1.
SS Rohilla
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Rohilla was a passenger steamer of the British India Steam Navigation Company which was built for service between the UK and India, and as a troopship. After becoming a ship in the First World War, Rohilla ran aground in October 1914 near Whitby with the loss of 83 lives. Rohilla was ordered in 1905 by the British India Steam Navigation Company from Harland & Wolff Ltd of Belfast, at the same time as sister ship Rewa from William Denny & Bros at Dumbarton. They differed mainly in their engines, Rewa was triple-screw with steam turbines, while Rohilla had a pair of quadruple expansion engines, also made by Harland & Wolff. Rohillas engines totalled IHP, producing 16.6 knots on sea trials, although ordered for the London to Calcutta service, increased competition prompted BI to design the two sisters to be suitable also as troopships. The steamship was named Rohilla in honour of the Rohillas, Pashtun highlanders who lived in Rohilkhand, east of Delhi, after entering service, the sisters were soon taken up for trooping, in 1908 for Rohilla as Troopship No.6. Rohilla was called up at the outset of the First World War, HMHS Rohilla had only a short life in that role. The reef is about 400 yards offshore and the ship broke her back. The conditions made rescue extremely difficult, but lifeboats from Whitby, Upgang, Redcar, Tynemouth and Scarborough attempted to close on the wreck. Over the next three days, some of those who attempted to swim to safety in the seas were rescued, though many were lost. In all,146 of the 229 on board, including Captain Neilson and all the nurses, as well as Titanic survivor Mary Kezia Roberts, capt Nielson believed that the ship had struck a mine before grounding. The Empire Gallantry Medal was awarded to Burton and Smith in 1924, in 1917 a monument was erected at Whitby by the British India Steam Navigation Company, commemorating all those who lost their lives in the tragedy. List of United Kingdom disasters by death toll Brittain, Colin, into the Maelstrom, The Wreck of HMHS Rohilla. ISBN 0-7524-2384-3 HMS Rohilla photograph at Port Said
2.
Hindi-Urdu
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Hindustani, historically also known as Hindavi, Dehlvi and Rekhta, is the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan. It is an Indo-Aryan language, deriving primarily from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi, before the Partition of the British Indian Empire, the terms Hindustani, Urdu, and Hindi were synonymous, all covered what would be called Urdu and Hindi today. Hindustani is also spoken by a number of people in Mauritius. Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhramsha vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries. Amir Khusro, who lived in the 13th century CE during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used these forms in his writings, the Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several Turkic and Afghan dynasties that ruled from Delhi, was succeeded by the Mughal Empire in 1526. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianised Central Asian Turkic, the term Hindustani was the name given to that variant of Khariboli. For socio-political reasons, though essentially the variant of Khariboli with Persian vocabulary, the more highly Persianised version later established as a language of the court was called Rekhta, or mixed. As an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic words and its development was centred on the poets of the Mughal courts of cities in Uttar Pradesh such as Delhi, Lucknow, and Agra. He continued, But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language and it is linguistic result of Mohammedan invasions of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken by many Hindus in North India and by Musalman population in all parts of India. Next to English it was the language of British Indian Empire, was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters. When the British colonised the Indian subcontinent from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words Hindustani, Hindi and they developed it as the language of administration of British India, further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word Hindustani declined, being replaced by Hindi and Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion & philosophy, under the Bahmani Kings and it is a living language, still prevalent all over the Deccan Plateau. Note that the term Hindustani has generally fallen out of usage in modern India, except to refer to Indian as a nationality. The term used to refer to it is Hindi or Urdu, depending on the religion of the speaker, in common usage in India, the term Hindi includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu end of the spectrum. Urdu is the language of Pakistan and an officially recognised regional language of India. It is also a language in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, National Capital Territory of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. In a specific sense, Hindustani may be used to refer to the dialects and varieties used in speech, in contrast with the standardised Hindi
3.
Pashtuns
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The Pashtuns /ˈpʌʃˌtʊnz/ or /ˈpæʃˌtuːnz/, historically known by the exonyms Afghans, and Pathan, are an ethnic group native to Afghanistan and North-Western Pakistan. They are generally classified as Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistically, who use Pashto language and follow Pashtunwali, the origin of Pashtuns is unclear but historians have come across references to various ancient peoples called Pakthas between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC, who may be their early ancestors. Their history is mostly spread amongst various countries of South and Central Asia, as the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, Pashtuns have been the dominant ethno-linguistic group for over 300 years. The Barakzai dynasty played a role during the Great Game from the 19th century to the 20th century as they were caught between the imperialist designs of the British and Russian empires. There have been many notable Pashtun people throughout history, Ahmad Shah Durrani is regarded as the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. Under Amanullah Khan, Afghanistan was able to pursue an independent foreign policy, some others include Malala Yousafzai, Shah Rukh Khan, Hamid Karzai, and Imran Khan. They are an important community in Pakistan, which has the largest Pashtun population, Pashtuns attained presidency there and high rankings in sports. They are the worlds largest segmentary lineage ethnic group, according to Ethnologue, the total population of the group is estimated to be around 50 million but an accurate count remains elusive due to the lack of an official census in Afghanistan since 1979. Estimates of the number of Pashtun tribes and clans range from about 350 to over 400, additional Pashtun communities are located in western and northern Afghanistan, the Gilgit–Baltistan and Kashmir regions and northwestern Punjab province of Pakistan. There are also sizeable Muslim communities in India, which are of largely Pashtun ancestry, throughout the Indian subcontinent, they are often referred to as Pathans. Smaller Pashtun communities are found in the countries of the Middle East, such as in the Khorasan Province of Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, important metropolitan centres of Pashtun culture include Peshawar, Quetta, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Kunduz, and Lashkar Gah. The cities of Kabul and Ghazni in Afghanistan are home to around 25% Pashtun population while Herat, with as high as 7 million by some estimates, the city of Karachi in Sindh, Pakistan has the largest concentration of urban Pashtuns in the world. In addition, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Lahore also have sizeable Pashtun populations, about 15% of Pakistans nearly 200 million population is Pashtun. In Afghanistan, they are the largest ethnic group and make up between 42-60% of the 32.5 million population. The exact figure remains uncertain in Afghanistan, which is affected by the 1.5 million or more Afghan refugees that remain in Pakistan. Another one million or more Afghans live in Iran, a cumulative population assessment suggests a total of around 49 million individuals all across the world. A prominent institution of the Pashtun people is the system of tribes. Despite this, many people identify themselves with various clans
4.
Pathans of Punjab
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The Pathans of Punjab (Punjabi, پنجابی پٹھان, Pashto, د پنجاب پښتانه, also called Punjabi Pathans are originally Pashtun people who have settled in the Punjab region of Pakistan and north India. Most of these Pashtun communities are scattered throughout the Punjab and have over time assimilated into the Punjabi identity and these non-frontier Pathans are usually known by the town or locality in which they are settled, e. g. Qasuria Pathans or Multani Pathans. These naturally belonged to the Ghilzai section from which those kings sprung, the history of Pathans in India is much earlier. Trapusa and Bahalika, variously assumed to be merchants or slaves from Balkh were the first lay-person to accept Buddha and it should be noted that during that time, the regions west of HinduKush, including Afghanistan were ruled by Mauryan empire and their vassal states of Indo-Greeks. These Indo-Greeks were staunch followers of Vishnu and Buddha and ruled parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. They gave rise to the Hellenistic form of Buddhism which competed with the Mathura form. Mehmond Pathan Hoshiarpur were also in the army of Mahmud of Ghazni. Of these the most widely distributed are the Yusufzai, of whom a body of 12,000 accompanied the Mughal Emperor Babur in the invasion of India, and settled in the plains of India. But as a rule the Pathans who have settled away from the frontier have lost all memory of their tribal divisions, the oral tradition of Pathans has that they are descendents of the soldiers of Alexander the Great who invaded the area in 327–323 BC. Archaeological evidence, however, suggests a Greek influence before this invasion, a phylogenetic study investigated the possible genetic relation of Pathans with Greeks and found evidence of a limited contributions of Greek genes in the Pathan population. The main tribes of the Pathans in the Punjab are as follows, It includes Miana, Qaisrani (a tribe related to Kakars, the Niazi Pathans mainly live in the areas of Punjab like Mianwali, Khanewal and many other cities of Punjab. The Bangash, Burki and Lodhi tribes were closely connected with the district, in 1947 the overwhelming majority of these Jalandhar based Pathans and others in the Indian side moved en masse to Pakistan. Traditions of the Burki tribe point settlement in the district in the 16th century, the earliest settlements were Barikian and Rasta Ikhwand, both in Jalandhar city. After Jalandhar was burnt down by the Gurus of Kartarpur in 1757 and this family was known as the Sadakhel, and other Burki tribes include the Guz, Aliak and Babakhel. Communities of the Burki, in and around the city of Jalandhar were referred to as the basti, the Babakhel Burki are said to have come from Kaniguram in South Waziristan in 1617, accompaniying Shaikh Darwesh, leader of the Roshaniya muslims. The founded Basti Shaikh, having bought land from the proprietors of Jalandhar. They are also founded the town of Babakhel, Basti Guzan was founded in the time of the Mughal Emperor Shahjahan, by three sons of Musa Khan of Guz tribe. This Musa Khan had come with Shaikh Darwesh from Kaniguram, and had settled initially in Basti Shaikh, thry afterwards bought land from the Lodhis and Sayyids, and founded Basti Guzan. Other bastis included Basti Ibrahim Khan, Basti Pir Dad Khan, Basti Shah Quli, Basti Daanishmandan, the most important and oldest Pashtun settlement in the district was that of the Lodhi tribe
5.
