1.
Roman Missal
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The Roman Missal is the liturgical book that contains the texts and rubrics for the celebration of the Mass in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Before the high Middle Ages, several books were used at Mass, a Sacramentary with the prayers, one or more books for the Scriptural readings, and one or more books for the antiphons and other chants. Gradually, manuscripts came into being that incorporated parts of more than one of these books, such a book was referred to as a Missale Plenum. In 1223 Saint Francis of Assisi instructed his friars to adopt the form that was in use at the Papal Court and they adapted this missal further to the needs of their largely itinerant apostolate. Its use spread throughout Europe, especially after the invention of the printing press, printing also favoured the spread of other liturgical texts of less certain orthodoxy. The Council of Trent recognized that an end must be put to the resulting confusion, some corrections to Pope Pius Vs text proved necessary, and Pope Clement VIII replaced it with a new typical edition of the Roman Missal on 7 July 1604. A further revised edition was promulgated by Pope Urban VIII on 2 September 1634. Beginning in the seventeenth century, France and neighbouring areas saw a flurry of independent missals published by bishops influenced by Jansenism and Gallicanism. This ended when Bishop Pierre-Louis Parisis of Langres and Abbot Guéranger initiated in the century a campaign to return to the Roman Missal. Pope Leo XIII then took the opportunity to issue in 1884 a new edition that took account of all the changes introduced since the time of Pope Urban VIII. Pope Pius X also undertook a revision of the Roman Missal, in the part of the Missal thus thoroughly revised, he anticipated some of the changes affecting all days of the year after the Second Vatican Council. These novelties included the first official introduction of the language into the liturgy for renewal of baptismal promises within the Easter Vigil celebration. The Pope also removed from the Vigil of Pentecost the series of six Old Testament readings, with their accompanying Tracts and Collects, the changes this made in the General Roman Calendar are indicated in General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII. After duly weighing the answers of the bishops, he judged that it was time to attack the problem of a general and systematic revision of the rubrics of the breviary and this question he referred to the special committee of experts appointed to study the general liturgical reform. His successor, Pope John XXIII, issued a new edition of the Roman Missal in 1962. This incorporated the revised Code of Rubrics which Pope Pius XIIs commission had prepared, other notable revisions were the omission of the adjective perfidis in the Good Friday Prayer for the Jews and the insertion of the name of Saint Joseph into the Canon of the Mass. They were reflected in the provisional vernacular translations produced in various countries when the language of the people began to be used in addition to Latin, references sometimes met in an English-language context to the 1965 Missal concern these temporary vernacular productions, not the Roman Missal itself. Even countries that had the language used different translations and varied in the amount of vernacular admitted
2.
Chalice
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A chalice is a goblet or footed cup intended to hold a drink. In general religious terms, it is intended for drinking during a ceremony, chalices are often made of precious metal, and they are sometimes richly enamelled and jewelled. The gold goblet was symbolic for family and tradition, the ancient Roman calix was a drinking vessel consisting of a bowl fixed atop a stand, and was in common use at banquets. Chalices have been used since the early church, because of Jesus command to his disciples to Do this in remembrance of me. And Pauls account of the Eucharistic rite in 1 Corinthians 11, 24-25, naturally, the vessels used in this important act of worship were highly decorated and treated with great respect. A number of examples of chalices have a large bowl. Over time, the size of the bowl diminished and the base became larger for better stability, over time, official church regulations dictated the construction, blessing, and treatment of chalices. Some religious traditions still require that the chalice, at least on the inside of the cup, in Western Christianity, chalices will often have a pommel or node where the stem meets the cup to make the elevation easier. In Roman Catholicism, chalices tend to be tulip-shaped, and the cups are quite narrow, Roman Catholic priests will often receive chalices from members of their families when first ordained. In Eastern Christianity, chalices will often have icons enameled or engraved on them, in Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholicism, all communicants receive both the Body of Christ and the Blood of Christ. To accomplish this, a portion of the Lamb is placed in the chalice, for this reason, eastern chalices tend to have larger, rounded cups. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the faithful will kiss the foot of the chalice after receiving Holy Communion. In other traditions, they kiss the cup. Although Orthodox monks are not permitted to hold personal possessions, the permit a hieromonk to keep a chalice. In the early and medieval church, when a deacon was ordained, early written accounts of the ordination of deaconesses also reflect this practice. In the West the deacon carries the chalice to the altar at the offertory, in the East, the priest carries the chalice and the deacon carries the paten. Only wine, water and a portion of the Host are permitted to be placed in the chalice, the chalice is considered to be one of the most sacred vessels in Christian liturgical worship, and it is often blessed before use. Among the Eastern Churches there are varying practices regarding blessing, in some traditions the very act of celebrating the Sacred Mysteries is the only blessing necessary, in others, there is a special rite of blessing
3.
Altar cloth
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An altar cloth is used by various religious groups to cover an altar. It may be used as a sign of respect towards the holiness of the altar, because many altars are made of wood and are often ornate and unique, cloth may then be used to protect the altar surface. In other cases, the cloth serves to beautify a rather mundane construction underneath, special cloths cover the altar in many Christian churches during services and celebrations, and are often left on the altar when it is not in use. The Anglican Communion had similar rules in that period, at that time, the Roman Rite required the use of three altar cloths, to which a cere cloth, not classified as an altar cloth, was generally added. This was a piece of heavy linen treated with wax to protect the altar linens from the dampness of a stone altar and it was exactly the same size as the mensa. Above this were placed two linen cloths, like the cere cloth, they were made of heavy linen exactly the same size as the mensa of the altar. They acted as a cushion and, with the cere cloth, instead of two cloths, a single long cloth folded so that each half covered the whole mensa was acceptable. The topmost cloth was the linen, a long white linen cloth laid over the two linen cloths. On an altar without antependium and consisting of the mensa resting on columns or made after the fashion of a tomb the topmost linen did not have to overhang the edges at the sides. It could be trimmed with lace on the ends and could be ornamented with figures of chalices, hosts, five small crosses might be embroidered on the fair linen - one to fall at each corner of the mensa, and one in the middle of the front edge. These symbolised the five wounds of Jesus, the fair linen should be left on the altar at all times. When removed for replacement, it should be rolled, not folded and it symbolized the shroud in which Jesus was wrapped for burial. A coverlet of the same heavy linen as the cloth and the linen cloths. It simply protects the altar from dust and debris, there are also special linens which pertain to the Eucharist, The purificator is a white linen cloth which is used to wipe the chalice after each communicant partakes. It is also used to wipe the chalice and paten after the ablutions which follow Communion, the pall is a stiffened square card covered with white linen, usually embroidered with a cross, or some other appropriate symbol. The purpose of the pall is to keep dust and insects from falling into the Eucharistic elements, the corporal is a square white cloth upon which the chalice and paten are placed when the Eucharist is celebrated. It may be edged with lace, and a cross may be embroidered on it near the front edge. Embroidery in the centre was not used, lest the chalice become unstable, the manuterge is used by the priest to dry his or her hands after washing them
4.
