, in March 1928, the three men visited the Wasserkuppe, a mountain that had become the focus of German gliding, to investigate the possibility of fitting rockets to an aircraft. There, they encountered some of Lippischs revolutionary gliders, which because of their tail-less designs suggested themselves to rocket propulsion, Lippisch was able to demonstrate how models of his aircraft would fly with small rockets installed in them. In June, von Opel, Sander, and Valier returned and bought one of his aircraft, the Ente, two black powder rockets were installed, to be electrically fired from a switch in the cockpit. A counterweight system was devised and placed under the cockpit floor that would automatically adjust the aircraft’s center of gravity as the fuel of the rockets was burned up. The rockets were intended to be fired one after the other, to provide continuous thrust for as long as possible, Fritz Stamer, who had long been a test pilot for Lippischs designs was selected to fly the aircraft. After one false start, the aircraft took off and flew a 1,500 metre circuit of the Wasserkuppes landing strip, on the second flight, the team decided to try firing both rockets together for increased thrust over a shorter period. Something went wrong, however, and rather than burning properly, one of the rockets exploded, Stamer was nevertheless able to bring it down from a height of around 20 metres before hastily abandoning the Ente, which was burned beyond any hope of salvage
35.
Opel RAK.1
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The Opel RAK.1 was the worlds first purpose-built rocket-powered aircraft. It was designed and built by Julius Hatry under commission from Fritz von Opel who flew it on September 30,1929 in front of a crowd at Rebstock airport near Frankfurt-am-Main. During the late 1920s, von Opel had undertaken a variety of publicity stunts involving rocket-powered vehicles, Opel-RAKs and he was assisted in these endeavours by pyrotechnics manufacturer Friedrich Sander and rocketry advocate Max Valier. In June 1928, he had purchased an Alexander Lippisch-designed sailplane, the Ente, Opel did not get the chance to fly it, however, as the aircraft was destroyed by an engine explosion on its second test flight. The RAK.1 had a typical sailplane wing, under which a pod was suspended to accommodate the pilot, the tailplane was mounted on booms behind the wing and high out of the way of the rocket exhaust. Opel successfully piloted it over 1.5 km in 75 seconds of flight, Opel planned to build a second rocket plane, but apparently lost interest before the project was completed. The aircraft is referred to as the Opel-Hatry RAK.1 or Opel-Sander RAK.1 in acknowledgment of its builder or the supplier of its engines respectively. In still other references it is called the RAK.3 to distinguish it from Opels previous RAK.1, as it happened, all three names, Opel, Sander, and Hatry were painted on the aircraft, as was the RAK.1 designation. Data from General characteristics Crew, one, pilot Length, m Wingspan, m Height, m Wing area, m Empty weight, kg Useful load, kg Loaded weight, kg Max
36.
Heinkel He 176
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The Heinkel He 176 was a German rocket-powered aircraft. It was the worlds first aircraft to be propelled solely by a liquid-fuelled rocket and it was a private venture by the Heinkel company in accordance with director Ernst Heinkels emphasis on developing technology for high-speed flight. The performance of the He 176 was not spectacular, but it did provide proof of concept for rocket propulsion, all documents regarding the He 176 were destroyed during the war. The often quoted performance data of the aircraft, such as a speed reaching 750 km/h, only two true pictures of the He 176 have survived which were probably taken in Peenemünde during tests.1. Solid-fuel rockets, however, have major disadvantages when used for propulsion, as their thrust cannot be regulated. In the late 1930s, Wernher von Brauns rocketry team working at Peenemünde investigated installing liquid-fuelled rockets in aircraft, Heinkel enthusiastically supported their efforts, supplying a He 72 and later two He 112s for the experiments. In early 1937, one of these aircraft was flown with its piston engine shut down during flight. At the same time, Hellmuth Walters experiments into Hydrogen peroxide monopropellant-based rockets were leading towards light, the He 176 was built to utilise one of the new Walter engines. A unique feature of the He 176 was its jettisonable nose escape system, compressed air was used to separate the nose from the aircraft. A drogue chute was used to reduce the force required. After the drogue was deployed, the cockpit canopy was released. Heinkel demonstrated the aircraft to the RLM, but official lack of interest led to the abandonment of the rocket propulsion programme. Testing of the He 176 ended with one aircraft being built. It was put on display at the Berlin Air Museum and was destroyed by an Allied bombing raid in 1943, prior to the cancellation of the programme, plans had been drawn up for a more sophisticated rocket-plane, still designated He 176
37.