Pathans of Gujarat
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Gujarati Pathans are a group of Pathans. At various times in history, a number of Pashtuns have settled in the region of Gujarat in western India. They now form a community of Gujarati speaking Muslims. They speak Gujarati, with many Hindustani loanwords, common Tribes include Babi or Babai, Khan, Bangash, Durrani, and Yousafzai. The Pathans arrived in Gujarat during the Middle Ages onwards, as soldiers in the armies of the various Hindu, historical evidence suggests that the earliest settlement of the Pashtuns was during the rule of Mohammad Tughlak in the 14th Century, when military colonies were established. It is also possible that many accompanied and formed part of the army of Mahmud of Ghazni in his invasions of Gujarat in 1024AD, quite a few arrived during the rule of Mahmud Begada, and over the course of time spread over the entire the state of Gujarat. During the period of Mughal rule over Gujarat, there was settlement of Pashtuns. With the breakup of the Mughal Empire, the Babi or Babai and Jalori Pathans became rulers of the states of Junagadh. The 19th Century saw a settlement of Pashtuns, mainly Ghilzais Tanoli from Afghanistan, with many settling in the cities of Ahmedabad. The Pathans of Gujarat were rulers of a number of princely states, Balasinor is a town located in the Kheda district, in Gujarat, India. Balasinor State was a state of the Babi dynasty and was created on 28 September 1758 by the Junagadh State Babi Dynasty. The current nawab is HH Nawab Babi Shri Muhammed Salabat Khanji II, Mohammad Sher khan Babi, who owed allegiance to the Mughal governor of Gujarat subah, founded the state of Junagadh and declaring independence in 1730 after Marathas Gaikwad invasion. Muhammad Sher khan Babi, was the founder of the Babi Dynasty of Junagadh State dynasty. Some of the Babi Pashtun who were the rulers and from the lineage of Junagadh state still lives in Gujarat. The main ones were the rulers of Ranpur Sorath, Devgam, Matiyana, Bamangadh and Bantva. Palanpur was the seat of Palanpur State, a state ruled by the Lohani dynasty of Afghans. While the earlier history of the family is who established themselves in Bihar during the twelfth century, Malik Khurram Khan, the founder of the Palanpur house, left and entered the service of Vishaldev of Mandore during the late fourteenth century. However, the family comes into prominence during the period of instability that followed the demise of Aurangzeb in the early 18th century. The state encompassed an area of 1766 km² and a population, in 1901, the town of Palanpur housed a population of only 8000 people that year
6.
Urdu
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Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
7.
Rohilkhand
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Rohilkhand is a region of northwestern Uttar Pradesh state of India, named after the Rohilla Afghan tribes. The region was known as Madhyadesh in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Rohilkhand lies on the upper Ganges alluvial plain and has an area of about 25,000 km²/10,000 square miles. It is bounded by the Ganges River on the south and the west by Uttarakhand and Nepal on the north, later it gained fame as Rohilkhand due to large settlements of Rohilla Pathans in the City of Bareilly and Rampur. Roh means mountains and in Pashto and Rohilla means mountaineer, today, the Afghan proper refer to themselves as Ban-i-Afghan or Ban-i-Isrial to differentiate themselves from the Indian Pathan. Rohilkhand was invaded by the Marathas after Panipat war, the first invasion of Maratha on Rohillakhand took place on 1751–1752, The Marathas were requested by Safdarjung, the Nawab of Oudh, in 1752, to help him defeat Afghani Rohilla. The Maratha forces and Awadh forces besieged Rohillas, who had sought refuge in Kumaon but had to retreat when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India. In 1772, Marathas, led by Mahadji Sindhia defeated Zabita Khan, whose possessions lay west to Rohilkhand and they also destroyed Najib-ul-Daulas grave, after plundering Rohillakhand Maratha proceed towards Oudh. Sensing the same fate as Rohilla, Nawab made frantic calls to British troops in Bengal, British company knew that Nawab of Oudh didnt possess any danger for British company, whereas Maratha will try to invade Bengal and Bihar after overrunning Oudh. British company dispatched 20,000 British troops on the order of then Viceroy of British India, British wanted to free Rohillakhand from Maratha and give it to Nawab. The two armies came face to face in Ram Ghat, but the demise of then Peshwa. Rohilla decided not to pay there was no war between the two states. Further, British made Oudh a buffer state in order to protect it from Maratha, the subsidy of one British brigade to provide protection to Nawab and Oudh from Maratha was decided to be Rs 2,10,000. In 1737, the country around Farrukhabad was in the hands of an Afghan jagirdar, Kaiam Khan Bangash. The province, known now as Rohilkhand and then as Kuttahir, was in the occupation of a band of Afghan mercenary soldiers known as Rohels or Rohillas, from Roh, the Pushtu or Afghan word for mountain. About 1673, two brothers, Shah Alam and Hussein Khan, left their native hills and obtained some petty office under the Mughals, Shah Alams grandson, Ali Mahomed, a man of resource and courage and quite devoid of scruple, was eventually appointed governor of Sirhind. Taking advantage of the invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali, he added in 1748 to the already acquired by him those formerly owned by officers absent on field service. In this way, he acquired the whole of Kuttahir and changed its name to Rohilkhand, Rohilkhand was under the rule of Rohillas with their capital in City of Bareilly until the Rohilla War of 1774–75. The Rohillas were defeated and driven from their capital of Bareilly by the Nawab of Oudh with the assistance of the East India Companys troops
8.
Uttar Pradesh
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Uttar Pradesh, abbreviated as UP, is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. The state, located in the region of the Indian subcontinent, has over 200 million inhabitants. It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces during British rule, Lucknow is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh. Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Bhadohi, Raebareli, Moradabad, Bareilly, Aligarh, Sonbhadra, on 9 November 2000, a new state, Uttarakhand, was carved out from the Himalayan hill region of Uttar Pradesh. It covers 243,290 square kilometres, equal to 7. 33% of the area of India. Hindi is the official and most widely spoken language in its 75 districts, Uttar Pradesh is the third largest Indian state by economy, with a GDP of ₹9,763 billion. Agriculture and service industries are the largest parts of the states economy, the service sector comprises travel and tourism, hotel industry, real estate, insurance and financial consultancies. Uttar Pradesh was home to powerful empires of ancient and medieval India, the two major rivers of the state, the Ganges and Yamuna, join at Allahabad and then flow as the Ganges further east. Modern human hunter-gatherers have been in Uttar Pradesh since between around 85,000 and 72,000 years ago, the kingdom of Kosala, in the Mahajanapada era, was located within the regional boundaries of modern-day Uttar Pradesh. According to Hindu legend, the divine king Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned in Ayodhya, the aftermath of the Mahabharata yuddh is believed to have taken place in the area between the Upper Doab and Delhi, during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishthira. The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture, most of the invaders of south India passed through the Gangetic plains of what is today Uttar Pradesh. Control over this region was of importance to the power and stability of all of Indias major empires, including the Maurya, Kushan, Gupta. Following the Huns invasions that broke the Gupta empire, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj, during the reign of Harshavardhana, the Kannauj empire reached its zenith. It spanned from Punjab in the north and Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east and it included parts of central India, north of the Narmada River and it encompassed the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. Many communities in parts of India claim descent from the migrants of Kannauj. Kannauj was several times invaded by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty, in the Mughal era, Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire. Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi, in 1540 an Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal king Humanyun. Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior, after the death of Islam Shah Suri, his prime minister Hemu became the de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and the western parts of Bengal
9.
North India
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North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indus-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, other states sometimes included are Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Gujarat and West Bengal. North India has been the centre of the Mughal, Delhi Sultanate. The languages that have official status in one or more of the states and union territories located in North India are Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi, Kashmiri/Koshur, Dogri, different authorities and sources define North India differently. Rajasthan is also included in North Central Culture Zone as well as West Cultural Zone, the Northern Zonal Council is one of the advisory councils, created in 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act to foster inter-state cooperation. It differs from the North Cultural Zone in its inclusion of Delhi, in contrast, the Geological Survey of India included Uttar Pradesh and Delhi in its Northern Region, but excluded Rajasthan and Chandigarh, with a regional headquarters in Lucknow. The Hindu newspaper puts Bihar as well as Uttar Pradesh and Delhi related articles on its North pages, however according to the Government of Bihar official page as well as Indian Zonal Coucil, it is considered to be an Eastern Indian state instead. North Indian states which are entirely above the Tropic of Cancer are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The term North Indian is sometimes used to people from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, often using the term bhaiya in a derogatory sense. In Punjab, people from the region are often referred to as Purabias. Some publications of the Government of Bihar place that state in the part of India. Within Uttar Pradesh itself, the divide between the east and the west is considerable, with the purabiyas often being clubbed with Biharis in the perception of the westerners. One demarcation between northern and southern nations has been the Vindhya mountain range, in centuries past this sometimes formed a border during periods of imperial expansion, such as the one ruled by the Gupta emperor Samudragupta. The Vindhyas also find mention in the narrative of Rishi Agastya as a dividing feature between North and South India, the Manusmṛti also describes the southern limit of Aryavarta as being defined by the Vindhya range. North India lies mainly on continental India, north of peninsular India, towards its north are the Himalayas which define the boundary between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. To its west is the Thar desert, shared between North India and Pakistan and the Aravalli Range, beyond lies the state of Gujarat. The Vindhya mountains are, in some interpretations, taken to be the boundary of North India. The state of Madhya Pradesh has large areas under forest cover, as do Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, North India lies mainly in the north temperate zone of the Earth
10.