Paten
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A paten, or diskos, is a small plate, usually made of silver or gold, used to hold Eucharistic bread which is to be consecrated. It is generally used during the service itself, while the reserved sacrament are stored in the tabernacle in a ciborium, in many Western liturgical denominations, the paten is typically either a simple saucer-like plate or a low bowl. A smaller style paten will often have a depression that allows it to sit on top of the chalice. The General Instruction of the Roman Missal lays down rules for patens, if they are made from metal that rusts or from a metal less precious than gold, they should generally be gilded on the inside. Patens are also used among Anglicans and Lutherans, in the Byzantine Rite Orthodox and Byzantine Rite Catholic Churches, the paten is called a diskos and is elevated by a stand permanently attached underneath. The diskos is usually more ornate than its Latin Rite counterpart, the diskos may be engraved with an icon of Jesus Christ, the Nativity of Christ, the Cross, or most frequently the Theotokos. When a diskos is made, it is accompanied by a matching asterisk, a spoon. During the Divine Liturgy it is not only the Lamb that is placed on the diskos, but also particles to commemorate the Theotokos, the Saints, the living and the departed. Thus, on the diskos is represented the entire Church, the Church Militant, at the Great Entrance the deacon carries the Diskos, holding the foot of the diskos at his forehead. He then kneels at the side of the Holy Table, during the Anaphora, only the Lamb is consecrated. After Communion, the Deacon holds the diskos above the holy chalice and recites hymns of the Resurrection. Then he wipes the remaining particles into the saying the words, Wash away, O Lord. During the Consecration of a Church, a diskos is used to hold the relics of the saints which will be sealed in the Holy Table and antimension by the bishop. When a priest is ordained, a portion of the Lamb will be placed on a small diskos and given to him, in the Russian tradition, there is a special service of blessing used to sanctify a diskos before its first use at Liturgy. The diskos may be blessed separately or together in a set with the sacred vessels. Up until the first time a diskos is used in the Divine Liturgy it is considered to be an ordinary vessel, however, after having been used in the Divine Liturgy, a diskos may be touched only by a deacon, priest or bishop. A subdeacon may touch the sacred vessels, but only if they are wrapped in cloth. In the usage of the Coptic Orthodox Church, the diskos usually has a bottom with no foot
5.
Crucifix
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A crucifix is an image of Jesus on the cross, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the corpus, the crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians, and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts. The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations, the crucifix emphasizes Jesus sacrifice — his death by crucifixion, which Christians believe brought about the redemption of mankind. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than any other shape, Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional corpus, but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief. Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, an entire painting of the Crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not a crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood. By the late Middle Ages these were a feature of Western churches. The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix consists of an upright post or stipes, there may also be a short projecting nameplate, showing the letters INRI. The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful, more sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy, including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses. Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering, in Orthodoxy he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christs suffering. The S-shaped position of Jesus body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy, by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. Its in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus suffering and realistic details, during the 13th century the suffering Italian model triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the S-shape is generally less pronounced. He may be robed as a prophet, crowned as a king, on some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha, the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew the place of the skull. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental, is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, and also privately
6.
Candle
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A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax or another flammable solid substance such as tallow that provides light, and in some cases, a fragrance. It can also be used to heat, or used as a method of keeping time. A candle manufacturer is known as a chandler. Various devices have been invented to hold candles, from simple tabletop candle holders to elaborate chandeliers, for a candle to burn, a heat source is used to light the candles wick, which melts and vaporizes a small amount of fuel. Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to ignite, as the mass of solid fuel is melted and consumed, the candle becomes shorter. Portions of the wick that are not emitting vaporized fuel are consumed in the flame, the incineration of the wick limits the exposed length of the wick, thus maintaining a constant burning temperature and rate of fuel consumption. Some wicks require regular trimming with scissors, usually to about one-quarter inch, to slower, steady burning. In early times, the wick needed to be trimmed quite frequently, special candle-scissors, referred to as snuffers were produced for this purpose in the 20th century and were often combined with an extinguisher. In modern candles, the wick is constructed so that it curves over as it burns and this ensures that the end of the wick gets oxygen and is then consumed by fire—a self-trimming wick. The word candle comes from Middle English candel, from Old English and from Anglo-Norman candele, the earliest surviving candles originated in Han China around 200 BC, and were made from whale fat. European candles of antiquity were made from various forms of fat, tallow. In Ancient Rome, candles were made of tallow due to the prohibitive cost of beeswax and it is possible that they also existed in Ancient Greece, but imprecise terminology makes it difficult to determine. In the Middle Ages in Europe, tallow candles were the most common candle, by the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in England and France. The candle makers went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made, Beeswax, compared to animal-based tallow, burned cleanly, without smoky flame. Rather than the foul and terrible odor of tallow, it emits a fresh smell, Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could afford to burn them in their homes in medieval Europe. However, they were used for church ceremonies. In the 18th century, spermaceti, oil produced by the whale, was used to produce a superior candle. Late in the 18th century, colza oil and rapeseed oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes, the manufacture of candles became an industrialized mass market in the mid 19th century
7.
Procession
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A procession is an organized body of people walking in a formal or ceremonial manner. Processions have in all peoples and at all times been a form of public celebration, as forming an orderly. Connected with the triumph was the pompa circensis, or solemn procession that preceded the games in the circus and it first came into use at the Ludi Romani, when the games were preceded by a great procession from the Capitol to the Circus. The praetor or consul who appeared in the ponipa circensis wore the robes of a triumphing general, there were other local processions connected with the primitive worship of the country people, which remained unchanged, but they were eventually overshadowed by the popular piety of the Church. In this sense it appears to be used by Pope Leo I, as to public processions, these seem to have come into rapid vogue after the recognition of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Those at Jerusalem would seem to have long established when described by the author of the Peregrinatio Sylviae towards the end of the 4th century. Very early were the processions accompanied by hymns and prayers, known as litaniae and it is to such a procession that reference appears to be made in a letter of St Basil, which would thus be the first recorded mention of a public Christian procession. The first mention for the Western Church occurs in St Ambrose, in both these cases the litanies are stated to have been long in use. There is also mention of a procession accompanied by hymns, organized at Constantinople by St John Chrysostom in opposition to a procession of Arians, in Sozomen. In times of calamity litanies were held, in which the people walked in robes of penitence, fasting, barefooted, the cross was carried at the head of the procession and often the gospel and the relics of the saint were carried. So, too, Gregory the Great writes to the Sicilian bishops to hold processions to prevent an invasion of Sicily. A famous instance of these penitential litanies is the litania septiformis ordered by Gregory the Great in the year 590, when Rome had been inundated and pestilence had followed. In this litany seven processions, of clergy, laymen, monks, nuns, matrons, the poor and this litany has often been confused with the litania major, introduced at Rome in 598, but is quite distinct from it. From the time of the emperor Constantine I these processions were of great magnificence, Festivals involving processions were adopted by the Christian Church from the pagan calendar of Rome. The litaniae majores et minores, which are stated by Hermann Usener to have been first instituted by Pope Liberius and it is generally acknowledged that they are the equivalent of the Christian Church of the Roman lustrations of the crops in spring, the Ambarvalia, &c. The litania major, or great procession on St Marks day is shown to both in date and ritual with the Roman Robigalia, which took place ad. The litania major followed the route as far as the Milvian bridge, when it turned off and returned to St Peters. This was already established as a festival by 598, as is shown by a document of Gregory the Great that inculcates the duty of celebrating litaniam
8.
