1.
Barons' Letter of 1301
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The letter survives in two copies, known as A and B, both held in the National Archives at Kew under the reference E26. Historically they were held amongst the documents in the Exchequer, Treasury of the Receipt department, the seals of the signatories to the letter survive in excellent condition. The letter was written by English barons as a repudiation to the pope of his claim to overlordship of Scotland. The bull was addressed to King King Edward I of England and it was delivered by Robert Winchelsey, Archbishop of Canterbury at Sweetheart Abbey in Galloway, Scotland, the bull is preserved in the National Archives at Kew under reference SC 7/6/10. The bull had been delivered to the king at a sensitive moment, an English attack on a kingdom the feudal overlord of which was the pope would be virtually unthinkable in political and religious terms. In the event, the Barons Letter was never sent to the pope, as events changed rapidly to such an extent that it appeared superfluous. A letter to the effect from the king had however been sent to the pope. To it were summoned 9 earls and 80 barons, yet 7 earls and 96 barons are recorded in the letter itself as co-authors and those barons who did not answer the summons sealed the letter later. The seals appended by hempen cords to Exemplar B were tricked by Lancaster Herald Nicholas Charles in 1611 and he also made a transcript of Exemplar B. which clearly was then in a better state of preservation than today. Whilst his drawings provide much detail which is difficult to see in photographs of the seals themselves. The number of surviving seals is given as 95 by the National Archives catalogue entry, photographic images were published by Brian Timms on his heraldry website. Declaration of Arbroath, a declaration of Scottish independence, made in 1320, Latin transcript, English translation & photographic images of seals. National Archives catalogue entry, BaronsLetter Brian Timms heraldry website Rymer, T, Foedera, London,1727, II, p.873, Latin transcript The Barons Reply to the Pope, English Historical Society. W. de Hemingburgh, Chronicon, Vol. II
2.
William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke
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William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, also called William the Marshal, was an Anglo-Norman soldier and statesman. He served five English kings – Henry II, his sons The Young King Henry, Richard I, John, knighted in 1166, he spent his younger years as a knight errant and a successful tournament competitor, Stephen Langton eulogized him as the best knight that ever lived. In 1189, he received the title of Earl of Pembroke through marriage during the creation of the Pembroke Earldom. In 1216, he was appointed protector for the nine-year-old Henry III, William became known as the Marshal, although by his time much of the function was actually delegated to more specialized representatives. Because he was an Earl, and also known as the Marshal, the term Earl Marshal was commonly used and this later became an established hereditary title in the English Peerage. When King Stephen besieged Newbury Castle in 1152, according to Williams biographer, John, however, used the time allotted to reinforce the castle and alert Matildas forces. Subsequently, there was a made to launch William from a pierrière. Fortunately for the child, Stephen could not bring himself to harm young William, William remained a crown hostage for many months, only being released following the peace that resulted from the terms agreed at Winchester on 6 November 1153 that ended the civil war. As a younger son of a nobleman, William had no lands or fortune to inherit. Here he began his training as a knight and this would have included basic biblical stories and prayers written in Latin, as well as exposure to French romances, which conferred the basic precepts of chivalry to the budding knight. In addition, while in Tancarville’s household, it is likely that Marshal also learned important and he was knighted in 1166 on campaign in Upper Normandy, then being invaded from Flanders. His first experience in battle came with mixed reviews, according to LHistoire, everyone who witnessed the young knight in action agreed that he had acquitted himself well in combat. However, as medieval historian David Crouch explains, “War in the century was not fought wholly for honour. Profit was there to be made…” On this front, Marshal was not so successful, as described in LHistoire, the Earl of Essex, who was expecting the customary tribute from his valorous knight following battle, jokingly remarked, “Oh. But Marshal, what are you saying and you had forty or sixty of them — yet you refuse me so small a thing. ”In 1167 he was taken by William de Tancarville to his first tournament where he found his true métier. Quitting the Tancarville household he served in the household of his mothers brother, Patrick. In 1168 his uncle was killed in an ambush by Guy de Lusignan, William was injured and captured in the same skirmish. It is known that William received a wound to his thigh and he received a loaf of bread in which were concealed several lengths of clean linen bandages with which he could dress his wounds
3.
