1.
Barons' Letter of 1301
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The letter survives in two copies, known as A and B, both held in the National Archives at Kew under the reference E26. Historically they were held amongst the documents in the Exchequer, Treasury of the Receipt department, the seals of the signatories to the letter survive in excellent condition. The letter was written by English barons as a repudiation to the pope of his claim to overlordship of Scotland. The bull was addressed to King King Edward I of England and it was delivered by Robert Winchelsey, Archbishop of Canterbury at Sweetheart Abbey in Galloway, Scotland, the bull is preserved in the National Archives at Kew under reference SC 7/6/10. The bull had been delivered to the king at a sensitive moment, an English attack on a kingdom the feudal overlord of which was the pope would be virtually unthinkable in political and religious terms. In the event, the Barons Letter was never sent to the pope, as events changed rapidly to such an extent that it appeared superfluous. A letter to the effect from the king had however been sent to the pope. To it were summoned 9 earls and 80 barons, yet 7 earls and 96 barons are recorded in the letter itself as co-authors and those barons who did not answer the summons sealed the letter later. The seals appended by hempen cords to Exemplar B were tricked by Lancaster Herald Nicholas Charles in 1611 and he also made a transcript of Exemplar B. which clearly was then in a better state of preservation than today. Whilst his drawings provide much detail which is difficult to see in photographs of the seals themselves. The number of surviving seals is given as 95 by the National Archives catalogue entry, photographic images were published by Brian Timms on his heraldry website. Declaration of Arbroath, a declaration of Scottish independence, made in 1320, Latin transcript, English translation & photographic images of seals. National Archives catalogue entry, BaronsLetter Brian Timms heraldry website Rymer, T, Foedera, London,1727, II, p.873, Latin transcript The Barons Reply to the Pope, English Historical Society. W. de Hemingburgh, Chronicon, Vol. II
2.
William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke
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William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, also called William the Marshal, was an Anglo-Norman soldier and statesman. He served five English kings – Henry II, his sons The Young King Henry, Richard I, John, knighted in 1166, he spent his younger years as a knight errant and a successful tournament competitor, Stephen Langton eulogized him as the best knight that ever lived. In 1189, he received the title of Earl of Pembroke through marriage during the creation of the Pembroke Earldom. In 1216, he was appointed protector for the nine-year-old Henry III, William became known as the Marshal, although by his time much of the function was actually delegated to more specialized representatives. Because he was an Earl, and also known as the Marshal, the term Earl Marshal was commonly used and this later became an established hereditary title in the English Peerage. When King Stephen besieged Newbury Castle in 1152, according to Williams biographer, John, however, used the time allotted to reinforce the castle and alert Matildas forces. Subsequently, there was a made to launch William from a pierrière. Fortunately for the child, Stephen could not bring himself to harm young William, William remained a crown hostage for many months, only being released following the peace that resulted from the terms agreed at Winchester on 6 November 1153 that ended the civil war. As a younger son of a nobleman, William had no lands or fortune to inherit. Here he began his training as a knight and this would have included basic biblical stories and prayers written in Latin, as well as exposure to French romances, which conferred the basic precepts of chivalry to the budding knight. In addition, while in Tancarville’s household, it is likely that Marshal also learned important and he was knighted in 1166 on campaign in Upper Normandy, then being invaded from Flanders. His first experience in battle came with mixed reviews, according to LHistoire, everyone who witnessed the young knight in action agreed that he had acquitted himself well in combat. However, as medieval historian David Crouch explains, “War in the century was not fought wholly for honour. Profit was there to be made…” On this front, Marshal was not so successful, as described in LHistoire, the Earl of Essex, who was expecting the customary tribute from his valorous knight following battle, jokingly remarked, “Oh. But Marshal, what are you saying and you had forty or sixty of them — yet you refuse me so small a thing. ”In 1167 he was taken by William de Tancarville to his first tournament where he found his true métier. Quitting the Tancarville household he served in the household of his mothers brother, Patrick. In 1168 his uncle was killed in an ambush by Guy de Lusignan, William was injured and captured in the same skirmish. It is known that William received a wound to his thigh and he received a loaf of bread in which were concealed several lengths of clean linen bandages with which he could dress his wounds
3.
Roll of arms
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A roll of arms is a collection of coats of arms, usually consisting of rows of painted pictures of shields, each shield accompanied by the name of the person bearing the arms. The oldest extant armorials date to the mid 13th century, Siebmachers Wappenbuch of 1605 was an early instance of a printed armorial. Medieval armorials usually include a few hundred coats of arms, in the medieval period sometimes up to some 2,000. In the early period, the larger armorials develop into encyclopedic projects, with the Armorial général de France, commissioned by Louis XIV of France. A roll of arms arranged systematically by design, with featuring the same principal elements grouped together as a tool to aid identification, is known as an ordinary of arms. Glovers Roll is an English roll of arms from the 1240s or 1250s, the Matthew Paris Shields, not truly a roll but a set of marginal illustrations accompanying the chroniclers illuminated manuscript works, Chronica Majora and Historia Anglorum. These date from c. 1244–59, during the reign of Henry III, walfords Roll is an English roll dating from c. 1275, containing 185 coats with blazons, the Camden Roll is an English roll dating from c.1280, containing 270 painted coats,185 with blazons. The Dering Roll, dating from the late 13th century, contains 324 coats of arms and it is 8 1⁄4 inches wide by 8 feet 8 inches long. It currently resides in the British Library, the Heralds Roll is an English roll dating from c. St Georges Roll is an English roll dating from c, Charles Roll is an English roll dating from c.1285, containing 486 painted coats. Planché however names as Charless Roll a copy of a mid-13th-century roll containing nearly 700 coats drawn in pen and ink by Nicholas Charles, Lancaster Herald, Charles stated that the original had been lent to him by the Norroy King of Arms. The Lord Marshals Roll is an English roll dating from 1295, collins Roll is a roll dating from 1296, containing 598 painted coats. It currently resides at the College of Arms in London, the Falkirk Roll is an English occasional roll dating from c. 1298, containing 115 coats with blazons, listing the knights with King Edward I at Battle of Falkirk in 1298, the British Museum copy was formerly in the Treasury Chamber in Paris in 1576. The Galloway Roll is an English roll dating from 1300, containing 259 coats with blazons, Roll of Caerlaverock or Poem of Caerlaverock is a roll dating from 1300, containing 110 poetical blazons without images. Two other copies exist, made by Glover from a now-lost different original source, one at the College of Arms in London, the original was made in 1300 by English heralds during Edward Is siege of Caerlaverock Castle, Scotland. Commentary by Nicholas Harris Nicolas, The siege of Carlaverock in the XXVIII Edward I, a. D. Stirling Roll is an English roll from 1304, containing 102 coats
4.