Penitential Rite
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In Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism, the Penitential Rite, also known as confession that takes place at the start of each Divine Service or Mass. In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, the form of the Roman Rite Mass is the Mass of Paul VI. In the ordinary form, the Penitential Act is part of the Introductory Rites and it follows the greeting in the order of Mass. Therefore, I ask blessed Mary, ever virgin, all the angels and saints, and you, my brothers and sisters, to pray for me to the Lord our God. Formula B, ℣, Have mercy on us, Lord. ℟, For we have sinned against you. ℣, Show us, O Lord, your mercy. ℟, formula C, ℣, You were sent to heal the contrite. Lord, have mercy. ℟, Lord, have mercy. ℣, Christ, have mercy. ℟, Christ, have mercy. ℣, You plead for us at the right hand of the Father. Lord, have mercy. ℟, Lord, have mercy, the formula of absolution which concludes all three formulas is, ℣, May almighty God have mercy on us, forgive us our sins, and bring us to everlasting life. ℟, Amen. The Penitential Act is followed by the Kyrie eleison chant, the Gloria, and the Collect, If certain celebrations are combined with Mass, then the Penitential Act and other parts of the Introductory Rites are omitted or performed in a different way. An example is the Mass of Ash Wednesday, in which the Penitential Act is replaced by the blessing and imposition of ashes after the homily. On Sundays, especially in the Season of Easter, in place of the customary Penitential Act, from time to time the Blessing and Sprinkling of Water to recall Baptism may take place. In the Tridentine Mass the Confiteor prayer is part of the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar. ℟, Misereátur tui omnípotens Deus, et dimíssis peccátis tuis, perdúcat te ad vitam ætérnam. ℣, Amen The others then, on their part, recite the Confiteor, replacing vobis fratres with tibi pater and vos fratres with te pater. The pastor and congregation say the Confiteor and the pastor says the Declaration of Grace, the Declaration of Grace is not an absolution. In Lutheran practice, the rite of confession is its own separate service. Pastor, If we say we have no sin, we ourselves. People, But if we confess our sins, God who is faithful and just will forgive our sins, pastor, Let us then confess our sins to God our Father. People, Most merciful God, we confess that we are by nature sinful and we have sinned against you in thought, word, and deed, by what we have done and by what we have left undone. We have not loved You with our whole heart, we have not loved our neighbors as ourselves and we justly deserve Your present and eternal punishment. For the sake of Your Son, Jesus Christ, have mercy on us, forgive us, renew us, and lead us, so that we may delight in Your will and walk in Your ways to the glory of your Holy Name
9.
Kyrie
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Kyrie, a transliteration of Greek Κύριε, vocative case of Κύριος, is a common name of an important prayer of Christian liturgy, also called the Kyrie eleison /ˈkiːri. eɪ ᵻˈleɪ. ᵻsɒn/. In John 13,13, John reports Jesus as saying You call Me Teacher and Lord, the prayer, Kyrie, eleison, Lord, have mercy derives from several New Testament verses in particular. In Matthew 15,22, the Canaanite woman cries out to Jesus, Have mercy on me, O Lord, in Matthew 20,30,31, two unnamed blind men call out to Jesus, Lord, have mercy on us, Son of David. Finally, in Mark 10,46, Blind Bartimaeus cries out, Jesus, Τhe phrase Kýrie, eléison, or one of its equivalents in other languages, is one of the most oft-repeated phrases in Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine-Rite Eastern Christianity. The various litanies, frequent in that rite, generally have Lord, have mercy as their response, some petitions in these litanies will have twelve or even forty repetitions of the phrase as a response. The phrase is the origin of the Jesus Prayer, beloved by Christians of that rite, the biblical roots of this prayer first appear in 1 Chronicles 16,34. give thanks to the LORD, for he is good, for his mercy endures for ever. The prayer is simultaneously a petition and a prayer of thanksgiving, an acknowledgment of what God has done, what God is doing, and what God will continue to do. It is refined in the Parable of The Publican, God, have mercy on me, a sinner, which shows more clearly its connection with the Jesus Prayer. Since the early centuries of Christianity, the Greek phrase, Kýrie, eléison, is extensively used in the Coptic Christian liturgy. In the cultures of East Slavs, its adaptation also gave rise to the word of gratitude through a rough interpretation Save, in Rome, the sacred Liturgy was first celebrated in Greek. At some point the Roman Mass was translated into Latin, jungmann explains at length how the Kyrie in the Roman Mass is best seen as a vestige of a litany at the beginning of the Mass, like that of some Eastern churches. As early as the century, Pope Gregory the Great notes that there were differences in the way in which eastern and western churches sang Kyrie. In the eastern churches all sing it at the time, whereas in the western church the clergy sing it. Also the western church sang Christe eleison as many times as Kyrie eleison, in the Roman Rite liturgy, a variant, Christe, eléison, a transliteration of Greek Χριστέ, ἐλέησον, is introduced. Kyrie, eleison may also be used as a response of the people to intentions mentioned in the Prayer of the Faithful, since 1549, Anglicans have normally sung or said the Kyrie in English. In the 1552 Book of Common Prayer, the Kyrie was inserted into a recitation of the Ten Commandments, modern revisions of the Prayer Book have restored the option of using the Kyrie without the Commandments. Other denominations also, such as Lutheranism, use Kyrie, eleison in their liturgies, in the Tridentine Mass form of the Roman Rite, Kýrie, eléison is sung or said three times, followed by a threefold Christe, eléison and by another threefold Kýrie, eléison. In the Paul VI Mass form, each invocation is made only once by the celebrating priest or by a cantor, with a repetition, each time