Pashtun diaspora
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Pashtun diaspora refers to ethnic Pashtuns who live outside of their traditional homeland, which is south of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and west of the Indus River in Pakistan. Pakistan is home to the largest Pashtun community, Smaller populations of Pashtuns are found in the European Union, North America, Australia and other parts of the world. They may also be found in the Middle East, particularly in the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, in Northern India, there are communities of Indians who trace their origins to the traditional Pashtun homeland. The Pashtun ethnic group known as Pathan are believed to have settled in the vast Pashtunistan tribal region in the first millennium C. E. between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Indus River. According to Ethnologue, they number around 50 million but some sources give slightly lower or higher figures. In the Indian subcontinent, the group is referred to as Pathan. The ethnonym Afghan has been used since the 3rd century AD to refer to the Pashtuns. Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, comprising 42–60% of the total Afghan population, approximately 1.7 million Afghan refugees live in neighboring Pakistan. The majority of them are Pashtuns who were born in that country, the Pashtuns are scattered all over Afghanistan, they can be found in almost every province of the country. Kandahar is the second largest city in Afghanistan and a stronghold of the Pashtun culture, the city of Lashkar Gah in the south, Farah in the west, Jalalabad in the east, and Kunduz in the north are other prominent cultural centres whose populations are predominantly Pashtun. Kabul and Ghazni each have at least 25% Pashtun while Herat, Pashtun tribes make up the second largest ethnic group in Pakistan, comprising over 25%. They form the majority group in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas areas. The following delineates the Pashtun population in the provinces of Pakistan, Smaller Pashtun communities outside of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa can be found in the districts of Attock and these and other communities of Pashtun ancestry are often referred to as the Punjabi Pashtun. Pathan community lives in different district of Azad Kashmir, mainly they are being settled in districts of Poonch, Sudhnuti and Bagh. In Poonch and Sudhnuti they constitute more than 70% population of district, kashmiri Pashtuns mainly consists of Sadozai tribe which are locally known as Sudhan. Approximate population of Sadozai, s in AJK is 1 million, Sadozai tribe has a strong hold in Rawalakot city in Azad Kashmir. Small no of other tribes in Kashmir which include Durrani, Tareen, Lodhi, Yousafzai Shinwary. In addition to this, some Urdu-speaking communities in Pakistan trace their ancestry to the ancient Pashtun regions of Afghanistan, some identify themselves as Bangash, Yousefzai, Ghouri and Durrani
11.
Bareilly district
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The Bareilly district pronunciation belongs to the state Uttar Pradesh in northern India. Its capital is Bareilly city and it is divided in six administrative division or tehsils, Aonla, Baheri, Bareilly city, Faridpur, Mirganj, and Nawabganj. The Bareilly district is a part of the Bareilly Division and occupies an area of 4120 km² with a population of 3,618,589 people. In the Sanskrit epic poem, Mahābhārata, the Bareilly region is described as the birthplace of Draupadi, after Yudhishthira becomes the king at the end of the Mahābhārata, she becomes his queen. In the 12th century, the kingdom was ruled by clans of Kshatriya Rajputs. After the Islamic invasion, the became part of the Delhi Sultanate before getting absorbed by the emerging Mughal Empire. The modern City of Bareilly was founded by Mukrand Rai in 1657, later it became the capital of the Rohilkhand region before getting handed over to Nawab Vazir of Awadh and then to the East India Company, becoming an integral part of India. Historically, the region was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Panchala, the Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus, between the upper Himalayas and the river Ganges. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala, the northern Panchala had its capital at Ahichatra tehsil of Bareilly district, while southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad district. The famous city of Kannauj or Kanyakubja was situated in the kingdom of Panchala, the last two Panchala clans, the Somakas and the Srinjayas are mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. King Drupada, whose daughter Draupadi was married to the Pandavas belonged to the Somaka clan, however, the Mahabharata and the Puranas consider the ruling clan of the northern Panchala as an offshoot of the Bharata clan. Divodasa, Sudas, Srinjaya, Somaka and Drupada were the most notable rulers of this clan, during 176 –166 BC, Panchal coins were minted at Bareilly and the surrounding areas. It was the Kushan and Gupta kings who established mints here, the citys continued status as a mint town since the beginning of the Christian era was helped by the fact that Bareilly was never a disturbed area. Found at Ganga Ghati in abundance were the Adi Vigraha and Shree Vigraha coins of the Pratihara Kings that were minted here between the 4th to the 9th centuries, dating to this period are also the silver coins — similar to those of Firoz Second — known as Indo-Sasanian. After the fall of the Kingdom of Panchala, the City was under the rule of local rulers, in the twelfth century, it was ruled by different clans of Rajputs referred to by the general name of Katehriyas Rajputs. According to British historian Matthew Atmore Sherring the district of Bareilly was formerly a dense jungle inhabited by a race of Ahirs and was called Tappa Ahiran. In the beginning of the century, when the Delhi Sultanate was firmly established, Katehr was divided into the provinces of Sambhal. But the thickly forested country infested with wild animals provided just the kind of shelter for rebels
12.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
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Karachi
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Karachi is the capital of Sindh, and is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan, as well as the 7th largest in the world and the worlds second most populous city proper. Ranked as a world city, the city is Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre. Karachi is also Pakistans most cosmopolitan city, though the Karachi region has been inhabited for millennia, the city was founded as a village named Kolachi that was established as a fortified settlement in 1729. By the time of the Partition of British India, the city was the largest in Sindh with a population of 400,000. Immediately following the independence of Pakistan, the population increased dramatically with the arrival of hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees from India. The city experienced economic growth following independence, attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan. Karachi is now Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre, the city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $113 billion as of 2014. Karachi collects over a third of Pakistans tax revenue, and generates approximately 20% of Pakistans GDP, approximately 30% of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi, while Karachis ports handle approximately 95% of Pakistans foreign trade. Approximately 90% of the corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi. Up to 70% of Karachis workforce is employed in the informal economy, Karachi is one of Pakistans most secular and socially liberal cities. It is also the most linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse city in Pakistan, Karachi is considered to be one of the worlds fastest growing cities, and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan. Karachi is also home to over 2 million Bangladeshi migrants,1 million Afghans, the citys murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75% compared to 2013, and kidnappings decreased by 90%, with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices. Karachi was reputedly founded in 1729 as the settlement of Kolachi, the new settlement is said to have been named in honour of Mai Kolachi, whose son is said to have slayed a man-eating crocodile in the village after his elder brothers had already been killed by it. The citys inhabitants are referred to by the demonym Karachiite in English, the earliest inhabitants of the Karachi region are believed to have been hunter-gatherers, with ancient flint tools discovered at several sites. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the ancient Greeks. The region may be the site of Krokola, where Alexander the Great once camped to prepare a fleet for Babylonia, in 711 C. E. Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the Arabs as Debal. Under Mirza Ghazi Beg the Mughal administrator of Sindh, development of coastal Sindh, under his rule, fortifications in the region acted as a bulwark against Portuguese incursions into Sindh
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Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter
15.
Muhajir people
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Although some of them speak different languages at the native level, they are primarily identified as native Urdu speakers and hence are called Urdu-speaking people. The Urdu term muhājir comes from the Arabic muhājir, meaning an immigrant, after the independence of Pakistan, a significant number of Muslims emigrated or were out-migrated from territory that remained India. In the aftermath of partition, a population exchange occurred between the two newly formed states. In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab region, UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were displaced during the partition, it was the largest mass migration in human history. Most of these settled in the towns and cities of Sindh, such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur. Many spoke Urdu, or dialects of the such as Dakhani, Khariboli, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Mewati, Sadri and Marwari and Haryanvi. Conversion was a combination, initially by violence, threat or other pressure against the person followed by a change of heart. As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over a period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilization. That conversions occurred for reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite. The Hindustani-speaking Muslim people of Pakistan and India have diverse roots and this era saw conversion of part of native lower caste Hindu population to Islam. Conversion was a combination of factors such as violence, threat or other pressure by the foreign, Muslim ruling class on the natives. Conversions also happened as a process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of then dominant Muslim civilization. And for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite, Mughal Emperor Babur defeated the Lodi dynasty with Tajik, Turkic and Uzbek soldiers and nobility. These diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic Muslim groups of foreign and native origin, the Rohilla leader Daud Khan was awarded the Katehar region in the then northern India by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to suppress the Hindu Rajputs, who were earlier allied with the Mughals. Originally, some 20,000 soldiers from various Afghan Pashtun tribes were hired by Mughals to provide soldiers to the Mughal armies, due to the large settlement of Rohilla Afghans, the Katehar region gained fame as Rohilkhand. Bareilly was made the capital of the Rohilkhand state and it became Afghan majority city with Gali Nawaban as the main royal street, other important cities were Moradabad, Rampur, Shahjahanpur, Badaun, and others. These diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic Muslim groups of foreign and native origin, sub-groups also includes the Hyderabadi Muslims, Memon Muslims, Bihari Muslims etc. who keep many of their unique, pre-Islamic and Indic cultural traditions intact. Muslims from what are now the states of Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh were themselves of heterogeneous origin, the Kayastha community has historically been involved in the occupations of land record keeping and accounting
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Sindh
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Sindh /sɪnd/ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country. Historically home to the Sindhi people, it is locally known as the Mehran. It was formerly known as Sind until 1956, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan by area, and second largest province by population after Punjab. Sindh is bordered by Balochistan province to the west, and Punjab province to the north, Sindh also borders the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the east, and Arabian Sea to the south. Sindhs climate is noted for hot summers and mild winters, the provincial capital of Sindh is Pakistans largest city and financial hub, Karachi. Sindh has Pakistans second largest economy with Karachi being its capital hosts the headquarters of several multinational banks. Sindh is home to a portion of Pakistans industrial sector. The remainder of Sindh has an agriculture based economy, and produces fruit, food consumer items, Sindh is also the centre of Pakistans pharmaceutical industry. Sindh is known for its culture which is strongly influenced by Sufism. Several important Sufi shrines are located throughout the province which attract millions of annual devotees, Sindh also has Pakistans highest percentage of Hindu residents. Karachi and other centres of Sindh have seen ethnic tensions between the native Sindhis and the Muhajirs boil over into violence on several occasions. Sindh is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the Historical Monuments at Makli, and the Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro, the word Sindh is derived from the Sanskrit language and is adapted from the Sanskrit term Sindhu which literally means river hence a reference to Indus River. Spelling of its name as Sind was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly. The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great rendered it as Indós, the ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind from the word Sindh. When the British arrived in the 17th century in India, then ruled by the Maratha Empire, they applied the Greek version of the name Sindh to all of South Asia, calling it India. The name of Pakistan is actually an acronym in which the letter s is derived from the first letter in Sindh, Sindhs first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh and this culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The primitive village communities in Balochistan were still struggling against a difficult highland environment and this was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world