Earl Marshal
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Earl Marshal is a hereditary royal officeholder and chivalric title under the sovereign of the United Kingdom used in England. He is the eighth of the Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom, ranking beneath the Lord High Constable, the Earl Marshal has among his responsibilities the organisation of major ceremonial state occasions like the monarchs coronation in Westminster Abbey and state funerals. He is also an officer of arms and oversees the College of Arms. The current Earl Marshal is Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 18th Duke of Norfolk, there was formerly an Earl Marshall of Ireland and Earl Marischal of Scotland. The office of royal marshal existed in much of Europe, involving managing horses, in England, the office became hereditary under John FitzGilbert the Marshal after The Anarchy, and rose in prominence under his second son, William Marshal, later Earl of Pembroke. He served under several kings, acted as regent, and organised funerals, after passing through his daughters husband to the Earls of Norfolk, the post evolved into Earl Marshal and the title remained unchanged, even after the earldom of Norfolk became a dukedom. In the Middle Ages, the Earl Marshal and the Lord High Constable were the officers of the horses and stables. When chivalry declined in importance, the constables post declined and the Earl Marshal became the head of the College of Arms, in 1672, the office of Marshal of England and the title of Earl Marshal of England were made hereditary in the Howard family. The Earl Marshal is considered the eighth of the Great Officers of State, with the Lord High Constable above him, nowadays, the Earl Marshals role has mainly to do with the organisation of major state ceremonies such as coronations and state funerals. Annually, the Earl Marshal helps organise the State Opening of Parliament, the Earl Marshal also remains to have charge over the College of Arms and no coat of arms may be granted without his warrant. As a symbol of his office, he carries a baton of gold with black finish at either end, in the general order of precedence, the Earl Marshal is currently the highest hereditary position in the United Kingdom outside the Royal Family. Although other state and ecclesiastical officers rank above in precedence, they are not hereditary, the holding of the Earl Marshalship secures the Duke of Norfolks traditional position as the first peer of the land, above all other dukes. Among the men who have held the title of Earl Marshal of Ireland are William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, 1652–1661 James Howard, 3rd Earl of Suffolk 1661–1662 in commission 1662–1672. Deputy Earls Marshal have been named at various times, discharging the responsibilities of the office during the minority or infirmity of the Earl Marshal, prior to an Act of Parliament in 1824, Protestant deputies were required when the Earl Marshal was a Roman Catholic. Lord Lyon King of Arms Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Earl Marshal, the Court Register and Statesmans Remembrancer Round, J. H. The Commune of London, and other Studies
5.
Edward I of England
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
6.
Roger Bigod, 4th Earl of Norfolk
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Roger Bigod was 4th Earl of Norfolk and Marshal of England. He was the eldest son and heir of Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk by his wife Maud and his younger brother was Hugh Bigod, Justiciar. After the death of his father in 1225, the young Roger became the ward of William Longespée and he did not, however, receive his fathers title until 1233. After the death without heirs of the last of his mothers brothers. Roger had no children, and was succeeded by his nephew Roger Bigod, M. Morris, The Bigod Earls of Norfolk in the Thirteenth Century
7.
King of France
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The monarchs of the Kingdom of France and its predecessors ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of the Franks in 486 till the fall of the Second French Empire in 1870. Sometimes included as kings of France are the kings of the Franks of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled from 486 until 751, and of the Carolingians, who ruled until 987. The Capetian dynasty, the descendants of Hugh Capet, included the first rulers to adopt the title of king of France for the first time with Philip II. The Capetians ruled continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848, the branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. With the House of Bonaparte Emperors of the French ruled in 19th century France and it was used on coins up to the eighteenth century. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. They used the title Emperor of the French and this article lists all rulers to have held the title King of the Franks, King of France, King of the French or Emperor of the French. For other Frankish monarchs, see List of Frankish kings, in addition to the monarchs listed below, the Kings of England and Great Britain from 1340–60, 1369-1420, and 1422–1801 also claimed the title of King of France. For a short time, this had some basis in fact – under the terms of the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, Charles VI had recognized his son-in-law Henry V of England as regent and heir. Henry V predeceased Charles VI and so Henry Vs son, Henry VI, most of Northern France was under English control until 1435, but by 1453, the English had been expelled from all of France save Calais, and Calais itself fell in 1558. Nevertheless, English and then British monarchs continued to claim the title for themselves until the creation of the United Kingdom in 1801. The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a known as Francia in Latin. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior, the Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. In 751, a Carolingian, Pepin the Younger, dethroned the Merovingians and with the consent of the Papacy, the Robertians were Frankish noblemen owing fealty to the Carolingians, and ancestors of the subsequent Capetian dynasty. Odo, Count of Paris, was chosen by the western Franks to be their king following the removal of emperor Charles the Fat, the Bosonids were a noble family descended from Boso the Elder, their member, Rudolph, was elected King of the Franks in 923. After the death of Louis V, the son of Hugh the Great and grandson of Robert I, the Capetian Dynasty, the male-line descendants of Hugh Capet, ruled France continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848. They were direct descendants of the Robertian kings, the cadet branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon
8.