10.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
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Gloria in excelsis Deo is a Christian hymn known also as the Greater Doxology and the Angelic Hymn. The name is abbreviated to Gloria in Excelsis or simply Gloria. The hymn begins with the words that the angels sang when the birth of Christ was announced to shepherds in Luke 2,14, other verses were added very early, forming a doxology. It is an example of the psalmi idiotici that were popular in the 2nd, other surviving examples of this lyric poetry are the Te Deum and the Phos Hilaron. In the 4th century it became part of morning prayers, and is recited in the Byzantine Rite Orthros service. The Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was commissioned only in 382, the Latin hymn thus uses the word excelsis to translate the Greek word ὑψίστοις in Luke 2,14, not the word altissimis, which Saint Jerome preferred for his translation. Glória in excélsis Deo et in terra pax homínibus bonæ voluntátis, laudámus te, benedícimus te, adorámus te, glorificámus te, grátias ágimus tibi propter magnam glóriam tuam, Dómine Deus, Rex cæléstis, Deus Pater omnípotens. Dómine Fili unigénite, Jesu Christe, Dómine Deus, Agnus Dei, Fílius Patris, qui tollis peccáta mundi, miserére nobis, qui tollis peccáta mundi, qui sedes ad déxteram Patris, miserére nobis. Quóniam tu solus Sanctus, tu solus Dóminus, tu solus Altíssimus, Jesu Christe, cum Sancto Spíritu, in the Byzantine Rite, the Gloria is referred to as the Doxology, and there are two forms, the Greater Doxology and the Lesser Doxology. The Greater Doxology is always sung, whereas the Lesser Doxology is read, there are certain textual differences between the two, and the order is somewhat altered in the two forms. The Greater Doxology is used in the Orthros on Sundays and feast days, the Lesser Doxology is used at Matins on simple weekdays and at the Apodeipnon, but not in the Divine Liturgy. Revisions to the Prayer Book occurred in 1552 and 1662, the recently published Common Worship provides two Orders one of which places the hymn in the earlier position. The 1928 United States Episcopal Prayer Book also placed the Gloria at the end of the Eucharist service. This edition, still the standard in the breakaway Continuing Anglican churches, allowed the hymn to be used in place of the Gloria Patri after the psalms, the Episcopal Churchs 1979 Book moved it to the beginning, after or in place of the Kyrie in Rite One. In a Rite Two service of Holy Eucharist, the Gloria and it may also be used at other times as desired excepting Lent and Advent. The hymn is used in the Divine Service of the Lutheran Church. After the 12th century Advent began to be considered a period in imitation of Lent. Gloria in excelsis Deo et in terra pax hominibus bonae voluntatis, laudamus te, benedicimus te, adoramus te, glorificamus te, gratias agimus tibi propter magnam gloriam tuam, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to men of good will
11.
Liturgy of the Word
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Mass often refers to the entire church service in general, but is specifically the sacrament of the Eucharist. The term mass is called in the Catholic Church, Western Rite Orthodox churches and many Old Catholic, Anglican, as well as some Lutheran churches. Some Protestants employ terms such as Divine Service or service of worship, the English noun mass is derived from Middle Latin missa. The Latin word was adopted in Old English as mæsse, and was sometimes glossed as sendnes, the Latin term missa itself was in use by the 6th century. It is most likely derived from the concluding formula Ite, missa est, historically, however, there have been other explanations of the noun missa, i. e. as not derived from the formula ite, missa est. Already Du Cange reports various opinions on the origin of the noun missa mass, including the derivation from Hebrew matzah, here attributed to Caesar Baronius. The Hebrew derivation is learned speculation from 16th-century philology, medieval authorities did derive the noun missa from the verb mittere, but not in connection with the formula ite, missa est. Thus, De divinis officiis explains the word as a mittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deo, the Catholic Church sees the Mass or Eucharist as the source and summit of the Christian life, to which the other sacraments are oriented. The Catholic Church believes that the Mass is exactly the same sacrifice that Jesus Christ offered on the Cross at Calvary, after making the sign of the cross and greeting the people liturgically, he begins the Act of Penitence. This concludes with the prayer of absolution, which, however. The Kyrie, eleison, is sung or said, followed by the Gloria in excelsis Deo, the Introductory Rites are brought to a close by the Collect Prayer. On Sundays and solemnities, three Scripture readings are given, on other days there are only two. If there are three readings, the first is from the Old Testament, or the Acts of the Apostles during Eastertide, the first reading is followed by a psalm, either sung responsorially or recited. The second reading is from the New Testament, typically one of the Pauline epistles. A Gospel Acclamation is then sung as the Book of the Gospels is processed, sometimes with incense and candles, the final reading and high point of the Liturgy of the Word is the proclamation of the Gospel by the deacon or priest. At least on Sundays and Holy Days of Obligation, a homily, finally, the Creed is professed on Sundays and solemnities, and it is desirable that in Masses celebrated with the people the Universal Prayer or Prayer of the Faithful should usually follow. The congregation responds, May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of his name, for our good, the priest then pronounces the variable prayer over the gifts. The Eucharistic Prayer, the centre and high point of the entire celebration, the priest continues with one of many Eucharistic Prayer thanksgiving prefaces, which lead to the reciting of the Sanctus acclamation
12.