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Najib ad-Dawlah
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He was also a tribal chief in 18th century Rohilkhand, who in the 1740s founded the city of Najibabad in Bijnor district, India. He began his career in 1743 as an immigrant from Swabi Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and he was at first an employee of Imad ul mulk. He deserted the cause of the Mughals and joined Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1757 in his attack on Delhi and he was then appointed as Mir Bakshi of the Mughal emperor by Abdali. Later in his career he was known as Najib ad-Dawlah, Amir al-Umra, from 1757 to 1770 he was governor of Saharanpur, ruling over Dehradun. Many architectural relics of the period of Rohilla he oversaw remain in Najibabad, Najib Khan belonged to the umarkhel section of MandanhYousafzai s. He migrated from Swabi, now Pakistan in 1739 to join his uncle Bisharat Khan, in 1752, The Marathas were requested by Safdarjung, the Nawab of Oudh, to help him defeat Najib. The Maratha force left Poona and defeated the Rohillas in 1752, imad-ul-Mulkh appointed Najib ad- Dawlah as the governor of Saharanpur. In 1757, Najib ad-Dawlah, who was then the governor of Saharanpur under Mughal Empire, invaded the city of Dehradun, with his army of Rohillas, and ruled the area for the next decade. His rule was known for its administration, and development of resources, leading to widespread development and prosperity in the area, with emphasis on agriculture. Later on they came to Bengal with Sultan gissues in Balbon lea viing their ancestors vulnerable, Abdalis invasion of 1759 left Najib in effective control of Delhi who was appointed to the post of Mir Bakshi. He had become the de facto ruler of Delhi, while the Mughal emperor was left with no actual power. In the Third battle of Panipat, during the Imperial Maratha Conquests, he allied himself with the Durranis led by Ahmad Shah Durrani (also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, Najib Khan was shrewd enough to understand changed ground realities after third battle of Panipat. His cunning political acumen was used by Ahmed Shah Abdali to isolate Marathas & preventing them from getting even single ally during their conflict with Durrani power and his opposition to signing of treaty, with Marathas was the main cause of battle being fought at Panipat. He not only provided, Ahmed Shah Abdali, with 40,000 Rohilla troops and he also convinced Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Oudh, to join Ahmad Shah Abdalis forces against the Marathas. In this battle, the Marathas were defeated and as a consequence Rohilla increased in power, after the war he was made Mir Bakshi of Mughal emperor. He had to become dictator of Delhi state with empty treasury & territory confining to boundaries of Delhi city and he negotiated bought peace with Marathas in 1768 by surrendering Doab. Najib Khan was a Pashtun soldier of fortune, he attained the hand of the daughter of Dunde Khan and this territory thus became in its turn separated from the Empire, and continued for two generations in the family of Najib. He ruled the dwindled Empire for nine years, and died a death, leaving his charge in an improved and strengthened condition
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Rohilla
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The Rohilla Pathans, or Rohilla Afghan, is a community of Urdu-speaking people of Pashtun ethnicity, historically found in Rohilkhand, a region in the state of Uttar Pradesh, North India. It forms the largest Pashtun diaspora community in India, and has given its name to the Rohilkhand region, historically, the terms Pashtun and Afghan were synonymous, but the present-day Indian constitution does not recognize Pathan as being synonymous with Afghan. The Rohilla Pathans are found all over Uttar Pradesh, but are concentrated in the Rohilkhand regions of Bareilly. Some members of the Rohilla migrated to Pakistan and settled in Karachi after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, today they make up 30-35% of the Muhajir community of Sindh. Smaller scattered populations of Rohillas of Afghan descent can be found in Burma, the term Rohilla is derived from the word Roh, meaning mountain, and literally means mountain wind. Roh was the name of the area around Peshawar city, in Pakistan, Yousafzai Pathans especially the Mandarr sub clan living in this valley were also known as Rohillas when they settled the area then known as Katehr. It later became known as Rohil Khand which means the land of the Rohillas, the great majority of Rohillas migrated here between 17th and 18th Century. However, in Uttar Pradesh the term was used for Pashtuns who settled in the Rohilkhand region, the Rohilla are descended from the Pashtun tribes that settled in the Rohilkhand region during the 17th and 18th centuries. They mainly belonged to the Yousafzai tribe of Pashtuns, particularly the Mandanh sub-section of the latter, thus some of the Rohillas Sardars like Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech were from the Afghan tribe Barech. The Rohillas were distinguished by their language and culture. They spoke Pashto among each other, but gradually lost their language over time, after independence in 1947, some Rohillas moved to Karachi in Pakistan and as a result, a significant number of Urdu-speaking Muslims in Sindh are of Pashtun heritage. After the death of Qutubuddin Aibek, regent of Sultan Muhammad Ghori in Delhi, Iltutmish, baba Ispahani, police chief of Lakhnauti in Bengal, sent one of his sons to Sultan Iltutmish as a help of household affairs. Soon after appointment of Sultan Iltutmishs household help, he was appointed governor of Aujjoddha near Delhi, Rohilakand was included in his kingship and he did not take any part between the battle of Sultana Razia and Masud Shah as per direction of the then late Sultan Iltutmish. Ajuddha was divided into two parts and allocated between two sons of that not self-proclaimed king of Ajuddha, in the reign of this trio many Bengalis went to Ajuddha and Rohilakand for a better future. As official language was Pashto, they had to learn the Pashto language, immigrants of Afghan origin in Rohilakand and Ajuddha helped them appoint in government workplaces as well as learn Pashto. The founders of the Pashtun state of Rohilkhand were Daud Khan, Daud Khan arrived in South Asia in 1705. He brought along a band of his tribe, the Barech, Daud Khan was awarded the Katehr region in the then northern India by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to suppress Rajput uprisings, which had afflicted this region. Originally, some 20,000 soldiers from various Pashtun tribes such as were hired by Mughals to provide mercenary soldier for the Mughal armies and this was appreciated by Aurangzeb and since this force of 25,000 men was given respected positions in the Mughal Army
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Ali Mohammed Khan
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Ali Muhammad Khan was a Rohilla chief who founded the state of Rohilkhand in the northwestern region of the Uttar Pradesh state of India. He succeeded rohilla Sardar Daud Khan and helped develop Rohilkhand into a powerful nation, in 1746, due to an altercation over the collection of wood between the construction workers of Safdar Jang with the forest guards of Ali Muhammad Khan, Safdar Jang decided to eliminate him. Safdar Jang of Oudh informed the Mughal emperor of India Muhammad Shah, Mohammed Shah sent an expedition against him, as a result of which he was imprisoned. Later he was pardoned and made governor of Sirhind, faizullah Khan was the second son of Ali Muhammad Khan. He assumed rule of the Rohillas after his fathers death
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Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
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Aurangzeb
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Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad, commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his regnal title Alamgir, was the sixth, and widely considered the last effective Mughal Emperor. He ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent during some parts of his reign, Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire temporarily reached its greatest extent. During his reign,4.6 million people were said have died due to war, Aurangzebs policies partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism, which remains a very controversial aspect of his reign and led to the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Rebellions and wars led to the exhaustion of the imperial Mughal treasury and he was a strong-handed authoritarian ruler, and following his death the expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end. Nevertheless, the territory of the Mughal Empire still remained intact more or less until the reign of Muhammad Shah. Aurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat and he was the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. In June 1626, after a rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb. His daily allowance was fixed at Rs.500 which he spent on religious education, on 28 May 1633, Aurangzeb escaped death when a powerful war elephant stampeded through the Mughal Imperial encampment. He rode against the elephant and struck its trunk with a lance, Aurangzebs valour was appreciated by his father who conferred him the title of Bahadur and had him weighed in gold and presented gifts worth Rs.200,000. This event was celebrated in Persian and Urdu verses and Aurangzeb said, If the fight had ended fatally for me, death drops the curtain even on Emperors, it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did, by arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the Siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power, Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess, Dilras Banu Begum and she was his first wife and chief consort. He also had an infatuation with a girl, Hira Bai. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, the latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shikoh. In the same year,1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, in 1644, Aurangzebs sister, Jahanara, was burned when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra. This event precipitated a crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his fathers displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately, Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects
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Rajput
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Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, the origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. Writers such as M. S. Naravane and V. P, one theory espouses that with the collapse of the Gupta empire from the late 6th century, the invading Hephthalites were probably integrated within Indian society. At the same time, some tribes were ranked as Rajput, examples of which are the Bhatis, Bundelas, Chandelas. Actually vary greatly in status, from princely lineages, such as the Guhilot and Kachwaha, aydogdy Kurbanov says that the assimilation was specifically between the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and people from northwestern India, forming the Rajput community. Pradeep Barua also believes that Rajputs have foreign origins, he says their practice of asserting Kshatriya status was followed by other Indian groups thereby establishing themselves as Rajputs. Thereafter, in the late 12th century Muhammad of Ghor attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by the Chaulukya dynasty of Rajputs. The Rajput kingdoms were disparate, loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the jostling for position that took place when a clan leader died meant that Rajput politics were fluid. Even after the Muslim conquest of the regions in Punjab and the Ganges River valley, the Rajputs maintained their independence in Rajasthan and the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor in eastern Rajasthan in the 14th century but could not hold them for long. In the 15th century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa Sultanate, accordingly, Rana Sanga came to be the most distinguished indigenous contender for supremacy but was defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west. After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with the Mughal emperors and it was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors, for example, Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. Akbars successors as Mogul emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers, the ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour not to engage in matrimonial relationships with mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from those Rajput clans who did so
23.