Gascony
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Gascony is an area of southwest France that was part of the Province of Guyenne and Gascony prior to the French Revolution. The region is defined, and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear, by some they are seen to overlap, while others consider Gascony a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux and it is currently divided between the region of Aquitaine and the region of Midi-Pyrénées. Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque, the name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque. From medieval times until today, the Gascon language has been spoken, Gascony is the land of dArtagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumass character dArtagnan in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to Henry III of Navarre, who became king of France as Henry IV. In pre-Roman times, the inhabitants of Gascony were the Aquitanians, the Aquitanians inhabited a territory limited to the north and east by the Garonne River, to the south by the Pyrenees mountain range, and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. In the 50s BC, Aquitania was conquered by lieutenants of Julius Caesar, later, in 27 BC, during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the province of Gallia Aquitania was created. In 297, as Emperor Diocletian reformed the administrative structures of the Roman Empire, the territory of Novempopulania corresponded quite well to what we call now Gascony. The Aquitania Novempopulana or Novempopulania suffered like the rest of the Western Roman Empire from the invasions of Germanic tribes, the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks in 507, and fled into Spain and Septimania, as well as Albania. Novempopulania then became part of the Frankish Kingdom like the rest of southern France, however, Novempopulania was far away from the home base of the Franks in northern France, and was only very loosely controlled by the Franks. Modern historians reject this hypothesis, which is sustained by no archeological evidence, for Juan José Larrea, and Pierre Bonnassie, a Vascon expansionism in Aquitany is not proved and is not necessary to understand the historical evolution of this region. This Basque-related culture and race is, whatever the origin, attested in Medieval documents, the word Vasconia evolved into Wasconia, and then into Gasconia. The gradual abandonment of the Basque-related Aquitanian language in favor of a local vulgar Latin, was not reversed, the replacing local vulgar Latin evolved into Gascon. It was heavily influenced by the original Aquitanian language, quite paradoxically the Basques from the French side of the Basque Country traditionally call anyone who does not speak Basque a Gascon. Meanwhile, Viking raiders conquered several Gascon towns, among them Bayonne in 842–844 and their attacks in Gascony may have helped the political disintegration of the Duchy until their defeat against William II Sánchez of Gascony in 982. In turn, the weakened ethnic polity known as Duchy of Wasconia/Wascones, unable to get round the general spread of feudalization and his 1152 marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine allowed the future Henry II to gain control of his new wifes possessions of Aquitaine and Gascony. This addition to his already plentiful holdings made Henry the most powerful vassal in France, in 1248, Simon de Montfort was appointed Governor in the unsettled Duchy of Gascony
9.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
10.
Feudal land tenure
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Under the English feudal system several different forms of land tenure existed, each effectively a contract with differing rights and duties attached thereto. Such tenures could be either free-hold, signifying that they were hereditable or perpetual, the main varieties are as follows, by barony. Such tenure constituted the holder a feudal baron, and was the highest degree of tenure and it imposed duties of military service and required attendance at parliament. All such holders were necessarily tenants-in-chief. by knight-service and this was a tenure ranking below barony, and was likewise for military service, of a lesser extent. It could be held in capite from the king or as a tenancy from a tenant-in-chief. This was a form of service which involved guarding a nearby castle for a specified number of days per year. By scutage where the military obligations had been commuted, or replaced. Such tenure was in return for acting as a servant to the king, service in a ceremonial form is termed grand serjeanty whilst that of a more functional or menial nature is termed petty serjeanty. By frankalmoinage, generally a tenure restricted to clerics, by fee-farm, a grant of the right to collect and retain revenues in return for a fixed rent. By copyhold, where the duties and obligations were tailored to the requirements of the lord of the manor, a form of tenure, involving payment in produce or in money. The payment of a fee in exchange for freedom from all other feudal obligations. In paragio, a form of tenure frequently appearing in Domesday Book, free burgage, tenure within a town or city. A tenant by the curtesy of England, being a widower of a wife by whom he has issue by her born alive, in respect of her right in land. Roger Bigod claimed it unsuccessfully on the death of his wife Aliva, such tenant had no security of tenure whatsoever. It developed into the more secure copyhold tenure, where the terms were set out in an entry on the manorial roll, frequently found in mediaeval Kent, held according to the custom of gavelkind. It withdrew a dower from a widow if she remarried, fee simple, a tenure with no service obligations attached which could be a free-holding or non-free. On the abolition of tenure in 1660, all existing tenures were converted to this tenure
11.
Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford
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Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford and 2nd Earl of Essex, was an English nobleman known primarily for his opposition to King Edward I over the Confirmatio Cartarum. He was also a participant in the Welsh Wars and maintained for several years a private feud with the earl of Gloucester. His father, Humphrey de Bohun, fought on the side of the barons in the Barons War. When Humphrey predeceased his father, Humphrey became heir to his grandfather, at Humphrey s death in 1275, Humphrey inherited the earldoms of Hereford and Essex. He also inherited major possessions in the Welsh Marches from his mother, Bohuns spent most of his early career reconquering Marcher lands captured by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd during the Welsh war in England. This was finally accomplished through Edward Is war in Wales in 1277, Hereford also fought in Wales in 1282–83 and 1294–95. Herefords final years were marked by the opposition he and Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, mounted against the military, the conflict escalated to a point where civil war threatened, but was resolved when the war effort turned towards Scotland. The king signed the Confirmatio Cartarum – a confirmation of Magna Carta – and Bohun, Bohun died in 1298, and was succeeded by his son, Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford. Humphrey de Bohun was part of a line of Anglo-Norman aristocrats going back to the Norman Conquest, most of whom carried the same name. His grandfather was Humphrey de Bohun, who had part of the baronial opposition of Simon de Montfort. He was taken prisoner at the Battle of Lewes in May 1264, Humphrey s son, Humphrey de Bohun, remained loyal to the baronial side throughout the Barons War, and was captured at Evesham on 4 August 1265. In October that year Humphrey died in captivity at Beeston Castle in Cheshire from injuries he had sustained in the battle, Humphrey had been excluded from succession as a result of his rebellion, but when Humphrey died in 1275, Humphrey inherited the earldoms of Hereford and Essex. Humphrey had already served as deputy Constable of England under Humphrey, Humphrey had reserved the honour of Pleshey for his younger son Henry, but the remainder of his lands went to Humphrey. The inheritance Humphrey received – in addition to land in Essex and his mother Eleanor was a daughter and coheir of William de Braose and his wife Eva Marshal, who in turn was the daughter and coheir of William Marshal, regent to Henry III. Since Humphrey was only sixteen years old at the time of his fathers death, part of this inheritance, the Marcher lordship of Brecon, was in the meanwhile given to the custody of Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Hertford. He granted his brother Gilbert de Bohun all of their mothers lands in Ireland and some land in England, over the next years, much of Herefords focus was on reconquering his lost lands in the Marches, primarily through private warfare against Llywelyn. Henry III died in 1272, while his son – now Edward I – was crusading, Llywelyn refused to pay homage to the new king, partly because of the military actions of Bohun and other Marcher lords, which Llywelyn saw as violations of the Treaty of Montgomery. On 12 November 1276, Hereford was present at an assembly where judgment was passed on Llewelyn
12.
William Stubbs
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William Stubbs was an English historian and Anglican bishop. He was Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford between 1866 and 1884 and he was Bishop of Chester from 1884 to 1889 and Bishop of Oxford from 1889 to 1901. He was elected a fellow of Trinity College, and held the living of Navestock, Essex. In 1859 he married Catherine, daughter of John Dellar, of Navestock and he was librarian at Lambeth Palace, and in 1862 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Chichele Professorship of Modern History at Oxford. In 1866, he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford and his lectures were thinly attended, and he found them a distraction from his historical work. Some of his lectures are published in his Lectures on Mediaeval. In 1872, he founded Oxford Universitys School of Modern History and he was rector of Cholderton, Wiltshire, from 1875 to 1879, when he was appointed a canon of St Pauls Cathedral. He served on the ecclesiastical commission of 1881-1883, and wrote the weighty appendices to the report. On 25 April 1884 he was consecrated Bishop of Chester, and he was a Member of the Chetham Society, and served as Vice-President from 1884. Among his many distinctions he was D. D. and honorary D. C. L. of Oxford, LL. D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh, Doctor in utroque jure of Heidelberg, an hon. Stubbs was a High Churchman whose doctrines and practice were grounded on learning and his opinions were received with marked respect by his brother prelates, and he acted as an assessor to the archbishop in the trial of Edward King, Bishop of Lincoln. As a ruler of the Church he showed wisdom and courage and his wit was often used as a weapon of defence, and he did not suffer fools gladly. An attack of illness in November 1900 seriously impaired his health and he was able, however, to attend the funeral of Queen Victoria on 2 February 1901, and preached a remarkable sermon before the king and the German emperor on the following day. His illness became critical on 20 April, Bishop Stubbs was buried in the churchyard of All Saints, Cuddesdon, next to the palace of the bishops of Oxford. Until Bishop Stubbs found it necessary to all his time to his episcopal duties. He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history and he believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He also believed that the effects of individual character and human nature will render generalizations vague, while pointing out that history is useful as a mental discipline and a part of a liberal education, he recommended its study chiefly for its own sake. It was in spirit that he worked, he had the faculty of judgment
13.
Levett
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Levett is an Anglo-Norman territorial surname deriving from the village of Livet-en-Ouche, now Jonquerets-de-Livet, in Eure, Normandy. The name Livet, of Gaulish etymology, may mean a place where yew-trees grow, like most Normans, the familys origins are probably partly Scandinavian. The year of the arrival in England is uncertain. But the family appears in the records of William the Conqueror. By about 1270, when the Dering Roll was crafted to display the coats of arms of 324 of Englands most powerful lords, ancient English deeds subsequently refer to many lands across Sussex as Levetts, indicating family possession of broad swaths of Sussex countryside. Like most medieval Norman families, the Levetts depended on the web of feudal hierarchy and they held their lands as overlords in return for knights service. As their feudal overlords thrived, so did they, conversely, the Levetts and their descendants eventually held land in Gloucestershire, Yorkshire, Worcestershire, Suffolk, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, Kent, Bedfordshire and later in Staffordshire. The Anglicisation of this Norman French surname took many forms, including Levett, Levet, Lyvet, Levytt, Livett, Delivett, Levete, Leavett, Leavitt, Lovett and others. Unlike the French branch of the family, no members of the English branch were ennobled, although they intermarried with nobility and served as courtiers. But the most common choice of professions among Levett men down the ages was the Anglican clergy – although one combined the ministry with the secular in an unusual way. Rev. William Levett of Buxted, East Sussex, inherited the iron foundries built by his brother John in the 16th century. Rather than sell them, Parson Levett became the first to cast iron cannon in England, served as Chief Gunstonemaker to the King, and laid the foundation for an English industry. Members of the formerly occupied Wychnor Park and Packington Hall. Ultimately, the two distant branches of the Levett family of Sussex, living nearby each other in Staffordshire, another branch of the Milford Hall Levetts occupy the family residence The Hall, Angle, Pembrokeshire, Wales, although the name is now Mirehouse because of an inheritance. As with many families of Anglo-Norman extraction, some branches thrived, the vicissitudes of character — and the collapsing feudal order — played havoc with the fortunes of some family members. The lordship of Firle, East Sussex, for instance, longtime seat of the family, the bankrupt Levett also forfeited his inherited lordship of Catsfield, East Sussex. The distress sale left Levetts descendants listed as simple yeomen, instead of the knights, esquires, other ancestral lands passed from the family with the marriage of Levett heiresses. Those inheriting from the Levetts included the Eversfields, the Gildredges, the Chaloners, the Ashburnhams, other Levetts fell on hard times as the familys fortunes sometimes dwindled, or were carried into other clans
14.