Roll of arms
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A roll of arms is a collection of coats of arms, usually consisting of rows of painted pictures of shields, each shield accompanied by the name of the person bearing the arms. The oldest extant armorials date to the mid 13th century, Siebmachers Wappenbuch of 1605 was an early instance of a printed armorial. Medieval armorials usually include a few hundred coats of arms, in the medieval period sometimes up to some 2,000. In the early period, the larger armorials develop into encyclopedic projects, with the Armorial général de France, commissioned by Louis XIV of France. A roll of arms arranged systematically by design, with featuring the same principal elements grouped together as a tool to aid identification, is known as an ordinary of arms. Glovers Roll is an English roll of arms from the 1240s or 1250s, the Matthew Paris Shields, not truly a roll but a set of marginal illustrations accompanying the chroniclers illuminated manuscript works, Chronica Majora and Historia Anglorum. These date from c. 1244–59, during the reign of Henry III, walfords Roll is an English roll dating from c. 1275, containing 185 coats with blazons, the Camden Roll is an English roll dating from c.1280, containing 270 painted coats,185 with blazons. The Dering Roll, dating from the late 13th century, contains 324 coats of arms and it is 8 1⁄4 inches wide by 8 feet 8 inches long. It currently resides in the British Library, the Heralds Roll is an English roll dating from c. St Georges Roll is an English roll dating from c, Charles Roll is an English roll dating from c.1285, containing 486 painted coats. Planché however names as Charless Roll a copy of a mid-13th-century roll containing nearly 700 coats drawn in pen and ink by Nicholas Charles, Lancaster Herald, Charles stated that the original had been lent to him by the Norroy King of Arms. The Lord Marshals Roll is an English roll dating from 1295, collins Roll is a roll dating from 1296, containing 598 painted coats. It currently resides at the College of Arms in London, the Falkirk Roll is an English occasional roll dating from c. 1298, containing 115 coats with blazons, listing the knights with King Edward I at Battle of Falkirk in 1298, the British Museum copy was formerly in the Treasury Chamber in Paris in 1576. The Galloway Roll is an English roll dating from 1300, containing 259 coats with blazons, Roll of Caerlaverock or Poem of Caerlaverock is a roll dating from 1300, containing 110 poetical blazons without images. Two other copies exist, made by Glover from a now-lost different original source, one at the College of Arms in London, the original was made in 1300 by English heralds during Edward Is siege of Caerlaverock Castle, Scotland. Commentary by Nicholas Harris Nicolas, The siege of Carlaverock in the XXVIII Edward I, a. D. Stirling Roll is an English roll from 1304, containing 102 coats
4.
Earl Marshal
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Earl Marshal is a hereditary royal officeholder and chivalric title under the sovereign of the United Kingdom used in England. He is the eighth of the Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom, ranking beneath the Lord High Constable, the Earl Marshal has among his responsibilities the organisation of major ceremonial state occasions like the monarchs coronation in Westminster Abbey and state funerals. He is also an officer of arms and oversees the College of Arms. The current Earl Marshal is Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 18th Duke of Norfolk, there was formerly an Earl Marshall of Ireland and Earl Marischal of Scotland. The office of royal marshal existed in much of Europe, involving managing horses, in England, the office became hereditary under John FitzGilbert the Marshal after The Anarchy, and rose in prominence under his second son, William Marshal, later Earl of Pembroke. He served under several kings, acted as regent, and organised funerals, after passing through his daughters husband to the Earls of Norfolk, the post evolved into Earl Marshal and the title remained unchanged, even after the earldom of Norfolk became a dukedom. In the Middle Ages, the Earl Marshal and the Lord High Constable were the officers of the horses and stables. When chivalry declined in importance, the constables post declined and the Earl Marshal became the head of the College of Arms, in 1672, the office of Marshal of England and the title of Earl Marshal of England were made hereditary in the Howard family. The Earl Marshal is considered the eighth of the Great Officers of State, with the Lord High Constable above