Yusafzai
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The Yūsufzai, also called Yousafzai, is a tribe of Pashtun peoples. They are found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan, and in eastern parts of Afghanistan. The tribe is mentioned as Isapzais by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, but they are later mentioned by Babur in the 16th century. They were a nomadic tribe and served Babur well in his campaign against Lodhi Afghans, Dilazaks. Due to their intrigues against their masters mentioned above Babur even ordered that the daughter of Malik Shahmansur their elder at that time be included in his harem. It is claimed that by the 1580s the Yusufzai numbered about 100,000 households, in general, they were uncooperative with the rule of Akbar who in late 1585 sent military forces under Zain Khan Koka and Raja Bir Bar to subdue them. In February 1586 Raja Bir Bar was killed in fighting with the Yusufzais who were led by the general Gujju Khan and it was not until about 1690 that they were partially brought under the control of the Mughal Empire. In 1849, the Yousafzai established their own Yusafzai State of Swat under the leadership of Akhund Abdul Ghaffur who appointed Sayyid Akbar Shah, after Akbar Shahs death in 1857, Akhund Ghaffur assumed control of the state himself. The state lasted until 1969 under its religious leaders known as Akhunds of Swat, many of the Yusufzai of Uttar Pradesh form a part of the larger Rohilla Pashtun tribes
24.
Ghilji
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The Ghilji, also known as Khilji, Ghilzai, and Gharzai, are the largest Pashtun tribal confederacy. The Ghilji at various times became rulers of present Afghanistan region and were the most dominant Pashtun confederacy from c.1000 A. D. until 1747 A. D. when power shifted to the Durranis. The Ghilji tribes are settled in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan. Many of the migrating Kochi people of Afghanistan belong to the Ghilji confederacy, from 1709 to 1738, the Ghilji ruled the Hotak Empire based first in Kandahar, Afghanistan and later, from 1722–1728, in Isfahan, Persia. Etymologically the word Ghilji is derived from ghar-zai, meaning son of mountain, ibrahim had two sons Haijub and Shabak. Haijub had thirteen sons, Sulaimankhel, Alikhail, Omerkhail, Karikhail, Hameerkhail, Paroki, Varaki, Chani, Donyar, sahbak had two sons, Bujikhail and Ismailkhail. Toor, Ghilzyes son, had three sons, Tarakai, Bakhtu, and Andar, in the beginning of the 18th century, the Ghilji revolted against their Persian rulers, established themselves under Mir Wais as independent rulers at Kandahar and overrun Persia. When the Hotak tribe, under the leadership of Mirwais Hotak and Nasher Khan of the Ghaznavid revolted against the Safavids in 1709, Mir Wais, an influential Afghan tribal leader and founder of the Hotak dynasty, had visited the Persian court and studied their military weaknesses. His eldest son, Mahmud, effected a successful invasion of Persia which culminated in the conquest of Isfahan, Mahmud was then crowned Shah and ruled for a brief period before being deposed by his own clansmen. His cousin and successor reigned for five years before being killed by Baloch tribes while fleeing towards Kandahar. Their rule ended after the Siege of Kandahar in 1738, often possessing great mechanical aptitude, the Ghilji nonetheless have an extremely low literacy rate hovering below 10% in Afghanistan. The Ghilji regularly cross over between Afghanistan and Pakistan often being exempted from customs due to the acceptance of their traditions by officials from both countries. Whereas in Khyber Pakhtunkwa and Punjab Ghilji Sub-tribes like Niazi and Tanoli dwell both in plain and hilly areas, the Niazi are mostly settled in Bannu District Of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Mianwali district of the Punjab. Whereas, the Tanoli are mostly settled in Tanawal Region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
25.
Marwat
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The Marwats are also known as Spin Lohani, and their most closely related kin are other Lohani tribes like Miya Khel, Daulat Khel and Tatur. In the Afghan dynasty of Hind, Lohanis were the most powerful among the Lodi Afghans and were in possession of one quarter of jagirs in India, the Marwats were named for their ancestor Marwat Khan Lodi. See also Bannu Marwats, as well as branches of Lohanis. They had a dispute with Sulaiman Khels and other Ghilzais. In one of the battles, in the mid-15th century, Lohanis were thoroughly defeated by the Ghilzais. Lohanis and their Dotani cousins had to be content with just Wana valley, the Marwat and other Lohanis expanded from Waziristan further east, occupying large tracts of present-day Dera Ismail Khan and Tank, by defeating Prangi, Suri and Sarwani tribes. Marwats stayed in Waziristan while Daulat Khels and Taturs migrated to newly conquered Daman, the headman of Kati Khel, then the chief of all Lohanis, agreed to give shares in the income from the lands of Daman to Marwats and Miya Khels. In the late 16th century, or in the beginning of 17th century, Wazirs issued from their homeland Birmal, Wazirs, with the aid of Mehsuds, defeated Marwats and Dotanis, the former were expelled while the latter was allowed to retain some lands in Wana. The distressed Marwats, when arrived in Daman to take possession of their lands there, in the subsequent battle, Daulat Khels were thoroughly defeated by Marwats, and were expelled from Daman. The Daulat Khels sought the help of Gandapurs, Babars and Bhittanis, the Niazi clan first defeated the Marwat clan against whom they were hired and slaughtered them in great numbers. After the friendship with their brothers Marwats. Niazis fled towards Mianwali, some where between 1601 and 1607, Marwats had taken possession of all the Tal tract. Marwats were nominally part of Mughal empire, after decline of Mughals, the area came under Durranis. Ahmad Shah Abdali didnt enforce taxes on Marwats but put the condition of providing contingents of Marwat warriors for his military campaigns, in the most important military campaign of Abdali,120 Marwat horsemen accompanied him under their chief Begu Khan to India. Ahmad Shahs successor, Timur Shah Durrani, enforced Tax on Marwats, after the battle of Panipat, Marwats split into two factions, White and Black and shed the blood of each other for next 60 years. Taking advantage of their rift, Wazirs conquered some area from Marwats in the sandy tracts of the present day Bannu district. Soon after, Sikhs conquered Lakki Marwat and built a fort on the bank of river Gambila near Present day Lakki city, in 1847 Marwats rose in rebellion against the Sikhs but it was successfully supressed by the latter. In Anglo-Sikh Wars, Marwats provided great deal of help to British against their bitter foes Sikhs, the relationship of Marwats and British remained friendly for the most part, though some of Marwats joined faqir of ipis movement. Mama Khel Bahram Sikander Khel Achukhel Mamakhel Aba Khel Khawas Khan Marwat, was a general of Sher Shah Suri
26.
Durrani
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Durrani or Abdali is the name of a prominent Sarbani Pashtun tribal confederation in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Originally known by their ancient name Abdali & Madhyaal, which may derive from the more ancient Ebodalo and they have been called Durrani since the beginning of the Durrani Empire in 1747. The number of Durrani is estimated to be roughly 16% of the population of Afghanistan or 5 million individuals. Durrani are found throughout Afghanistan and Pakistan, although large concentrations are found in southern Afghanistan, they are found to a lesser extent in east, west. Many Durranis are found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab provinces of Pakistan, the Durrani Pashtuns of the Afghan capital Kabul are usually bilingual in Pashto and Dari Persian. The ruling Sadozai and Barakzai dynasties of Afghanistan were originally from the Durrani, the Pashtuns believe that they are descended from the common ancestor Qais Abdur Rashid. In the case of the Tareen, they believe they are descended from his first son, Sarban, his son Sharkhbun, and his son Tareen, Tareen had a number of sons, who correspond with the major divisions of the tribe. One was named Bor Tareen, later renamed Abdali, who is the founder of the Durrani tribe. Thus, the Abdali/Durrani are in effect descended from the elder Tareen lineage and they were known in the past as Abdalis, from approximately the 7th century until the mid-18th century when Ahmad Shah Durrani was chosen as the new Emir and the Durrani Empire was established. One of Ahmad Shahs first acts as Emir was to adopt the title padshah durr-i durran and he united the Pashtun tribes following a loya jirga in western Kandahar and changed his own name from Ahmad Shah Abdali to Ahmad Shah Durrani. Since that period, the kings of Afghanistan have been of Durrani extraction, the origin of the Abdali is probably the Hephthalites. The Zirak line begins with Sulaiman Zirak Khan, Zirak was father of Popalzai, Barakzai, and Alakozai. The Durranis were the most divided Pashtun tribe during the rule of the Ghilji, according to Hayat Khans history of Afghanistan from their progenitor Bor Tarin, otherwise known as Abdal, are descended their two main divisions the Zirak and the Panjpai. The term Abdal, however, gradually superseded that of Bor Tareen and came into prominence when Ahmad Shah Abdali Sadozai/Popalzai commonly known as Durrani. Since then, their organization has remained distinct and it is still used, though sparingly, for the Achakzai, who have become localised in Toba and are regarded as a separate political unit from the rest of the Tarin/Tareens. The Musahiban also branch from Durrani, Sadozai Abdali tribe is the tribe Ahmad Shah Abdali was from. The Durrani Tareen tribe is divided into two branches Panjpai and Zirak, Durrani tribes of the Zirak branch include Popalzai, Alikozai, Barakzai, Bamozai, Badozai, and Achakzai. The Panjpai branch are mainly found in the western Kandahar, Helmand and Farah area, and they include Alizai, Noorzai, Ishakzai or Sakzai, and Maku
27.