Lord Mayor of Dublin
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The Lord Mayor of Dublin is the honorific title of the chairman of Dublin City Council which is the local government body for the city of Dublin, the capital of Ireland. The incumbent is Labour Party councillor Brendan Carr, the office holder is elected annually by the members of the Council. The office of Mayor of Dublin was created in June 1229 by Henry III, the office of Mayor was elevated to Lord Mayor in 1665 by Charles II, and as part of this process received the honorific The Right Honourable. Lords Mayor were ex-officio members of the Privy Council of Ireland, the Local Government Act 2001 finally removed the title as a consequence of the repeal of the 1840 act. The office is largely symbolic and its responsibilities consist of chairing meetings of the City Council, except on a handful of occasions where the city government has been suspended for not striking a rate, Dublin has had a mayor for nearly eight hundred years. The Lord Mayor resides in the eighteenth century Mansion House on Dawson Street, a privilege enjoyed by the Lord Mayor is to receive the first car registration number in Dublin for each new year. It is also worn, at the Lord Mayors discretion, when paying visits to places as schools, churches. The Lord Mayor of Dublins gold chain of office was presented by King William III to the City of Dublin in 1698
15.
Hugh le Despencer (justiciar)
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Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer was an important ally of Simon de Montfort during the reign of Henry III. He served briefly as Justiciar of England in 1260 and as Constable of the Tower of London, Hugh Le Despenser, chief justiciar of England, first played an important part in 1258, when he was prominent on the baronial side in the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the barons chose him to succeed Hugh Bigod as Justiciar and he was the son of Hugh le Despenser I and was summoned to Parliament by Simon de Montfort. He remained allied with Montfort to the end, and was present at the Battle of Lewes and he was killed fighting on de Montforts side at the Battle of Evesham in August,1265. He was slain by Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Wigmore, this caused a feud to begin between the Despencer and the Mortimer families, by his wife, Aline Bassett, he was father of Hugh the elder Despenser. She was the daughter of Philip Basset, who had served as Justiciar. They also had a daughter named Eleanor, who married Hugh de Courtenay, feudal baron of Okehampton
16.
Soham
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Soham is a small town and civil parish in the English county of Cambridgeshire. It lies just off the A142 between Ely and Newmarket and its population was 10,860, and it is within the district of East Cambridgeshire. The region between Devils Dyke and the line between Littleport and Shippea Hill shows an amount of archaeological findings of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age. A couple of hoards of bronze objects are found in the area of Soham, including one with swords and spearheads of the later Bronze Age as well as a gold torc, retrieved in 1938. St Felix of Burgundy founded an abbey near Soham around 630 AD, luttingus, a Saxon nobleman built a cathedral and palace at Soham around 900 AD, on the site of the present day Church of St. Andrews and adjacent land. St. Andrews church dates from the 12th century, traces of the Saxon cathedral still exist within the church. In 1102 Hubert de Burgh, Chief Justice of England, granted Ranulph certain lands in trust for the Church of St. Andrews, Ranulph is recorded as the first Vicar of Soham and had a hand in designing the new Norman church. The current church is later, the tower being the latest addition in the 15th century. This tower was built to replace a fallen crossing tower and now contains ten bells, the back six were cast in 1788, with two new trebles and two bells being recast in 1808. There are some pictures and a description of the church at the Cambridgeshire Churches website, anna Maria was born on 16 October 1793, and was baptised in St. Andrews Church on 30 January 1794. Their second child, Joanna Vassa, was born on 11 April 1795, the most famous son of Soham was William Case Morris who made his mark many miles away in South America. Born in Soham on 16 February 1864, he and his father left Soham in search of a new life in 1872 after the death of his mother in 1868, finally settling in Argentina in 1874. William was horrified by the poverty of the street children. They are credited with saving thousands of youngsters from abject poverty, Morris returned to Soham shortly before his death on 15 September 1932, and was buried in the Fordham Road cemetery. His legacy lives on with the Biblioteca Popular William C. Morris, the town narrowly escaped destruction on 2 June 1944, during the Second World War, when a fire developed on the lead wagon of a heavy ammunition train travelling slowly through the town. Ben Gimbert survived and spent seven weeks in hospital, although small in comparison to what would have happened if the entire train had blown up, the explosion caused substantial property damage. Gimbert and Nightall were both awarded the George Cross, a permanent memorial was unveiled on 2 June 2007 by HRH Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester followed by a service in St. Andrews Church. The memorial is constructed of Portland Stone with a bronze inlay depicting interpretive artwork of the damaged train and text detailing the incident
17.