Lectionary
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A lectionary is a book or listing that contains a collection of scripture readings appointed for Christian or Judaic worship on a given day or occasion. There are sub-types such as a gospel lectionary or evangeliary, in addition to these Torah readings, the later Gemara portion of the Talmud also knows of assigned annual readings from the prophets. By the Medieval era the Jewish community had a schedule of scripture readings both from the Torah and the prophets to be read in the synagogue. A sequential selection was read from the Torah, followed by the haftarah – a selection from the books or historical narratives closely linked to the selection from the Torah. Jesus may have read a providentially random reading when he read from Isaiah 61, 1-2, as recorded in Luke 4, 16-21, the early Christians adopted the Jewish custom of reading extracts from the Old Testament on the Sabbath. They soon added extracts from the writings of the Apostles and Evangelists, both Hebrew and Christian lectionaries developed over the centuries. The existence of both one-year and three-year cycles occurs in both Christianity and Judaism, within Christianity, the use of pre-assigned, scheduled readings from the scriptures can be traced back to the early church, and seems to have been inherited from Judaism. Not all of the Christian Church used the same lectionary, and throughout history, until the Second Vatican Council, most Western Christians used a lectionary that repeated on a one-year basis. This annual lectionary provided readings for Sundays and, in those Churches that celebrated the festivals of saints, the Eastern Orthodox Church and many of the Oriental Churches continue to use an annual lectionary. Within Lutheranism there remains a minority of pastors and congregations who use the old one-year lectionary. The Reformed churches divided the Heidelberg Catechism into 52 weekly sections, lectionaries from before the invention of the printing press contribute to understanding the textual history of the Bible. See also List of New Testament lectionaries, the lectionaries are organized into three-year cycles of readings. The years are designated A, B, or C, each yearly cycle begins on the first Sunday of Advent. Year B follows year A, year C follows year B, the Roman Catholic lectionary includes a two-year cycle for the weekday mass readings. Odd-numbered years are Cycle I, even-numbered ones are Cycle II, the weekday lectionary includes a reading from the Old Testament, Acts, Revelation, or the Epistles, a responsorial Psalm, and a reading from one of the Gospels. These readings are generally shorter than those appointed for use on Sundays, the pericopes for the first reading along with the psalms are arranged in a two-year cycle. The Gospels are arranged so that portions of all four are read every year and this weekday lectionary has also been adapted by some denominations with congregations that celebrate daily Eucharistic services. It has been published in the Episcopal Churchs Lesser Feasts and Fasts and this eucharistic lectionary should not be confused with the various Daily Office lectionaries in use in various denominations
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Psalms
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The Book of Psalms, commonly referred to simply as Psalms or the Psalms, is the first book of the Ketuvim, the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the Christian Old Testament. The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning instrumental music and, by extension, the book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches. Many of the psalms are linked to the name of David, over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the leader or choirmaster, including such statements as with stringed instruments and according to lilies. Others appear to be references to types of composition, such as A psalm and Song. Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common being of David, others named include Moses, Asaph, the Sons of Korah and Solomon. A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship, Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation Ps. Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew and it is generally admitted that Pss.9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem, they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps.144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15, Pss.42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject, of metrical structure and of refrain, to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps.146, later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes,1,2,3,4,6 +13,9 +10,19,20,21,56 +57,69 +70,114 +115,148,149,150. A choral ode would seem to have been the form of Pss.14 +70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps,14, the two antistrophes are Ps.70. It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter, Ps.14 =53, Ps.70 =40. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps and this loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151, Some versions of the Peshitta include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely written in Hebrew. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set, gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types, Hymns, songs of praise for Gods work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, two sub-categories are enthronement psalms, celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying Mount Zion, Gods dwelling-place in Jerusalem
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Creed
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A creed is a statement of the shared beliefs of a religious community in the form of a fixed formula summarizing core tenets. One of the most widely used creeds in Christianity is the Nicene Creed and it was based on Christian understanding of the Canonical Gospels, the letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Affirmation of this creed, which describes the Trinity, is taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy for most Christian denominations. The Apostles Creed is also broadly accepted, Some Christian denominations and other groups have rejected the authority of those creeds. Muslims declare the shahada, or testimony, I bear witness there is no god but God. Whether Judaism is creedal has been a point of some controversy, although some say Judaism is noncreedal in nature, others say it recognizes a single creed, the Shema Yisrael, which begins, Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. The word creed is particularly used for a statement which is recited as part of liturgy. The term is anglicized from Latin credo I believe, the incipit of the Latin texts of the Apostles Creed, within Evangelicalism, the terms doctrinal statement or doctrinal basis tend to be preferred. Doctrinal statements may include positions on lectionary and translations of the Bible, the term creed is sometimes extended to comparable concepts in non-Christian theologies, thus the Islamic concept of ʿaqīdah is often rendered as creed. Several creeds have originated in Christianity,1 Corinthians 15, 3–7 includes an early creed about Jesus death and resurrection which was probably received by Paul. The antiquity of the creed has been located by most biblical scholars to no more than five years after Jesus death, the Old Roman Creed is an earlier and shorter version of the Apostles Creed. The Apostles Creed is widely used by most Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, the Nicene Creed reflects the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what Christians believed. The Chalcedonian Creed was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor and it defines that Christ is acknowledged in two natures, which come together into one person and hypostasis. The Athanasian Creed is a Christian statement of belief focusing on Trinitarian doctrine, the Tridentine Creed was initially contained in the papal bull Iniunctum Nobis, issued by Pope Pius IV on November 13,1565. The creed was intended to summarize the teaching of the Council of Trent, the Maasai Creed is a creed composed in 1960 by the Maasai people of East Africa in collaboration with missionaries from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Maasai culture, the Credo of the People of God is a profession of faith that Pope Paul VI published with the motu proprio Solemni hac liturgia of 30 June 1968. Pope Paul VI spoke of it as a profession of faith, Protestant denominations are usually associated with confessions of faith, which are similar to creeds but usually longer. By the martyr French Huguenots Jean du Bourdel, Matthieu Verneuil, Pierre Bourdon and André la Fon at the site of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Mass (liturgy)