Afridi
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The Afridi is a Karlani Pashtun tribe present in Pakistan, with substantial numbers in Afghanistan. Their territory includes the Khyber Pass and Maidan in Tirah, Afridi migrants are also found in India, mostly in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir. The Afridis are historically known for the location they inhabit and their belligerence against outside forces. The later clashes against British expeditions comprised the most savage fighting of the Anglo-Afghan Wars, after the independence of Pakistan, Afridi tribesmen also helped attack Jammu and Kashmir for Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1947. Today, Afridis make use of their dominant social position in FATA and areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa by controlling transport and various businesses, including trade in arms, munitions, and other goods. The Afridi are Pashtuns, part of the Karlani tribal confederacy, the British frequently classified the peoples that they conquered with fixed personality or “racial” traits and regarded the Pashtun Afridi tribesmen as “warlike” peoples and one of the Martial Race. Different Afridi clans cooperated with the British forces in exchange for subsidies, and some served with the Khyber Rifles. The Afridis, classically called the Abaörteans, have their homeland in the Spin Ghar. According to Pashtun folklore, the Afridi tribe traces its origin back to the ancestor of all Pashtuns, Qais Abdur Rashid, through his youngest son. Thus, the Afridi tribe are one of the Karlani tribes, in fact, the great Pushtun tribe Burki is the sub-caste of it. Herodotus mentions a tribe of the Pactyans as Aparytai, scholars Grierson, Stein and Olaf Caroe equate these with modern Afridis on the basis of linguistic and geographic analysis. The Afridis and other Pashtuns of Afghanistan and Pakistan have also alleged to be the descendants of the lost Jewish tribes such as the Efraim. However, DNA and other research towards validating such claims has been inconclusive, the Malikdin Khel live in the centre of the Tirah and hold Bagh, the traditional meeting place of Afridi jirgas or assemblies. The Aka Khel are scattered in the south of Jamrud. All of this area is included in the Khyber Agency, the Adam Khel live in the hills between Peshawar and Kohat. The Burki live in Kanigoram Valley, Waziristan and Peshawar and their preserve is the Kohat Pass in which several of the most important Afridi gun factories are located. Their conversion to Islam is attributed to Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni by sources such as Ibbetson and Haroon Rashid, the Afridis and their allies Khalils were first mentioned in the memoirs of Mughal Emperor Babar as violent tribes in need of subduing. The Afridi tribes controlled the Khyber Pass, which has served as a corridor connecting the Indian subcontinent with Afghanistan and its strategic value was not lost on the Mughals to whom the Afridis were implacably hostile
28.
Bangash
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The Bangash, are one of the largest and perhaps the most powerful Karlani Pashtun tribe of the border region of eastern Afghanistan and North Western Pakistan. They primarily inhabit the Kohat, Hangu, Doaba, Thall, a large number of Bangash are also found in the northeastern section of the Paktia and Paktika Province in Afghanistan. Descendants of Bangash are also found in the Uttar Pradesh state of India, according to Pashtun folklore, the Bangash tribe traces its origin back to the eponymous ancestor of all Pashtuns, Qais Abdur Rashid, through his youngest son, Karlan. Thus, the Bangash tribe are one of the Karlani tribes, the Bangash are originally lived in the Gardez region of modern-day Afghanistan, where they were still living as of the Ghaznavids period. The Bangash allied with the Khattaks who were moving to the same area. In the 16th century, the habitat of the Bangash was called Bangash District and was ruled by the Khan of Hangu who were the chiefs of Bangash tribe. This incorporation, which is never clearly formulated in terms of filiation or even of adoption, the area round about is full of highway robbers such as the Khogyani, Khirilchi, Turi and Landar. Since it is isolated they do not pay the desired revenue, as greater tasks such as the conquest of Kandahar, Balkh, Badakhshan and Hindustan occupied me, there has been no opportunity to subjugate the Bangash. However, in 1505 Babur raided and plundered the district of the Bangash and they inhabited the Miranzai valley, the Kohat defile in the North-West Frontier Province, and the valley of Kurram river in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Kohat Gazetteer of 1883–84 records The Orakzai tribes are said to have converted by the Tirah Syeds about the beginning of the present century. The Bangash of Samizai were probably converted a little earlier, the three main divisions of the Bangash clan are the Miranzai, Baizais and Samilzai. The Bangash Tribe are Found in Primarily In Paktia, Paktika, Ghazni, and From The Majority Of The Population in Gardez and Zurmat The Main Cities Of Paktia Province. The Baizai are a sub-tribe of the Bangash, the name Baizai originated from that of a tribal chieftain of the Bangash, Behzad Khan-son of Amirzai chief Daulat Khan-a tribal chieftain and feudal lord. Behzad Khan is said to have married to a daughter of Ahmad Shah Durrani. The Baizai Bangash inhabit most of rural Kohat and parts of the city limits where most government installations, institutions, originally the Bazai Bangash established their village in Kohat at the location of the present fort constructed by the British to secure the area. They are further divided into clans or khels, toya khel, Izzat Khel also known as Dolat Khel are one of the khels. The Miranzai occupy a vast territory in Hangu known as the Miranzai Valley. Hangu valley was controlled mostly by Orakzai and to some extent by khattaks before the Bangash came. Bangash pushed the orakzais towards nearby mountains and the khattaks towards the side and took the control of the valley
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Khattak
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The Khattak, is a Pashtun tribe numbering over 3 million, which speaks a variant of the softer Kandahari Pashto. Across the Durand line, a number of Khattaks are scattered in Kandahar, Ghazni, Logar. The historic capitals of the Khattaks were Teri, a town at District Karak, and Akora Khattak, the warrior poet Khushal Khan Khattak belonged to this tribe, and his contributions to Pashto literature are considered as classic texts. They have been translated into numerous languages, the Khattaks have high literacy rates in comparison to other Pashtun tribes having achieved positions of influence throughout history. Early records show migration of the Khattak from Ghazni, Ghor, later on, the Khattak settled in the Shawal region of present-day Waziristan, Pakistan. Subsequently, they migrated further eastwards and settled in Bannu District, in the 14th century, the Shitaks, a tribe allied to the Khattaks which also previously held Shawal, migrated to Bannu. Then the Khattak allied with the Bangash, defeated the other Pashtun tribes, eventually, the Khattak settled in Karak and Nowshera, and finally a small number migrated to Nizampur, Mardan and Malakand. Khattak also migrated from Akora Khattak more than 100 years ago and they are settled in the city of Mansehra, and in the villages of Lambi Dheri, Kotkay, Jhagir, and Labarkot. In addition, they are settled in areas of Abbotabad. A warrior poet by the name of Khushal Khan Khattak was once the chief of this tribe and his life and times are one of the most chronicled and discussed subjects in Pashtun history, as he was active on the political, social and intellectual fora of his times. He was a most voluminous writer, and composed no less than three hundred and sixty literary works, both in the Pashto and Persian languages. His poetry revolves around concepts of Honour, Justice, Bravery and Nationalism and his works have translated into numerous languages, English. According to Nimatullahs 1620 work History of The Afghans, the Khattaks are amongst the oldest of the Afghan tribes, the Sattagudai were a people mentioned by Herodotus in connection to people under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire. Herodotus, without assigning a name to the satrapy, tells us that Darius yth Satrapy was inhabited by four tribes, the Sattagudai, the Gandarioi, the Dadikai, and the Aparutai. The addition of the Aparutai/Aparidai correspondence helps to buttress the case for finding in Herodotus traces of names which carry through to the present day, Bellew has gone further and identified the Sattagudai with the famous Khatak tribe. 1957 printed St Martins Press 1958 by MacMillan and Company Limited Numerous historians identify the Khattak with the Sattagudai, Bellew has gone further and identified the Sattagudai with the famous Khatak tribe, and the Dadikai with an obscure branch of Kakars whom he calls Dadi. Babur indeed in his memoirs mentions the Karranis whom he encountered in 1505 around Bannu along with the Niazis and it is thus clear that Babur & other Mughals in their descriptions identify Khattaks & Shetaks together without any differentiation. Sir Olaf Caroe, The Pathans 550BC 1957AD, Khattak tribe has oral traditions, Khushal Khan Khattak, chosen malak in 1641, believed that malak was a continuation of the Israelite title malak given to the legendary progenitors King Saul and Malak Afghana
30.
Safdar Jang
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For the districts in Delhi, see Safdarjung. Abul Mansur Mirza Muhammad Muqim Ali Khan better known as Safdar Jung, was the Subadar Nawab of Oudh from 19 March 1739 to 5 October 1754 and he was a descendant of Qara Yusuf from the Kara Koyunlu. In 1739 he succeeded his father-in-law and maternal uncle, the Burhan ul Mulk Saadat Ali Khan I to the throne of Oudh, the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah gave him the title of Safdarjung. He was not only effective in keeping control of Oudh, and he was soon given governorship of Kashmir as well, and became a central figure at the Delhi court. During the later years of Muhammad Shah, he gained control of administration in the Mughal Empire. When Ahmad Shah Bahadur ascended the throne at Delhi in 1748 and he was also made the governor of Ajmer and became the Faujdar of Narnaul. However, court politics eventually overtook him and he was dismissed in 1753 and he returned to Oudh in December 1753, and made Faizabad military headquarter. He died in October 1755 at the age of 46 years in Sultanpur near Faizabad, safdarjungs Tomb was built in 1754 and is situated on a road now known as Safdarjung Road, in New Delhi. Several other modern structures near the tomb also carry his name today, abul-Hasan ibn Mirza Ghiyas Beg Media related to Safdarjung at Wikimedia Commons The complete genealogy of Safdarjung can be found here. Indiacoins has an article on Safdarjung here
31.
Nawab of Awadh
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The Nawab of Awadh or the Nawab of Oudh was the title of the rulers who governed the state of Oudh or Awadh in India during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Nawabs of Awadh belonged to a dynasty of Qaraqoyunlu origin from Nishapur, in 1724, Nawab Saadat Khan established the Oudh State. As the Mughal Empire declined, the emperors lost their power and became puppets and prisoners of their new overlords, Awadh thus grew stronger and more independent. The capital city at the time was Faizabad, all of these rulers used the title of Nawab. LVI Advanced study in the history of modern India, Volume 2, by G. S. Chhabra, Lotus Press,1 January 2005
32.