Cambridgeshire
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The city of Cambridge is the county town. It contains most of the known as Silicon Fen. Local government is divided between Cambridgeshire County Council and Peterborough City Council, which is a unitary authority. Cambridgeshire is noted as the site of Flag Fen in Fengate, one of the earliest-known Neolithic permanent settlements in the United Kingdom, compared in importance to Balbridie in Aberdeen, Scotland. A great quantity of archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, most items were found in Isleham. Cambridgeshire was recorded in the Domesday Book as Grantbridgeshire, covering a large part of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire today is the result of several local government unifications. In 1965, these two counties were merged to form Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely. Under the Local Government Act 1972 this merged with the county to the west, Huntingdon, the resulting county was called simply Cambridgeshire. Since 1998, the City of Peterborough has been a separately administered area and it is associated with Cambridgeshire for ceremonial purposes such as Lieutenancy, and joint functions such as policing and the fire service. In 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife unofficially designated Cambridgeshires county flower as the Pasqueflower, the Cambridgeshire Regiment, the county-based army unit, fought in the Boer War of South Africa, the First World War and Second World War. Due to the flat terrain and proximity to the continent, during the Second World War the military built many airfields here for RAF Bomber Command, RAF Fighter Command. In recognition of this collaboration, the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial is located in Madingley and it is the only WWII burial ground in England for American servicemen who died during that event. Most English counties have nicknames for their people, such as a Tyke from Yorkshire, the traditional nicknames for people from Cambridgeshire are Cambridgeshire Camel or Cambridgeshire Crane, referring to the wildfowl that were once abundant in the fens. The term Fenners was often applied to those who come from the country to the north of Cambridge. Since the late 20th century, this term is considered to be derogatory and has been discouraged in use, original historical documents relating to Cambridgeshire are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies. See also Geology of Cambridgeshire Large areas of the county are extremely low-lying, the highest point is in the village of Great Chishill at 146 m above sea level. Other prominent hills are Little Trees Hill and Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Downs, Rivey Hill above Linton, Rowleys Hill, AWG plc is based in Huntingdon. The RAF has several stations in the Huntingdon and St Ives area, RAF Waterbeach,6 miles north of Cambridge, is a former RAF airfield, now used as an army barracks
18.
Alice of Hainault
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Alice of Hainault, Countess Marshal, was the daughter of John de Avenes, Count of Hainault, and Philippine, daughter of the Count of Luxembourg. She was the wife of Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk. Her father succeeded as Count of Holland when his cousin, John I, Count of Holland, Alice of Hainault had several brothers, one of whom, William III, Count of Hainault, was the father of Edward IIIs wife, Philippa of Hainault. Another brother was John, Lord of Beaumont, known in England as Sir John of Hainault, in 1326 he was influential in the invasion of England by Isabella of France and Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, for which he was paid £32,722 or more. A third brother, also named John, who had contracted in marriage to Blanche of France. Alice married, as his wife, Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, Earl Marshal of England. Negotiations for the marriage were underway in 1289, on 12 June 1290 Norfolk designated twenty-two manors in East Anglia as Alices jointure, and on 13 June had licence to enfeoff £300 worth of land jointly to himself and Alice. Shortly thereafter Alice and Norfolk were wedded at the manor of Havering in Essex. In 1296 Alice and her husband were summoned to the ceremony at which her fathers cousin, John I, Count of Holland, married Edward Is daughter, Norfolk died before 6 December 1306. However his widow continued to be known as the Countess Marshal, in 1371, decades after her own death, she was referred to in the will of Sir Walter Manny as Alice de Hainault, the Countess Marshal. Manny endowed the Charterhouse in London as a Carthusian monastery, requesting the monks to pray for the souls of himself, his wife Margaret, Duchess of Norfolk, Alice remained a widow for the rest of her life. In 1309 she intended a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, and was granted protection for a year for that purpose, in the spring of 1310 the pirate John Crabbe seized a ship carrying cloth, jewels, gold, silver and other goods worth £2000 belonging to the Countess. Although the King sent further letters to the Count, Crabbe was not brought to justice. In 1315, some of Crabbes men were punished, but no restitution had been made, in consequence of which Edward II ordered the seizure of Flemish ships, Alice of Hainault died 26 October 1317. She is said to have left a will. About 1330 a chantry was founded at Carleton St Peter, Norfolk, bain, Joseph, ed. Calendar of Documents Relating to Scotland. The Complete Peerage, edited by Vicary Gibbs and Lord Howard de Walden, Edward III and the War at Sea. Davies, Gerald S. Charterhouse in London, Monastery, Mansion, Hospital, the Nobility and Ecclesiastical Patronage in Thirteenth-Century England. Lucas, Henry S. John Crabbe, Flemish Pirate, Merchant, maclean, John, ed. Annals of Chepstow Castle
19.