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Mass often refers to the entire church service in general, but is specifically the sacrament of the Eucharist. The term mass is called in the Catholic Church, Western Rite Orthodox churches and many Old Catholic, Anglican, as well as some Lutheran churches. Some Protestants employ terms such as Divine Service or service of worship, the English noun mass is derived from Middle Latin missa. The Latin word was adopted in Old English as mæsse, and was sometimes glossed as sendnes, the Latin term missa itself was in use by the 6th century. It is most likely derived from the concluding formula Ite, missa est, historically, however, there have been other explanations of the noun missa, i. e. as not derived from the formula ite, missa est. Already Du Cange reports various opinions on the origin of the noun missa mass, including the derivation from Hebrew matzah, here attributed to Caesar Baronius. The Hebrew derivation is learned speculation from 16th-century philology, medieval authorities did derive the noun missa from the verb mittere, but not in connection with the formula ite, missa est. Thus, De divinis officiis explains the word as a mittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deo, the Catholic Church sees the Mass or Eucharist as the source and summit of the Christian life, to which the other sacraments are oriented. The Catholic Church believes that the Mass is exactly the same sacrifice that Jesus Christ offered on the Cross at Calvary, after making the sign of the cross and greeting the people liturgically, he begins the Act of Penitence. This concludes with the prayer of absolution, which, however. The Kyrie, eleison, is sung or said, followed by the Gloria in excelsis Deo, the Introductory Rites are brought to a close by the Collect Prayer. On Sundays and solemnities, three Scripture readings are given, on other days there are only two. If there are three readings, the first is from the Old Testament, or the Acts of the Apostles during Eastertide, the first reading is followed by a psalm, either sung responsorially or recited. The second reading is from the New Testament, typically one of the Pauline epistles. A Gospel Acclamation is then sung as the Book of the Gospels is processed, sometimes with incense and candles, the final reading and high point of the Liturgy of the Word is the proclamation of the Gospel by the deacon or priest. At least on Sundays and Holy Days of Obligation, a homily, finally, the Creed is professed on Sundays and solemnities, and it is desirable that in Masses celebrated with the people the Universal Prayer or Prayer of the Faithful should usually follow. The congregation responds, May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of his name, for our good, the priest then pronounces the variable prayer over the gifts. The Eucharistic Prayer, the centre and high point of the entire celebration, the priest continues with one of many Eucharistic Prayer thanksgiving prefaces, which lead to the reciting of the Sanctus acclamation
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Offertory
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The offertory is the part of a Eucharistic service when the bread and wine for use in the service are ceremonially placed on the altar. A collection of alms from the congregation, such as may take place also at non-Eucharistic services, the Eucharistic theology may vary among those Christian denominations that have a liturgical offertory. In the Roman Rite, the preparation of the gifts is used in addition to the term offertory. In the Roman Rite, the offertory is the first part of the Liturgy of the Eucharist, the altar is first prepared by placing on it the corporal, purificator, missal and chalice. The bread and wine, and perhaps other offerings or gifts for the poor or for the Church, are presented by the faithful in a procession to the accompaniment of an offertory chant. The priest places first the bread and then the wine on the altar while saying the prayers, after which he may incense them together with the cross. The priest and the people may also be incensed, after washing his hands at the side of the altar, the priest says the Prayer over the Offerings. This was originally the only said at the offertory of the Roman Rite. There are variations in other rites, for instance, in the Dominican Rite a single prayer is said at the offertory over the bread and wine, which were already been prepared on the altar at an earlier part of the Mass. In the Byzantine Rite, there is a short offertory at the point as in the Roman Rite. A more elaborate ceremonial, the Liturgy of Preparation, takes place before the part of the celebration of the Divine Liturgy. In the Roman Rite, the bringing the gifts is accompanied by the Offertory Chant. In the Tridentine Mass, only the choir sang the refrain alone to an elaborate setting, the priest read the refrain at the beginning of the offertory not only at a Low Mass, which was without singing, but also at a Solemn Mass. The 1662 Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England includes offertory sentences that are to be read at this point, current practice in Anglican churches favours the singing of a congregational hymn or an anthem sung by the choir, and often both. In some churches music at the offertory is provided by an organist, during the offertory or immediately before it, a collection of money or other gifts for the poor or for the Church is taken up. In the Roman Catholic Mass, while these may be brought together with the bread and wine. A collection plate is used near the end of some Protestant worship services, rather than at the offertory, to gather the gifts of the faithful for the support of the church. Saisen - The case in Japan
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Anaphora (liturgy)
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The Anaphora is the most solemn part of the Divine Liturgy, or the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, during which the offerings of bread and wine are consecrated as the body and blood of Christ. This is the name for this part of the Liturgy in Greek-speaking Eastern Christianity. In western Christian traditions which have a comparable rite, the Anaphora is more called the Eucharistic Prayer. When the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church had a single Eucharistic Prayer it was referred to as the Canon of the Mass, Anaphora is a Greek word meaning a carrying back or a carrying up, and so an offering. Classic call and response ties together the response of the priest, then the priest exhorts those participating in the liturgy to lift up their hearts. When they express their agreement, he introduces the great theme of thanksgiving, in Greek εὐχαριστία, saying. It can be short or resume the great theme of thanksgiving, giving ground for the following requests. Institution narrative, is an account of the Last Supper, in which are pronounced the Words of Institution spoken by Jesus Christ, changing the bread and wine into his Body and Blood. Anamnesis, is the statement in which the Church refers to the character of the Eucharist itself and/or to the Passion, Resurrection and Ascension of Christ. Oblation, is the offering to the Lord of the sacrifice of the Eucharistic bread and wine and of the prayers, in this section there is usually the request to God to grant to the believers the same glory given to Mary and to the saints. An Epiclesis can be found before the Institution narrative in the Alexandrian Rite, sometime, particularly in the past, in both East and West the main celebrant said a part of his prayers inaudibly or covered by the choir. The Eastern Rites know many anaphoras, but each of them is almost completely invariable, on the contrary the Western Church had for centuries only one anaphora, the Roman Canon, but it has variable parts according to the liturgical year, mainly the Preface. In other Latin rites, as in the Mozarabic Rite or the Gallican rite also the post-sanctus and the prayer after the Institution narrative till the doxology are completely variable. Many ancient texts of anaphoras have survived, and even if no more in use, they are useful to trace the history of the anaphoras, most of these texts became parts of anaphoras still in use. John Chrysostom, through the lost Greek version of the Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles, the present Byzantine text of the Anaphora included in the Liturgy of Saint Basil is the final development of this anaphoric family. In the East the more ancient text is probably the ancient form of the Anaphora of Addai and Mari, followed by the Maronite Third Anaphora of St. Peter, another important source is the anaphora described in the Mystagogical Cathecheses of Theodore of Mopsuestia. Before the reform of the Catholic Mass undertaken in 1969 the only used in the Roman Rite was the Roman Canon. For the history of the Roman Canon see also articles Canon of the Mass, Pre-Tridentine Mass and Tridentine Mass
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Ite, missa est