Muhammad Shah
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Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah, Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah Irkhwaz, Abu Al-Fatah Nasir-ud-Din Roshan Akhtar Muhammad Shah, was the Mughal emperor between 1719 and 1748. He was son of Khujista Akhtar, the son of Bahadur Shah I. With the help of the Sayyid brothers, he ascended the throne at the age of 17. He later got rid of them with the help of Asaf Jah I – Syed Hussain Ali Khan was murdered at Fatehpur Sikri in 1720, Muhammad Shah was a great patron of the arts, including musical, cultural and administrative developments. His pen-name was Sada Rangila and he is referred to as Muhammad Shah Rangila. Although he was a patron of the arts, Muhammad Shahs reign was marked by rapid, the Mughal Empire was already decaying, but the invasion by Nader Shah of Persia and the subsequent sacking of Delhi, the Mughal capital, greatly accelerated the pace. The course of events not only shocked and mortified the Mughals themselves, Muhammad Shah was born in 1702 in Ghazna to Prince Khujista Akhtar, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Handsome and quick to learn, his mother took care of his education. Since the overthrow of Farrukhsiyar in 1719 many Mughal Emperors briefly ascended to the throne, on 29 September 1719, he was given the title Abu Al-Fatah Nasir-ud-Din Roshan Akhtar Muhammad Shah and enthroned in the Red Fort. His mother was given an allowance of 15 thousand rupees monthly for her needs, in the year 1720, Syed Hussain Ali Khan Barha, the commander and chief of the most elite Mughal Army, was assassinated in his encampment in Toba Bhim on 9 October 1720. The Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah took direct command of his forces, Asaf Jah I was then dispatched to gain complete control of 6 Mughal provinces in the Deccan, and Muhammad Amin Khan Turani was assigned as the Mansabdar of 8000. Previously the emperor had to fight Muhammad Ibrahim, but young Muhammad Shah defeated him on 13 November 1720, the fall of the Sayyid Brothers marked the beginning of the end of the Mughal Empires direct control over its dominions in the Deccan. In the year 1721, young Muhammad Shah married the daughter of the previously deposed Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar, on 21 February 1722, the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah appointed the Asaf Jah I as Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire. He advised the new Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah to be as cautious as Akbar, Asaf Jah I resigned his post as the Grand Vizier when the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah expressed negligence towards his administration. The Mughal Grand Vizier, Asaf Jah I appointed the Mughal commander Ewaz Khan as the master of the garrison at Aurangabad and much of his logistical duties were carried out by Inayatullah Kashmiri. Asaf Jah I left the court in disgust and appointed his deputy Qamaruddin Khan as the next Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire. There Asaf Jah I fought Mubariz Khan the Mughal Subedar of the Deccan, taking advantage of Mubariz Khans conventional weaknesses Asaf Jah I defeated and eliminated his opponent during the Battle of Shakarkhelda. Asaf Jah I then established the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1725, during this time, the Mughal-Maratha Wars would cause irreparable devastation to the inhabitants of the ill-administered Mughal Empire
33.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
34.
Sirhind-Fategarh
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Sirhind-Fatehgarh is a city and a municipal council in Fatehgarh Sahib district in the Indian state of Punjab. As of 2013 India census, Sirhind-Fatehgarh had a population of 60852, males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Sirhind-Fatehgarh has an literacy rate of 80%, higher than the national average of 74%, male literacy is 84%. In Sirhind-Fatehgarh, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age, according to popular notion, the present name of the city, Sirhind, comes from Sar-i hind, meaning the Frontier of Hind, as Mughal invaders saw it as the gateway to Hindustan. However, a 5th-century AD tribe Sairindhas Aryans, which inhabited this area, varahamihira in his Sanskrit treatise, Brihat Samhita, mentions the city as Satudar Desh, later it was inhabited by a tribe of Sairindhas Aryans, leading to its present name. According to Huan Tsang, the Chinese traveller who visited India during the century, Sirhind was the capital of the district of Shitotulo. In 12th century, Sirhind came under the rule of the Hindu Chauhan Rajputs of Delhi, during the rule of Prithvi Raj Chauhan, the Hindu Rajput ruler of Delhi, it became his military outpost. It further rose in glory during the Mughal Empire, when it became its capital, controlling the Lahore-Delhi Highway. During the Mughal era, Sirhind was the name for Malwa, Sirhind was the headquarters of the Mughal administration in Eastern Punjab. Many European travellers describe its splendours, and it developed into a center of cultural activity. Sirhind was known for the dozens of saints, scholars, poets, historians, calligraphers and scribes who lived there. A large number of buildings survive from this period, including the fort named Aam Khas Bagh, it is said that in its heyday, the city had 360 mosques, gardens, tombs, caravansarais and wells. Younger sons of tenth sikh guru Sri Guru Gobind Singh ji namely Baba Zorawar Singh, gurudwara Sri Fatehgarh Sahib is established at that place to commemorate them. Baba Banda Singh Bahadur and his Sikh army in 1710 destroyed the city of Sirhind completely, the Sikhs occupied Sirhind and made Bhai Baj Singh the governor. One can visit Sirhind-Fatehgarh Sahib through various means of transport and those are as follows - By Air, The nearest International Airport from Fatehgarh Sahib is Chandigarh International Airport, roughly one hour drive from the district headquarters. It is well connected to the cities like Amritsar, New Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, Goa, Ahmedabad, Jaipur and Leh via Air Mantra, Air India, Jagson Airlines, Jet Airways. By Train, The major Railway Stations in this District are located at Fatehgarh Sahib City, the Railway Station at Fatehgarh Sahib is located on Sirhind-Nangal Railway Line which is served by Northern Railways. The Sirhind Junction Railway Station is located on Delhi-Amritsar Section of Northern Railways, many Regular as well as Super Fast Trains halt here
35.
Nader Shah
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Nader Shah was one of the most powerful Iranian rulers in the history of that nation, ruling as Shah of Persia from 1736 to 1747 when he was assassinated during a rebellion. Nader Shah was an Iranian who belonged to the Turcoman Afshar tribe of Greater Khorasan in northeastern Iran, Nader reunited the Persian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, Nader idolized Genghis Khan and Timur, the previous conquerors from Central Asia. He imitated their military prowess and — especially later in his reign — their cruelty, Nader Shah has been described as the last great Asiatic military conqueror. His father, Emam Qoli, was a herdsman who may also have been a coatmaker, at the age of 13, his father died and Nader had to find a way to support himself and his mother. He had no source of other than the sticks he gathered for firewood. Many years later, when he was returning in triumph from his conquest of Delhi, he led the army to his birthplace and made a speech to his generals about his early life of deprivation. He said, You now see to what height it has pleased the Almighty to exalt me, from hence, Naders early experiences did not, however, make him particularly compassionate toward the poor. Throughout his career, he was interested in his own advancement. Legend has it that in 1704, when he was about 17, a band of marauding Uzbek Tartars invaded the province of Khorasan, Nader and his mother were among those who were carried off into slavery. Somehow, Nader managed to escape and returned to the province of Khorasan in 1708, living under the most desperate circumstances, he and his friends stole a flock of sheep and sold them in the market. With the money they made, they fled into the mountains, tiring of life as a fugitive, Nader presented himself to a Persian nobleman. He was employed as a courier, to deliver important messages to the court at Isfahan in 1712. A second courier accompanied Nader on these missions, however, upon his return he saw that his master was quite upset. By the look on his face, Nader assumed that the nobleman planned to kill him and he had also fallen in love with the noblemans daughter, but his master flatly refused to consider letting them marry. Because of his disappointment and in order to defend himself, Nader killed the nobleman and fled into the mountains with the daughter, other servants of the dead nobleman joined Nader and they formed a gang of robbers operating in the province of Mazanderan. Nader grew up during the years of the Safavid dynasty which had ruled Iran since 1502. When Sultan Husayn attempted to quell a rebellion by the Ghilzai Afghans in Kandahar, under their leader Mahmud Hotaki, the rebellious Afghans moved westwards against the shah himself and in 1722 they defeated a force at the Battle of Gulnabad and then besieged the capital, Isfahan
36.