him, nowadays, the Earl Marshals role has mainly to do with the organisation of major state ceremonies such as coronations and state funerals. Annually, the Earl Marshal helps organise the State Opening of Parliament, the Earl Marshal also remains to have charge over the College of Arms and no coat of arms may be granted without his warrant. As a symbol of his office, he carries a baton of gold with black finish at either end, in the general order of precedence, the Earl Marshal is currently the highest hereditary position in the United Kingdom outside the Royal Family. Although other state and ecclesiastical officers rank above in precedence, they are not hereditary, the holding of the Earl Marshalship secures the Duke of Norfolks traditional position as the first peer of the land, above all other dukes. Among the men who have held the title of Earl Marshal of Ireland are William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, 1652–1661 James Howard, 3rd Earl of Suffolk 1661–1662 in commission 1662–1672. Deputy Earls Marshal have been named at various times, discharging the responsibilities of the office during the minority or infirmity of the Earl Marshal, prior to an Act of Parliament in 1824, Protestant deputies were required when the Earl Marshal was a Roman Catholic. Lord Lyon King of Arms Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Earl Marshal, the Court Register and Statesmans Remembrancer Round, J. H. The Commune of London, and other Studies
5.
Edward I of England
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
6.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
7.
Levett
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Levett is an Anglo-Norman territorial surname deriving from the village of Livet-en-Ouche, now Jonquerets-de-Livet, in Eure, Normandy. The name Livet, of Gaulish etymology, may mean a place where yew-trees grow, like most Normans, the familys origins are probably partly Scandinavian. The year of the arrival in England is uncertain. But the family appears in the records of William the Conqueror. By about 1270, when the Dering Roll was crafted to display the coats of arms of 324 of Englands most powerful lords, ancient English deeds subsequently refer to many lands across Sussex as Levetts, indicating family possession of broad swaths of Sussex countryside. Like most medieval Norman families, the Levetts depended on the web of feudal hierarchy and they held their lands as overlords in return for knights service. As their feudal overlords thrived, so did they, conversely, the Levetts and their descendants eventually held land in Gloucestershire, Yorkshire, Worcestershire, Suffolk, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, Kent, Bedfordshire and later in Staffordshire. The Anglicisation of this Norman French surname took many forms, including Levett, Levet, Lyvet, Levytt, Livett, Delivett, Levete, Leavett, Leavitt, Lovett and others. Unlike the French branch of the family, no members of the English branch were ennobled, although they intermarried with nobility and served as courtiers. But the most common choice of professions among Levett men down the ages was the Anglican clergy – although one combined the ministry with the secular in an unusual way. Rev. William Levett of Buxted, East Sussex, inherited the iron foundries built by his brother John in the 16th century. Rather than sell them, Parson Levett became the first to cast iron cannon in England, served as Chief Gunstonemaker to the King, and laid the foundation for an English industry. Members of the formerly occupied Wychnor Park and Packington Hall. Ultimately, the two distant branches of the Levett family of Sussex, living nearby each other in Staffordshire, another branch of the Milford Hall Levetts occupy the family residence The Hall, Angle, Pembrokeshire, Wales, although the name is now Mirehouse because of an inheritance. As with many families of Anglo-Norman extraction, some branches thrived, the vicissitudes of character — and the collapsing feudal order — played havoc with the fortunes of some family members. The lordship of Firle, East Sussex, for instance, longtime seat of the family, the bankrupt Levett also forfeited his inherited lordship of Catsfield, East Sussex. The distress sale left Levetts descendants listed as simple yeomen, instead of the knights, esquires, other ancestral lands passed from the family with the marriage of Levett heiresses. Those inheriting from the Levetts included the Eversfields, the Gildredges, the Chaloners, the Ashburnhams, other Levetts fell on hard times as the familys fortunes sometimes dwindled, or were carried into other clans
8.