John II, Count of Holland
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John II of Avesnes was Count of Hainaut, Holland, and Zeeland. John II, born 1247, was the oldest son of John I of Avesnes and Adelaide of Holland, daughter of Floris IV and he was Count of Hainaut from 1280 to his death and Count of Holland from 1299 until his death. John continued the war between the House of Dampierre and the House of Avesnes against count Guy of Flanders for imperial Flanders. He became Count of Holland in 1299 with the death of John I, Count of Holland, through his mother Adelaide of Holland, heiress, the personal union he established between Hainaut and Holland–Zeeland lasted for another half-century. His cousin, Count Floris V, was fighting against Flanders for Zeeland and he sought help of France against Flanders. The French defeated the Flemish in 1300 and 1301, the rebels in Zeeland were defeated as well. Johns brother, Guy of Avesnes, became Bishop of Utrecht, so all his main enemies were gone. The tide changed dramatically after a Flemish uprising and the defeat of the French army at the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302, Flemish patriots attacked Hainaut and Zeeland supported by the dissatisfied population there. Guy of Namur defeated Johns son, William, in a battle on the island of Duiveland, Bishop Guy of Utrecht was taken prisoner. Guy of Namur and Duke John II of Brabant conquered most of Utrecht, Holland, Guy of Namur was finally defeated in 1304 by the fleet of Holland and France at the naval Battle of Zierikzee. John II regained most of his authority when he died in the same year, in 1270, John married Philippa of Luxembourg, daughter of Count Henry V of Luxembourg and Margaret of Bar. Their children were, John, Lord of Beaumont, Count of Ostervant, William I, Count of Hainaut He succeeded his father in 1304. Married Joan of Valois, daughter of Charles, Count of Valois and he was married to Margaret, Countess de Soissons. Margaret, married Robert II of Artois, who was killed at the Battle of the Golden Spurs,11 July 1302, alice or Alix, who married 1290 Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, by whom she had no issue. Isabelle, married Raoul de Clermont Lord of Nesle, who was killed in battle at the Battle of the Golden Spurs,11 July 1302, mary of Avesnes, married Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. Willem de Cuser Aleid van Zandenburg, who was married firstly to Wolfert II of Borselen, lord of Veere, Counts of Hainaut family tree Counts of Holland family tree
20.
Escheat
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Escheat /ᵻsˈtʃiːt/ is a common law doctrine that transfers the property of a person who died without heirs to the crown or state. It serves to ensure that property is not left in limbo without recognized ownership and it originally applied to a number of situations where a legal interest in land was destroyed by operation of law, so that the ownership of the land reverted to the immediately superior feudal lord. The term escheat derives ultimately from the Latin ex-cadere, to fall-out, the sense is of a feudal estate in land falling-out of the possession by a family into possession by the overlord. In feudal England, escheat referred to the situation where the tenant of a fee died without an heir or committed a felony, from the time of Henry III, the monarchy took particular interest in escheat as a source of revenue. At the Norman Conquest of England all the land of England was claimed as the possession of William the Conqueror under allodial title. The monarch thus became the owner of all the land in the kingdom. He then granted it out to his followers, who thereby became tenants-in-chief. Such tenures, even the highest one of feudal barony, never conferred ownership of land but merely ownership of rights over it, such persons are therefore correctly termed land-holders or tenants, not owners. If held freely, that is to say by freehold, such holdings were heritable by the legal heir. On the payment of a premium termed feudal relief to the treasury, logically therefore it was in the occupation of the crown alone, that is to say in the royal demesne. This was the operation of an escheat, a failure of heirs. Since disavowal of a bond was considered a felony, lords could escheat land from those who refused to be true to their feudal services. On the other hand, there were tenants who were sluggish in performing their duties, remedies in the courts against this sort of thing, even in Bractons day, were available, but were considered laborious and frequently ineffectual in compelling the desired performance. The commonest mechanism would be distraint, also called distress, the lord would seize some chattel and this practice had been dealt with in the 1267 Statute of Marlborough. Even so, it remained the most common method applied by the lords at the time of Quia Emptores. Thus, under English common law, there were two ways an escheat could happen, A persons property escheated if he was convicted of a felony. If the person was executed for the crime, his heirs were attainted, if a person had no heir to receive their property under a will or under the laws of intestacy, then any property he owned at death would escheat. This rule has been replaced in most common-law jurisdictions by bona vacantia or a similar concept, from the 12th century onward, the Crown appointed escheators to manage escheats and report to the Exchequer, with one escheator per county established by the middle of the 14th century
21.
Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk
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Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk, was the fifth son of King Edward I, and the eldest child by his second wife Margaret of France, the daughter of Philip III of France. He was, therefore, a younger half-brother of King Edward II and he occupied the office of Earl Marshal of England. Thomas of Brotherton was born 1 June 1300 at the house at Brotherton, Yorkshire, while his mother was on her way to Cawood. According to Hilton, Margaret was staying at Pontefract Castle and was following a hunt when she went into labour, Edward I quickly rushed to the queen and the newborn baby and had him presented with two cradles. His brother Edmund was born in the year after that and they were overseen by wet nurses until they were six years old. Like their parents, they learned to play chess and to ride horses and they were visited by nobles and their half-sister Mary of Woodstock, who was a nun. Their mother often accompanied Edward on his campaigns to Scotland, and his father died when he was 7 years old. Thomass half-brother, Edward, became king of England and Thomas was heir presumptive until his nephew Edward was born in 1312, the Earldom of Cornwall had been intended for Thomas, but Edward instead bestowed it upon his favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1306. When Thomas was 10 years old, Edward assigned to him and his brother Edmund, in 1312, he was titled Earl of Norfolk and on 10 February 1316 he was created Earl Marshal. While his brother was away fighting in Scotland, he was left Keeper of England and he was known for his hot and violent temper. He was one of the victims of the unchecked greed of the kings new favourite, Hugh Despenser the Younger and his father Hugh Despenser the Elder. He allied himself with Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer when they invaded England in 1326, when his nephew Edward III reached his majority and took the government into his own hands Thomas became one of his principal advisors. It was in the capacity of Lord Marshal that he commanded the wing of the English army at the Battle of Halidon Hill on 19 July 1333. He died about 20 September 1338, and was buried in the choir of the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds and he was succeeded by his daughter, Margaret, as Countess of Norfolk. She was later created Duchess of Norfolk for life in 1397, as a son of Edward I of England, he was entitled to bear the coat of arms of the Kingdom of England, differenced by a label argent of three points. Margaret, Duchess of Norfolk, who married firstly John Segrave, 4th Baron Segrave, alice of Norfolk, who married Sir Edward de Montagu. Alice Hales died by October 1330, when a chantry was founded for her soul in Bosham, archer, Rowena E. Brotherton, Margaret, suo jure duchess of Norfolk. The Complete Peerage, edited by H. A. Doubleday, everingham, Kimball G. ed. Plantagenet Ancestry, A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Leslie Stephen