Bareilly
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Bareilly is a city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Located on the Ramganga, it is the capital of Bareilly division, the city is 252 kilometres north of the state capital, Lucknow, and 250 kilometres east of the national capital, New Delhi. Bareilly is the city in Uttar Pradesh with compressed natural gas filling stations. It is the seventh-largest metropolis in Uttar Pradesh and the 50th-largest city in India, Bareilly also figured amongst the PM Narendra Modis ambitious 100 Smart City list in India. The city is known by the name Nath Nagri, Ala Hazrat, Shah Sharafat Miyan and Khankahe Niyazia, Zari nagari. The city is a centre for manufacturing and trade in cotton, cereal. Its status grew with its inclusion in the counter magnets list of the National Capital Region, the city is also known as Bans-Bareilly. According to the epic Mahābhārata, Bareilly region is said to be the birthplace of Draupadi, when Yudhishthira becomes the king of Hastinapura at the end of the Mahābhārata, Draupadi becomes his queen. The folklore says that Gautama Buddha had once visited the ancient fortress city of Ahichchhatra in Bareilly, the Jain Tirthankara Parshva is said to have attained Kaivalya at Ahichchhatra. In the 12th century, the kingdom was under the rule by different clans of Kshatriya Rajputs, with the Islamic Turkic Invasion the region became a part of the Delhi Sultanate before getting absorbed in the emerging Mughal Empire. The foundation of the modern City of Bareilly foundation was laid by Mukrand Rai in 1657, later the region became the capital of Rohilkhand region before getting handed over to Nawab Vazir of Awadh and then to East India Company and later becoming an integral part of India. The region has, also, acted as a mint for a part of its history. From archaeological point of view the district of Bareilly is very rich, the extensive remains of Ahichchhatra, the Capital town of Northern Panchala have been discovered near Ramnagar village of Aonla Tehsil in the district. Nearly five thousand coins belonging to periods earlier than that of Guptas have been yielded from Ahichchhatra and it has also been one of the richest sites in India from the point of view of the total yield of terracotta. Some of the masterpieces of Indian terracotta art are from Ahichchhatra, on the basis of the existing material, the archaeology of the region helps us to get an idea of the cultural sequence from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC up to the 11th century AD. Some ancient mounds in the district have also discovered by the Deptt. of Ancient History and culture, Rohilkhand University, at Tihar-Khera, Pachaumi, Rahtuia, Kadarganj. Bareilly was founded in 1537 by Basdeo, a Katehriya Rajput, the city was first mentioned by the historian Budayuni, who wrote that Husain Quli Khan was appointed the governor of Bareilly and Sambhal in 1568. The divisions and revenue of the district being fixed by Todar Mal were recorded by Abul Fazl in 1596, the foundation of the modern city of Bareilly was laid by Mukrand Rai in 1657
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Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
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Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech
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Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech was Regent of Rohilkhand in North India, from 1749 to 1774. He was a Pashtun by background, ruling over Rohillas, Hafiz Rahmat Khan had served honorably throughout the reign of three Mughal Emperors, Ahmad Shah Bahadur, Alamgir II and Shah Alam II. He was also a mentor of Prince Mirza Jawan Bakht, in 1623 two Pashtun brothers of the Barech tribe, Bahadur Shah I and Husain Khan, settled here and founded a small state of Rampur, bringing with them many other Pashtun settlers. Ali Muhammad Khan, grandson of Bahadur Shah I, later united the Rohillas between 1707 and 1720, making Bareilly his capital, Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech, who was his uncle, succeeded him, extended his power from Almora in the North to Etawah in the South-West. In the year 1748, Ahmad Shah Durrani led an expedition to plunder the regions of the Mughal Empire. Prince Ahmad and the respected Grand Vizier Asaf Jah I were dispatched by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah to command a large Mughal Army of 75,000 to confront the advancing Durranis, at Sirhind both forces fought a decisive battle and Prince Ahmad was nominally victorious. He was thereupon conferred with the title Bahadur, by the Mughal Emperor, when Ahmad Shah Bahadur tried to have young Feroze Jung III removed from the imperial court, the outcast then sought an alliance with the detested Maratha chieftain Sadashivrao Bhau. Together they deposed Ahmad Shah Bahadur after the devastating First Battle of Sikandarabad in the year 1754, since then Hafiz Rahmat Khan entered the service of Najib-ul-Daula and constantly fought the Marathas led by Sadashivrao Bhau and opposed Feroze Jung III. Ahmad Shah Durranis relations with the Mughal Emperor, strengthened further when his son Timur Shah Durrani married the daughter of Alamgir II and patronized the Mughal commander Jahan Khan. He played an important part in Indian warfare over several decades, being on the side at the Third Battle of Panipat of 1761. In 1772 Rohilkhand was invaded and conquered by the Marathas, after the war Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula demanded payment for their help from the Rohilla chief, Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech. The whole of Rohilkhand was surrendered to the East India Company by the treaty of November 10,1801, later, Bareilly was a centre of disaffection for the entire area in the Indian Mutiny of 1857. He founded the town of Pilibhit, where he built a Jama Masjid
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Third Battle of Panipat
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The specific site of the battle itself is disputed by historians, but most consider it to have occurred somewhere near modern-day Kaalaa Aamb and Sanauli Road. The battle lasted for days and involved over 125,000 troops. Protracted skirmishes occurred, with losses and gains on both sides, the forces led by Ahmad Shah Durrani came out victorious after destroying several Maratha flanks. According to the single best eyewitness chronicle--the bakhar by Shuja-ud-Daulahs Diwan Kashi Raj--about 40,000 Maratha prisoners were slaughtered in cold blood the day after the battle, grant Duff includes an interview of a survivor of these massacres in his History of the Marathas and generally corroborates this number. Shejwalkar, whose monograph Panipat 1761 is often regarded as the single best secondary source on the battle, says that not less than 100,000 Marathas perished during and after the battle. The result of the battle was the halting of further Maratha advances in the north, and this period is marked by the rule of Peshwa Madhavrao, who is credited with the revival of Maratha domination following the defeat at Panipat. The success of this campaign can be seen as the last saga of the story of Panipat. The decline of the Mughal Empire following the 27-year Mughal-Maratha war led to territorial gains for the Maratha Empire. Under Peshwa Baji Rao, Gujarat, Malwa and Rajputana came under Maratha control, finally, in 1737, Baji Rao defeated the Mughals on the outskirts of Delhi and brought much of the former Mughal territories south of Delhi under Maratha control. Baji Raos son Balaji Baji Rao further increased the territory under Maratha control by invading Punjab in 1758 and this brought the Marathas into direct confrontation with the Durrani empire of Ahmad Shah Abdali. In 1759 he raised an army from the Pashtun and Baloch tribes and he then joined with his Indian allies—the Rohilla Afghans of the Gangetic Doab—forming a broad coalition against the Marathas. The Marathas started their journey from Patdur on 14 March 1760. Both sides tried to get the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daulah, by late July Shuja-ud-Daulah made the decision to join the Afghan-Rohilla coalition, preferring to join what was perceived as the army of Islam. This was strategically a major loss for the Marathas, since Shuja provided much-needed finances for the long Afghan stay in North India and it is doubtful whether the Afghan-Rohilla coalition would have the means to continue their conflict with the Marathas without Shujas support. The Marathas had gained control of a part of India in the intervening period. In 1758 they occupied Delhi, captured Lahore and drove out Timur Shah Durrani and this territory was ruled through the Peshwa, who talked of placing his son Vishwasrao on the Mughal throne. However, Delhi still remained under the control of Mughals, key Muslim intellectuals including Shah Waliullah. In desperation they appealed to Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan, in the final phase the Marathas, under Scindia, attacked Najib
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Ahmad Shah Durrani
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Ahmad Shāh Durrānī, also known as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, was the founder of the Durrani Empire and is regarded as the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. After the death of Nader Shah Afshar in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani was chosen as King of Afghanistan. Within a few years, he extended his control from Khorasan in the west to Kashmir and North India in the east, Durranis mausoleum is located at Kandahar, Afghanistan, adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak in the center of the city. Afghans often refer to him as Ahmad Shāh Bābā, Durrani was born in or about 1722 to Mohammad Zaman Khan, chief of the Abdali tribe and Governor of Herat, and Zarghuna Alakozai. There has been debate about Durranis exact place of birth. Most believe that he was born in Herat, Afghanistan and he was born as Ahmed Khan. Abdalis father suffered Persian captivity for years at Kirman before being released from prison in 1715. As a refugee, he made his way to India and joined his kinsmen at Multan, after he raised his family there, he was recognized as the scion of hereditary Sadozai chiefs. It is believed that Zaman Khan returned to Afghanistan to fight the Persians and his Afghan rivals, so other sources believe that, Abdali was born at Multan in 1722, after which she returned to Afghanistan to reunite with her husband. He lost his father during his infancy, Durranis forefathers were Sadozais but his mother was from the Alakozai tribe. In June 1729, the Abdali forces under Zulfiqar had surrendered to Nader Shah Afshar, however, they soon began a rebellion and took over Herat as well as Mashad. In July 1730, he defeated Ibrahim Khan, a commander and brother of Nader Shah. This prompted Nader Shah to retake Mashad and also intervene in the struggle of Harat. By July 1731, Zulfiqar returned to his capital Farah where he had been serving as the governor since 1726, a year later Nadirs brother Ibrahim Khan took control of Farah. During this time Zulfiqar and the young Durrani fled to Kandahar where they took refuge with the Ghiljis and they were later made political prisoners by Hussain Hotak, the Ghilji ruler of the Kandahar region. Nader Shah had been enlisting the Abdalis in his army since around 1729, after conquering Kandahar in 1738, Durrani and his brother Zulfiqar were freed and provided with leading careers in Nader Shahs administration. Zulfiqar was made Governor of Mazandaran while Durrani remained working as Nader Shahs personal attendant, the Ghiljis, who are originally from the territories east of the Kandahar region, were expelled from Kandahar in order to resettle the Abdalis along with some Qizilbash and other Persians. Durrani proved himself in Nader Shahs service and was promoted from an attendant to command the Abdali Regiment
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Maratha
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The Maratha is a group of castes in India found predominantly in the state of Maharashtra. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Marathas are people of India, famed in history as yeoman warriors and they reside primarily in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The general body of lists are often at variance with each other. The term Maratha originally referred to the speakers of the Marathi language, in the 17th century, it emerged as a designation for soldiers serving in the armies of Deccan sultanates. A number of Maratha warriors, including Shivajis father, Shahaji, by the mid-1660s, Shivaji had established an independent Maratha kingdom. After his death, Marathas fought under his sons and defeated Aurangzeb in the war of 27 years, the Confederacy remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British East India Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. By 19th century, the term Maratha had several interpretations in the British administrative records, in the Thane District Gazetteer of 1882, the term was used to denote elite layers within various castes, for example, Maratha-Agri within Agri caste, Maratha-Koli within Koli caste and so on. In the Pune District, the words Kunbi and Maratha had become synonymous, the Pune District Gazetteer of 1882 divided the Kunbis into two classes, Marathas and other Kunbis. The 1901 census listed three groups within the Maratha-Kunbi caste complex, Marathas proper, Maratha Kunbis and Konkani Marathas, the Kunbi class comprised agricultural workers and soldiers. The upper-class Marathas proper claimed Rajput descent with Kshatriya status, and included princes, some of the Maratha clans claiming Rajput descent include Bhonsales, Chavans, and Pawar. Gradually, the term Maratha came to denote an endogamous caste, from 1900 onwards, the Satyashodhak Samaj movement defined the Marathas as a broader social category of non-Brahmin groups. These non-Brahmins gained prominence in Indian National Congress during the Indian independence movement, in independent India, these Marathas became the dominant political force in the newly-formed state of Maharashtra. The empire also resulted in the relocation of substantial numbers of Maratha and other Marathi-speaking people outside Maharashtra. Today several small but significant communities descended from these live in the north, south. These descendant communities tend often to speak the languages, although many also speak Marathi in addition. Notable Maratha families outside Maharashtra include Scindia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda, Holkar of Indore, Puar of Dewas & Dhar, Ghorpade of Mudhol, and Bhonsle of Nagpur. These Brahmins supported the Maratha claim to Kshatriya status, but their success in political alliance was sporadic. Marathas have dominated the politics of Maharashtra since its inception in 1960