Leslie Stephen
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Sir Leslie Stephen KCB was an English author, critic, historian, biographer, and mountaineer, and father of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell. Stephen was born at Kensington Gore in London, and son of Sir James Stephen and his father was Colonial Undersecretary of State and a noted abolitionist. He was the fourth of five children, his siblings including James Fitzjames Stephen and his family had belonged to the Clapham Sect, the early 19th century group of mainly evangelical Christian social reformers. At his fathers house he saw a deal of the Macaulays, James Spedding, Sir Henry Taylor. He recounted some of his experiences in a chapter in his Life of Fawcett as well as in less formal Sketches from Cambridge. These sketches were reprinted from the Pall Mall Gazette, to the proprietor of which, George Murray Smith, the family connections included that of William Makepeace Thackeray. His brother, Fitzjames had been a friend of Thackerays and assisted in the disposition of his estate when he died in 1863 and his sister Caroline met Thackerays daughters, Anny and Minny when they were mutual guests of Julia Margaret Cameron. This led to an invitation to visit from Leslie Stephens mother, Lady Stephen and they also met at George Murray Smiths house at Hampstead. Minny and Leslie became engaged on December 4,1866 and married on June 19,1867. After the wedding they travelled to the Swiss Alps and northern Italy, and on return to England lived at the Thackeray sisters home at 16 Onslow Gardens with Anny, in the spring of 1868 Minny miscarried but recovered sufficiently for the couple to tour the eastern United States. Minny miscarried again in 1869, but became pregnant again in 1870 and on December 7 gave birth to their daughter, Laura was premature, weighing three pounds. In March 1873 Thackeray and the Stephens moved to 8 Southwell Gardens, the couple travelled extensively, and by 1875 Minny was pregnant again, but this time was in poor health. On November 27 she developed convulsions, and died the day of eclampsia. After Minnys death, Leslie Stephen continued to live with Anny, Leslie Stephen and his daughter were also cared for by his sister, the writer Caroline Emelia Stephen, although Leslie described her as Silly Milly and her books as little works. Meanwhile, Anny was falling in love with her younger cousin Richmond Ritchie, Ritchie became a constant visitor and they became engaged in May 1877, and were married on August 2. At the same time Leslie Stephen was seeing more and more of Julia Duckworth and his second marriage was to Julia Prinsep Duckworth. Julia had been born in India and after returning to England she became a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, in 1867 she had married Herbert Duckworth by whom she had three children prior to his death in 1870. Leslie Stephen and Julia Duckworth were married on March 26,1878 and they had four children, Vanessa married Clive Bell Thoby Virginia married Leonard Woolf Adrian In May 1895, Julia died of influenza, leaving her husband with four young children aged 11 to 15
9.
Gascony
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Gascony is an area of southwest France that was part of the Province of Guyenne and Gascony prior to the French Revolution. The region is defined, and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear, by some they are seen to overlap, while others consider Gascony a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux and it is currently divided between the region of Aquitaine and the region of Midi-Pyrénées. Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque, the name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque. From medieval times until today, the Gascon language has been spoken, Gascony is the land of dArtagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumass character dArtagnan in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to Henry III of Navarre, who became king of France as Henry IV. In pre-Roman times, the inhabitants of Gascony were the Aquitanians, the Aquitanians inhabited a territory limited to the north and east by the Garonne River, to the south by the Pyrenees mountain range, and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. In the 50s BC, Aquitania was conquered by lieutenants of Julius Caesar, later, in 27 BC, during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the province of Gallia Aquitania was created. In 297, as Emperor Diocletian reformed the administrative structures of the Roman Empire, the territory of Novempopulania corresponded quite well to what we call now Gascony. The Aquitania Novempopulana or Novempopulania suffered like the rest of the Western Roman Empire from the invasions of Germanic tribes, the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks in 507, and fled into Spain and Septimania, as well as Albania. Novempopulania then became part of the Frankish Kingdom like the rest of southern France, however, Novempopulania was far away from the home base of the Franks in northern France, and was only very loosely controlled by the Franks. Modern historians reject this hypothesis, which is sustained by no archeological evidence, for Juan José Larrea, and Pierre Bonnassie, a Vascon expansionism in Aquitany is not proved and is not necessary to understand the historical evolution of this region. This Basque-related culture and race is, whatever the origin, attested in Medieval documents, the word Vasconia evolved into Wasconia, and then into Gasconia. The gradual abandonment of the Basque-related Aquitanian language in favor of a local vulgar Latin, was not reversed, the replacing local vulgar Latin evolved into Gascon. It was heavily influenced by the original Aquitanian language, quite paradoxically the Basques from the French side of the Basque Country traditionally call anyone who does not speak Basque a Gascon. Meanwhile, Viking raiders conquered several Gascon towns, among them Bayonne in 842–844 and their attacks in Gascony may have helped the political disintegration of the Duchy until their defeat against William II Sánchez of Gascony in 982. In turn, the weakened ethnic polity known as Duchy of Wasconia/Wascones, unable to get round the general spread of feudalization and his 1152 marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine allowed the future Henry II to gain control of his new wifes possessions of Aquitaine and Gascony. This addition to his already plentiful holdings made Henry the most powerful vassal in France, in 1248, Simon de Montfort was appointed Governor in the unsettled Duchy of Gascony
10.
Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford
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Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford and 2nd Earl of Essex, was an English nobleman known primarily for his opposition to King Edward I over the Confirmatio Cartarum. He was also a participant in the Welsh Wars and maintained for several years a private feud with the earl of Gloucester. His father, Humphrey de Bohun, fought on the side of the barons in the Barons War. When Humphrey predeceased his father, Humphrey became heir to his grandfather, at Humphrey s death in 1275, Humphrey inherited the earldoms of Hereford and Essex. He also inherited major possessions in the Welsh Marches from his mother, Bohuns spent most of his early career reconquering Marcher lands captured by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd during the Welsh war in England. This was finally accomplished through Edward Is war in Wales in 1277, Hereford also fought in Wales in 1282–83 and 1294–95. Herefords final years were marked by the opposition he and Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, mounted against the military, the conflict escalated to a point where civil war threatened, but was resolved when the war effort turned towards Scotland. The king signed the Confirmatio Cartarum – a confirmation of Magna Carta – and Bohun, Bohun died in 1298, and was succeeded by his son, Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford. Humphrey de Bohun was part of a line of Anglo-Norman aristocrats going back to the Norman Conquest, most of whom carried the same name. His grandfather was Humphrey de Bohun, who had part of the baronial opposition of Simon de Montfort. He was taken prisoner at the Battle of Lewes in May 1264, Humphrey s son, Humphrey de Bohun, remained loyal to the baronial side throughout the Barons War, and was captured at Evesham on 4 August 1265. In October that year Humphrey died in captivity at Beeston Castle in Cheshire from injuries he had sustained in the battle, Humphrey had been excluded from succession as a result of his rebellion, but when Humphrey died in 1275, Humphrey inherited the earldoms of Hereford and Essex. Humphrey had already served as deputy Constable of England under Humphrey, Humphrey had reserved the honour of Pleshey for his younger son Henry, but the remainder of his lands went to Humphrey. The inheritance Humphrey received – in addition to land in Essex and his mother Eleanor was a daughter and coheir of William de Braose and his wife Eva Marshal, who in turn was the daughter and coheir of William Marshal, regent to Henry III. Since Humphrey was only sixteen years old at the time of his fathers death, part of this inheritance, the Marcher lordship of Brecon, was in the meanwhile given to the custody of Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Hertford. He granted his brother Gilbert de Bohun all of their mothers lands in Ireland and some land in England, over the next years, much of Herefords focus was on reconquering his lost lands in the Marches, primarily through private warfare against Llywelyn. Henry III died in 1272, while his son – now Edward I – was crusading, Llywelyn refused to pay homage to the new king, partly because of the military actions of Bohun and other Marcher lords, which Llywelyn saw as violations of the Treaty of Montgomery. On 12 November 1276, Hereford was present at an assembly where judgment was passed on Llewelyn
11.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Thompson, Edward Maunde (1886). "Bigod, Roger (1245-1306)". In Stephen, Leslie. Dictionary of National Biography. 5. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 26–27.
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