Liquid-propellant rocket
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A liquid-propellant rocket or liquid rocket is a rocket engine that uses liquid propellants. This permits the use of low-mass propellant tanks, resulting in a mass ratio for the rocket. An inert gas stored in a tank at a pressure is sometimes used instead of pumps in simpler small engines to force the propellants into the combustion chamber. These engines may have a mass ratio, but are usually more reliable. And are therefore used widely in satellites for orbit maintenance, some designs are throttleable for variable thrust operation and some may be restarted after a previous in-space shutdown. Liquid propellants are used in hybrid rockets, in which a liquid oxidizer is generally combined with a solid fuel. This seminal treatise on astronautics was published in 1903, but was not distributed outside Russia until years later, german V-2 inventor Wernher von Braun considered Paulet one of the fathers of aeronautics. The National Air & Space Museum in Washington, D. C. has a plaque honoring the memory of Paulet. He was the only known developer of liquid-propellant rocket engine experiments in the 19th century, however, he did not publish his work. In 1927 he wrote a letter to a newspaper in Lima, historians of early rocketry experiments, among them Max Valier, Willy Ley, and John D. Clark, have given differing amounts of credence to Paulets report. Paulet described laboratory tests of, but did not claim to have launched a liquid rocket. Wernher von Braun, in his book World History of Aeronautics states, Pedro Paulet was in Paris in those years, experimenting with his tiny two-and-a-half kilogram motor, by this act, Paulet should be considered the pioneer of the liquid fuel propulsion motor. Further, in his History of Rocketry and Space Travel, von Braun recognizes that by his efforts, Paulet helped man reach the Moon. The rocket, which was dubbed Nell, rose just 41 feet during a 2. 5-second flight that ended in a cabbage field, goddard proposed liquid propellants about fifteen years earlier and began to seriously experiment with them in 1921. In Germany, engineers and scientists became enthralled with liquid-fuel rockets and this amateur rocket group, the VfR, included Wernher von Braun, who became the head of the army research station that secretly built the V-2 rocket weapon for the Nazis. The German-Romanian Hermann Oberth published a book in 1922 suggesting the use of liquid propellants, after World War II the American government and military finally seriously considered liquid-propellant rockets as weapons and began to fund work on them. The Soviet Union did likewise, and thus began the Space Race, bipropellant liquid rockets generally use a liquid fuel, such as liquid hydrogen or a hydrocarbon fuel such as RP-1, and a liquid oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen. The engine may be a rocket engine, where the fuel and oxidizer
38.
Erich Warsitz
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Erich Warsitz was a German test pilot of the 1930s. He held the rank of Flight-Captain in the Luftwaffe and was selected by the Reich Air Ministry as chief test pilot at Peenemünde West. Together with his tuition and technical studies, Erich Warsitz’ aeronautical training as a sport flier for the A-2 licence began at the Academic Aviation Group Bonn/Hangelar. Meanwhile, he was awarded the major K-2 aerobatics licence, passed the blind-flying training, in 1934 orders arrived drafting him to Rechlin, the Luftwaffe’s test centre. At that time the German aviation industry was operating at full blast and this was the starting point of an activity which, only a little while later, would bring him into intimate contact with developments in aviation which were of tremendous historical importance. In 1937, working closely with Wernher von Braun, Erich Warsitz undertook the flight testing of the Heinkel He 112 fitted with von Braun’s rocket engine. Despite the wheels-up landing and having the fuselage on fire, it proved to official circles that an aircraft could be flown satisfactorily with a back-thrust system through the rear, once in the air the spent booster casings would be dropped by parachute for re-use. The firm of Hellmuth Walter at Kiel handled this development, the first standing trials and tests flights of their boosters were also held at Neuhardenberg using an Heinkel He 111E placed at disposal by Heinkel. Von Braun’s engine used direct combustion and created fire, the Walter devices hot vapours from a chemical reaction, but both created thrust and provided high speed. The subsequent flights with the He 112 used the Walter-rocket instead of von Brauns, it was reliable, simpler to operate. All those test flights at Neuhardenberg were made by Erich Warsitz, during the development programme at Neuhardenberg the term interceptor had been coined, and the Heinkel He 176 was seen as the research machine for the project. The RLM was really thinking along the lines of a new kind of fighter aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 163, which was developed and tested independently of the He 176, came later, during the Second World War, as an operational interceptor. Because the He 176 development was classified top secret, Heinkel set up a department in his Rostock-Marienehe works. A wooden barrack hut was erected first for the initial testing, only very few employees were allowed access. This shed was converted into a permanent building. The development then progressed very quickly, ground work began at Peenemünde-West with rolling tests to establish the characteristics on the runway. The He 176 rocket aircraft had developed in close collaboration with the RLM. In fact, there were many important individuals at the Air Ministry who showed an interest, but the Second World War was imminent, and other concerns took centre stage
39.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
40.
Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet
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The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, designed by Alexander Lippisch, was a German rocket-powered fighter aircraft. It is the only rocket-powered fighter aircraft ever to have been operational and its design was revolutionary and its performance unprecedented. German test pilot Heini Dittmar in early July 1944 reached 1,130 km/h, aside from combat losses many pilots were killed during testing and training. Work on the design startedunder the aegis of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug —the German Institute for the Study of sailplane flight and their first design was a conversion of the earlier Lippisch Delta IV known as the DFS39 and used purely as a glider testbed of the airframe. A larger follow-on version with a small propeller engine started as the DFS194 and this version used wingtip-mounted rudders, which Lippisch felt would cause problems at high speed. Lippisch changed the system of stabilization for the DFS 194s airframe from the earlier DFS 39s wingtip rudders. The design included a number of features from its origins as a glider, notably a skid used for landings, work continued under the code name Projekt X. The division of work between DFS and Heinkel led to problems, notably that DFS seemed incapable of building even a prototype fuselage, Lippisch eventually asked to leave DFS and join Messerschmitt instead. On 2 January 1939, he moved with his team and the partly completed DFS194 to the Messerschmitt works at Augsburg, the delays caused by this move allowed the engine development to catch up. Once at Messerschmitt, the decided to abandon the propeller-powered version. Although the engine proved to be unreliable, the aircraft had excellent performance. There was an onboard battery, but its capacity was limited, as was its endurance, no more than 10 minutes. The airspeed indicator averaged readings from two sources, the tube on the leading edge of the port wing, and a small pitot inlet in the nose. There was a further tapping-off of pressure-ducted air from the tube which also provided the rate of climb indicator with its source. In early 1941 production of a series, known as the Me 163. Secrecy was such that the RLMs GL/C airframe number, 8-163, was actually that of the earlier and it was thought that intelligence services would conclude any reference to the number 163 would be for that earlier design. In May 1941 the Me 163A V4 was shipped to Peenemünde to receive the HWK RII-203 engine, some postwar aviation history publications stated that the Me 163A V3 was thought to have set the record. The 1,004 km/h record figure would not be officially approached until the period by the new British
41.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
42.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Bachem Ba 349
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The Bachem Ba 349 Natter was a World War II German point-defence rocket-powered interceptor, which was to be used in a very similar way to a manned surface-to-air missile. After a vertical take-off, which eliminated the need for airfields, the primary role of the relatively untrained pilot was to aim the aircraft at its target bomber and fire its armament of rockets. The pilot and the containing the rocket-motor would then land using separate parachutes. The only manned vertical take-off flight on 1 March 1945 ended in the death of the test pilot, in 1943 Luftwaffe air superiority was being challenged by the Allies over the Reich and radical innovations were required to overcome the crisis. Providing the missile with a pilot, who could operate a weapon during the terminal approach phase. Submissions for a simple target defence interceptor were requested by the Luftwaffe in early 1944 under the umbrella of the Emergency Fighter Program. A number of designs were proposed, including the Heinkel P.1077 Julia, in which the pilot lay prone. The Julia was the front-runner for the contract, Erich Bachems BP-20 was a development from a design he had worked on at Fieseler, the Fi 166 concept, but considerably more radical than the other submissions. It was built using glued and nailed wooden parts with an armour-plated bulkhead, the initial plan was to power the machine with a Walter HWK 109-509A-2 rocket motor, however, only the 109-509A-1, as used in the Me 163, was available. By the time the left the tower it was hoped that it would have achieved sufficient speed to allow its aerodynamic surfaces to provide stable flight. Only then would the pilot control, aim and fire the armament. Later,28 R4Ms or a number of Henschel Hs 297 Föhn rockets were suggested, the Natter was intended to fly up and over the bombers, by which time its Walter motor would probably be out of propellant. The fuselage would decelerate and the pilot would be ejected forwards by his own inertia, Bachem stated clearly in the initial proposal that the Natter was not a suicide weapon and much effort went into designing safety features for the pilot. However, owing to the potential dangers for the pilot inherent in the operation of this precarious aircraft, Bachems design caught the eye of Heinrich Himmler. The Reichsführer-SS granted Bachem an interview and fully supported the project, in the middle of September 1944 the Technical Office of the Waffen-SS made an order for Bachem to develop and manufacture the Natter at his Waldsee factory. In December 1944 the project came largely under the control of the SS and this decision is said to have been the only time the SS significantly interfered with aircraft design and air fighting strategy. Early-on in the project, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium undertook an assessment of the Natter. Various stringent economies were imposed on an already frugal design, the Natter had no landing gear, which saved weight, expense and construction time