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Sir Leslie Stephen KCB was an English author, critic, historian, biographer, and mountaineer, and father of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell. Stephen was born at Kensington Gore in London, and son of Sir James Stephen and his father was Colonial Undersecretary of State and a noted abolitionist. He was the fourth of five children, his siblings including James Fitzjames Stephen and his family had belonged to the Clapham Sect, the early 19th century group of mainly evangelical Christian social reformers. At his fathers house he saw a deal of the Macaulays, James Spedding, Sir Henry Taylor. He recounted some of his experiences in a chapter in his Life of Fawcett as well as in less formal Sketches from Cambridge. These sketches were reprinted from the Pall Mall Gazette, to the proprietor of which, George Murray Smith, the family connections included that of William Makepeace Thackeray. His brother, Fitzjames had been a friend of Thackerays and assisted in the disposition of his estate when he died in 1863 and his sister Caroline met Thackerays daughters, Anny and Minny when they were mutual guests of Julia Margaret Cameron. This led to an invitation to visit from Leslie Stephens mother, Lady Stephen and they also met at George Murray Smiths house at Hampstead. Minny and Leslie became engaged on December 4,1866 and married on June 19,1867. After the wedding they travelled to the Swiss Alps and northern Italy, and on return to England lived at the Thackeray sisters home at 16 Onslow Gardens with Anny, in the spring of 1868 Minny miscarried but recovered sufficiently for the couple to tour the eastern United States. Minny miscarried again in 1869, but became pregnant again in 1870 and on December 7 gave birth to their daughter, Laura was premature, weighing three pounds. In March 1873 Thackeray and the Stephens moved to 8 Southwell Gardens, the couple travelled extensively, and by 1875 Minny was pregnant again, but this time was in poor health. On November 27 she developed convulsions, and died the day of eclampsia. After Minnys death, Leslie Stephen continued to live with Anny, Leslie Stephen and his daughter were also cared for by his sister, the writer Caroline Emelia Stephen, although Leslie described her as Silly Milly and her books as little works. Meanwhile, Anny was falling in love with her younger cousin Richmond Ritchie, Ritchie became a constant visitor and they became engaged in May 1877, and were married on August 2. At the same time Leslie Stephen was seeing more and more of Julia Duckworth and his second marriage was to Julia Prinsep Duckworth. Julia had been born in India and after returning to England she became a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, in 1867 she had married Herbert Duckworth by whom she had three children prior to his death in 1870. Leslie Stephen and Julia Duckworth were married on March 26,1878 and they had four children, Vanessa married Clive Bell Thoby Virginia married Leonard Woolf Adrian In May 1895, Julia died of influenza, leaving her husband with four young children aged 11 to 15
24.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
25.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
26.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
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Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford
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Thenceforth the Clifford family quartered the arms of Vipont, Gules, six annulets or. As his father had predeceased his own father, in 1286 Robert inherited the estates of his grandfather, Roger I de Clifford, following the death of his mother Isabella de Vipont in 1291 he inherited a one-half moiety of the extensive Vipont feudal baron of Appleby in Westmorland. In 1308 he was granted the remaining moiety by his childless aunt Idonea de Vipont, during the reigns of Kings Edward I and Edward II, Clifford was a prominent soldier. In 1296 he was sent with Henry de Percy, 1st Baron Percy to quell the Scots who asked for terms of surrender at Irvine and he was appointed Governor of Carlisle. During the reign of Edward I he was styled Warden of the Marches and during the reign of Edward II, as Lord Warden of the Marches, being the first holder of this office. In 1298 he fought for King Edward I at the Battle of Falkirk in which William Wallace was defeated and he was summoned to Parliament by writ as a baron in 1299. Through his mother his descent comes from that renowned Earl Marshal at Constantinople said to have battled with a unicorn, all the merits of his grandsire, Roger, still in Robert spring. Of no praise is he unworthy, wiser none was with the King, honoured was his banner, checky gold and blue, a scarlet fess. Were I maiden, heart and body I would yield to such noblesse and he was one of many who sealed the 1301 Barons Letter to the Pope, in the Latin text of which he is described as Robertus de Clifford, Castellanus de Appelby. After the death of King Edward I in 1307, he was appointed counsellor to Edward II, together with the Earl of Lincoln, Earl of Warwick and Earl of Pembroke. In the same year of 1307 the new king Edward II appointed him Marshal of England, and in this capacity he probably organised Edward IIs coronation on 25 February 1308. On 12 March 1308 he was relieved of the marshalcy, the custodianship of Nottingham Castle and of his Forest justiceship, but on 20 August 1308 he was appointed captain and chief guardian of Scotland. In 1310 Edward II also granted him Skipton Castle and the Honour of Skipton in Yorkshire, held until that date by Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. In 1312 together with the Earl of Lancaster he took part in the movement against Piers Gaveston Edward IIs favourite, in 1295 in Clifford Castle he married Maud de Clare, eldest daughter of Thomas de Clare, Lord of Thomond by his wife Juliana FitzGerald. By Maud he had three children, Roger de Clifford, 2nd Baron de Clifford, Robert de Clifford, 3rd Baron de Clifford. Idonia de Clifford, wife of Henry de Percy, 2nd Baron Percy, Clifford was killed on 24 June 1314 fighting at the Battle of Bannockburn and was buried at Shap Abbey in Westmoreland. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Thompson, Edward Maunde (1886). "Bigod, Roger (1245-1306)". In Stephen, Leslie. Dictionary of National Biography. 5. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 26–27.
Thompson, Edward Maunde (1886). "