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Ite, missa est are the concluding Latin words addressed to the people in the Mass of the Roman Rite, as well as the Lutheran Divine Service. Until the reforms of 1962, at Masses without the Gloria, the response of the people is Deo gratias. In the 19th century, it was common to explain the phrase elliptically, with missa the feminine participle of mittere, as in Ite, missa est Go, it is dismissed. The connection between the dismissal and the deeper meaning of mission was also discussed by Benedict XVI in Sacramentum caritatis, In antiquity. In Christian usage, however, it took on a deeper meaning. The word dismissal has come to imply a mission and these few words succinctly express the missionary nature of the Church. The ecclesiastical Latin noun missa mass is derived from the missa in this liturgical formula, historically, however, there have been other explanations of the noun missa, i. e. as not derived from the formula ite, missa est. Fortescue cites older, fanciful etymological explanations, notably a latinization of Hebrew matstsâh unleavened bread, oblation, already Du Cange reports various opinions on the origin of the noun missa mass. Medieval authors took the phrase to contain the noun missa mass, thus Guillaume Durand suggests that the meaning is either elliptic missa est the mass is finished, or that est should be taken absolutely, as meaning the mass exists, is now accomplished fact. It is one of the oldest formulae of the Roman Rite, after the twelfth century, accretions began to be added to the Mass after the Ite, missa est, changing it from a dismissal to a mere formula without relation to actuality. But only in the century, with the establishment of the Tridentine Mass, were these accretions officially accepted as part of the Mass. With the reform of Pope Paul VI Ite, missa est returned to its function as a dismissal formula and it is omitted if another function follows immediately and the people are therefore not dismissed. Ite missa est, not being variable like the Scripture readings, being sung by an individual, not by a choir, it cannot be part of a polyphonic musical setting of the Mass. Only the Deo gratias response could be set polyphonically and, because of its brevity, it rarely was, the dismissal formulas in other liturgical rites are, Ambrosian Rite, Procedamus in pace. Mozarabic Rite, Solemnia completa sunt in nomine D. N. I, C, votum nostrum sit acceptum cum pace. Antiochene, Alexandrian and Byzantine liturgies, Let us go forth in peace, response, In the name of the Lord. Then the priest says a prayer of dismissal. List of Latin phrases Fortescue, A. Ite Missa Est, The Catholic Encyclopedia, New York, see Ite Missa Est in the 1962 Missale Romanum with MP3 Audio
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Santa Cecilia in Trastevere
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Santa Cecilia in Trastevere is a 5th-century church in Rome, Italy, in the Trastevere rione, devoted to the Roman martyr Saint Cecilia. The first church on site was founded probably in the 3rd century, by Pope Urban I, it was devoted to the young Roman woman Cecilia. Tradition holds that the church was built over the house of the saint, the baptistery associated with this church, together with the remains of a Roman house of the early Empire, was found during some excavations under the Chapel of the Relics. By the late century, at the Synod of 499 of Pope Symmachus. On 22 November 545, Pope Vigilius was celebrating the Feast of the saint in the church, Pope Paschal I rebuilt the church in 822, and moved here the relics of St Cecilia from the Catacombs of St Calixtus. More restorations followed in the 18th century, the Cardinal priest who is currently assigned to the Titulus S. Caeciliae is Gualtiero Bassetti. Since 1527, a community of Benedictine nuns has lived in the next to Santa Cecilia. The inscriptions found in Santa Cecilia, a valuable source illustrating the history of the church, have collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella. The church has a built in 1725 by Ferdinando Fuga, which incloses a courtyard decorated with ancient mosaics, columns. Its decoration includes the coat of arms and the dedication to the cardinal who paid for the facade. The Gothic ciborium is surrounded by four marble columns white and black, decorated with statuettes of angels, saints, prophets, the apse has remains of 9th century mosaics depicting the Redeemer with Saints Paul, Cecilia, Paschal I, Peter, Valerian, and Agatha. The ceiling of Cappella dei Ponziani was decorated God the Father with evangelists by Antonio del Massaro, the Cappella delle Reliquie was frescoed and provided with an altarpiece by Luigi Vanvitelli. The nave is frescoed with the Apotheosis of Santa Cecilia by Sebastiano Conca, the church contains two altarpieces by Guido Reni, Saints Valerian and Cecilia and a Decapitation of Saint Cecilia. Among the most remarkable works is the graphic altar sculpture of St. Cecilia by the late-Renaissance sculptor Stefano Maderno. The pavement in front of the statue encloses a marble slab with Madernos sworn statement that he has recorded the body as he saw it when the tomb was opened in 1599, the statue depicts the three axe strokes described in the 5th-century account of her martyrdom. It also is meant to underscore the incorruptibility of her cadaver and this statue could be conceived as proto-Baroque, since it depicts no idealized moment or person, but a theatric scene, a naturalistic representation of a dead or dying saint. It is striking, because it precedes by decades the similar high-Baroque sculptures of Gian Lorenzo Bernini, the Crypt is also noteworthy, decorated with cosmatesque styles, containing the relics of St. Cecilia and her husband St. Valerian. In the apse of the Crypt there are remains of an altar whose inscription indicates that it was dedicated by Pope Gregory VII on 3 June 1080, • Henry James, Roderick Hudson Jacobus Laderchius, S. Cæciliæ virg
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Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
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Christendom
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The term cristendom existed in Old English, but it had the sense now taken by Christianity. The current sense of the word of lands where Christianity is the dominant religion emerges in Late Middle English, English Christianity equalling German Christentum, French christianisme. The reason is the fragmentation of Western Christianity at that time both in theological and in political respect. Christendom as a term is thus meaningful in the context of the Middle Ages, and arguably during the European wars of religion. The Christian world is known collectively as the Corpus Christianum. The Christian polity, embodying a less secular meaning, can be compatible with the idea of both a religious and a body, Corpus Christianum. The Corpus Christianum can be seen as a Christian equivalent of the Muslim Ummah, the word Christendom is also used with its other meaning to frame-true Christianity. In its most broad term, it refers to the worlds Christian majority countries, unlike the Muslim world, which has a geo-political and cultural definition that provides a primary identifier for a large swath of the world, Christendom is more complex. For example, the Americas and Europe are considered part of Christendom and it is also less geographically cohesive than the Muslim world, which stretches almost continuously from North Africa to South Asia. There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the terms Western world, when Thomas F. Connolly said, There isnt enough power in all Christendom to make that airplane what we want. In the beginning of Christendom, early Christianity was a spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-century Jewish sect. The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, the earliest recorded use of the terms Christianity and Catholic, dates to this period, the 2nd century, attributed to Ignatius of Antioch c. Early Christendom would close at the end of persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan in AD313. Christendom has referred to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a sociopolitical polity, in this period, members of the Christian clergy wield political authority. This model of relations was accepted by various Church leaders. The Church gradually became an institution of the Empire. Emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380, the Byzantine Empire was the last bastion of Christendom. Christendom would take a turn with the rise of the Franks, on Christmas Day 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne resulting in the creation of another Christian king beside the Christian emperor in the Byzantine state
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Latin liturgical rites
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Latin liturgical rites are the Catholic liturgical rites used within the Latin Church. The Latin rites were for centuries no less numerous than the liturgical rites of the Eastern autonomous particular Churches. Their number is now much reduced, in the aftermath of the Council of Trent, in 1568 and 1570 Pope Pius V suppressed the Breviaries and Missals that could not be shown to have an antiquity of at least two centuries. Many local rites that remained even after this decree were abandoned voluntarily, especially in the 19th century. The Roman Rite is by far the most widely used, like other liturgical rites, it developed over time, with newer forms replacing the older. It underwent many changes in the first millennium and a half of its existence, the forms that Pope Pius V, as requested by the Council of Trent, established in the 1560s and 1570s underwent repeated minor variations in the centuries immediately following. Each new typical edition of the Roman Missal and of the liturgical books superseded the previous one. The 20th century saw profound changes. Pope Pius X radically rearranged the Psalter of the Breviary and altered the rubrics of the Mass, later Popes continued to make such changes, beginning with Pope Pius XII, who significantly revised the Holy Week ceremonies and certain other aspects of the Roman Missal in 1955. The Second Vatican Council was followed by a revision of the rites of all the Roman Rite sacraments. As before, each new edition of an official liturgical book supersedes the previous one. Thus, the 1970 Roman Missal, which superseded the 1962 edition, was superseded by the edition of 1975, the 2002 edition in turn supersedes the 1975 edition both in Latin and, as official translations into each language appear, also in the vernacular languages. Under the terms of Summorum Pontificum by Pope Benedict XVI, the Mass of Paul VI is known as the Ordinary Form of the Roman Rite. The Tridentine Mass, as in the 1962 Roman Missal, is authorized for use as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite under the conditions indicated in the document Summorum Pontificum. The Anglican Use is a use of the Roman Rite, during the Liturgy of the Eucharist, especially the Eucharistic Prayer, it is closest to the Roman Rite, while it differs more during the Liturgy of the Word and the Penitential Rite. The language used, which differs from that of the ICEL translation of the Roman Rite of Mass, is based upon the Book of Common Prayer, most Anglican Use parishes use the Book of Divine Worship, an adaptation of the Book of Common Prayer. The Anglican Use is permitted under the United States Pastoral Provision of 1980 in several parishes of that country that have left the Episcopal Church. The same Pastoral Provision also permits, as an exception and on a case by case basis, on 9 November 2009, Pope Benedict XVI established provisions for the setting up of personal ordinariates for Anglicans who join the church