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Fliegende Panzerfaust
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The Fliegende Panzerfaust, meaning Flying Bazooka in the German language, was a project for a Third Reich very-short-range interceptor designed by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin. The Fliegende Panzerfaust project was part of the Nazi propaganda-based Wunderwaffe concept and it was proposed to the Emergency Fighter Program against the allied bombing raids over Nazi Germany in the last years of World War II. The Fliegende Panzerfaust was a design meeting the demand for a low-cost aircraft in a very-short-range interceptor role. It was a parasite aircraft meant to be towed behind a Messerschmitt Bf 109G for which it had a long, up-turned nose for towing.5 m. This Zeppelin-built aircraft would have been released upon reaching combat altitude above the enemy bomber fleet, the front half of the aircraft which had the pilot lying in a prone position in the cockpit would then split from the other half. Both parts would land separately with parachutes, being retrieved and reused. Owing to the risks for the pilot inherent in its operation this aircraft is sometimes referred to as a suicide weapon. Data from Dieter Herwig & Heinz Rode, The Luftwaffe Secret Projects, Ground Attack & Special Purpose Aircraft. ISBN 978-1857801507 General characteristics Crew, one Length,6.0 m Wingspan,4.50 m Height,1.50 m Gross weight,1,200 kg Powerplant,6 × Schmidding SG34 solid-fuel rocket engines,4. Emergency Fighter Program Panzerfaust Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era Bachem Ba 349 Blohm & Voss P
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Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka
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The Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka was a purpose-built, rocket powered human-guided anti-shipping kamikaze attack aircraft employed by Japan towards the end of World War II. United States sailors gave the aircraft the nickname Baka ), the MXY-7 Navy Suicide Attacker Ohka was a manned flying bomb that was usually carried underneath a Mitsubishi G4M2e Model 24J Betty bomber to within range of its target. The design was conceived by Ensign Mitsuo Ohta of the 405th Kōkūtai, Ohta submitted his plans to the Yokosuka research facility. The Imperial Japanese Navy decided the idea had merit and Yokosuka engineers of the Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal created formal blueprints for what was to be the MXY7. The only variant which saw service was the Model 11,155 Ohka Model 11s were built at Yokosuka, and another 600 were built at the Kasumigaura Naval Air Arsenal. The final approach was difficult for a defender to stop because the aircraft gained high speed (650 km/h in level flight and 930 km/h or even 1,000 km/h in a dive. Later versions were designed to be launched from air bases and caves. It appears that the record of Ohkas includes three ships sunk or damaged beyond repair and three other ships with significant damage. Seven U. S. ships were damaged or sunk by Ohkas throughout the war, the USS Mannert L. Abele was the first Allied ship to be sunk by Ohka aircraft, near Okinawa on 12 April 1945. The only operational Ohka was the Model 11, essentially a 1,200 kg bomb with wooden wings, powered by three Type 4 Model 1 Mark 20 solid-fuel rocket motors, the Model 11 achieved great speed, but with limited range. This was problematic, as it required the slow, heavily laden aircraft to approach within 37 km of the target. There was one variant of the Model 11, the Model 21. It had the engine of the Model 11 and the airframe of the Model 22, the Ohka K-1 was an unpowered trainer version with water ballast instead of warhead and engines, to provide pilots with handling experience. 45 were built by Dai-Ichi Kaigun Koku Gijitsusho, the Model 22 was designed to overcome the short standoff distance problem by using a Campini-type thermojet engine, the Tsu-11. This engine was tested, and 50 Model 22 Ohkas were built at Yokosuka to accept this engine. The Model 22 was to be launched by the more agile Yokosuka P1Y3 Ginga Frances bomber, necessitating a shorter wing span, none appears to have been used operationally, and only three of the experimental Tsu-11s engines are known to have been produced. The Model 33 was a version of the Model 22 powered by an Ishikawajima Ne-20 turbojet with an 800 kg warhead. The mothership was to be the Nakajima G8N Renzan, Model 33 was cancelled due to the likelihood that the Renzan would not be available