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Latin Church
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The Latin Church, commonly called Roman Catholic Church, sometimes Western Church, is the largest autonomous particular church sui iuris within the Catholic Church, applying Latin liturgical rites. There are 24 such sui iuris particular churches within the Catholic Church, all the other particular churches sui iuris, of which there are 23, originated farther east and are, therefore, collectively known as the Eastern Catholic Churches. Because of the migrations, members of all of these particular churches sui iuris are no longer confined to their areas of origin. A person is a member of or belongs to a particular church, a person also inherits or is of, a particular patrimony or rite. Since the rite has liturgical, theological, spiritual and disciplinary elements, Particular churches that inherit and perpetuate a particular patrimony are identified by metonymy with that patrimony. Accordingly, rite has been defined as a division of the Christian church using a distinctive liturgy, is considered equal to the Latin rite within the Church. It thus used the rite as a technical designation of what may now be called a particular church. Church or rite is used as a single heading in the United States Library of Congress classification of works. The last known use was Pope Pius XII in Humani generis who taught that the Mystical Body of Christ and the Roman Catholic Church are one. Most ecclesiologists - experts in the theology of the Church itself - instead use Roman Catholic to refer exclusively to the Latin Church. The reasons for this are that each of the 24 Catholic Churches sui iuris have a modifier - Maronite, Ukrainian, Roman, etc. - and that Latin and Roman are virtually interchangeable. Further, as Adrian Fortescue noted in his article in the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia, today, the most common Latin liturgical rites are the Roman Rite, the Ambrosian Rite, the Mozarabic Rite, and variations of the Roman Rite. The 23 Eastern Catholic Churches share five families of liturgical rites, the Latin liturgical rites, like the Armenian, are used only in a single sui iuris particular church. In the Eastern Churches these sacraments are usually administered immediately after baptism, celibacy, as a consequence of the duty to observe perfect continence, is obligatory for priests in the Latin Church. Rare exceptions are permitted for men who, after ministering as clergy in other churches and this contrasts with the discipline in most Eastern Catholic Churches. In the Latin Church, a man may not be admitted even to the diaconate unless he is legitimately destined to remain a deacon. Marriage after ordination is not possible, and attempting it can result in canonical penalties, Latin Mass Church of Rome Particular church General Roman Calendar Eastern Catholic Churches Catholic Encyclopedia, Latin Church
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Council of Trent
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The Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563 in Trento and Bologna, northern Italy, was one of the Roman Catholic Churchs most important ecumenical councils. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation. Four hundred years later, when Pope John XXIII initiated preparations for the Second Vatican Council, he affirmed the decrees it had issued, What was, still is. These addressed a range of subjects, including scripture, the Biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass. The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563, all in Trento, apart from the ninth to eleventh sessions held in Bologna during 1547, the consequences of the Council were also significant as regards the Churchs liturgy and practices. During its deliberations, the Council made the Vulgate the official example of the Biblical canon and commissioned the creation of a standard version, although this was not achieved until the 1590s. These, in turn, led to the codification of the Tridentine Mass, more than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg, after the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine fifty-two of Luthers theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters. Under Pope Clement VII, troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, raping, killing, burning, stealing, saint Peters Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. This, together with the Pontiffs ambivalence between France and Germany, led to his hesitation, Charles V strongly favoured a council, but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily. This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants, faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent. In reply to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X, Martin Luther burned the document, in 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII was vehemently against the idea of a council, after Pope Pius II, in his bull Execrabilis and his reply to the University of Cologne, set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance. Pope Paul III, seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea, Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council, the Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537 and it failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates
25.
Second Vatican Council
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The Second Vatican Council, fully the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council and informally known as Vatican II, addressed relations between the Catholic Church and the modern world. It was the twenty-first and most recent ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, many of these changes remain divisive among the Catholic faithful. At the same time, the worlds bishops faced challenges driven by political, social, economic, some of these bishops sought new ways of addressing those challenges. The First Vatican Council had been nearly a century before but had been cut short when the Italian Army entered the city of Rome at the end of Italian unification. Pope John XXIII, however, gave notice of his intention to convene the Council on 25 January 1959 and this sudden announcement, which caught the Curia by surprise, caused little initial official comment from Church insiders. In various discussions before the Council actually convened, John XXIII often said that it was time to open the windows and he invited other Christians outside the Catholic Church to send observers to the Council. Acceptances came from both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Protestant denominations as internal observers, but these observers did not cast votes in the approbation of the conciliar documents. Pope John XXIIIs announcement on 25 January 1959 of his intention to call a general council came as an even to the cardinals present. The Pontiff pre-announced the council under a full moon when the faithful with their candlelights gathered in St. Peters square, after which, he instructed the people to go back home and give their children a kiss of goodnight, from the Pope himself. He had tested the idea only ten days before one of them, his Cardinal Secretary of State Domenico Tardini. Although the Pope later said the idea came to him in a flash in his conversation with Tardini, two cardinals had earlier attempted to interest him in the idea. They were two of the most conservative, Ernesto Ruffini and Alfredo Ottaviani, who had already in 1948 proposed the idea to Pope Pius XII and who put it before John XXIII on 27 October 1958. These groups, composed mostly of members of the Roman Curia, produced 987 proposed constituting sessions, attendance varied in later sessions from 2,100 to over 2,300. In addition, a number of periti were available for theological consultation—a group that turned out to have a major influence as the council went forward. Seventeen Orthodox Churches and Protestant denominations sent observers, more than three dozen representatives of other Christian communities were present at the opening session, and the number grew to nearly 100 by the end of the 4th Council Sessions. Pope John XXIII opened the Council on 11 October 1962 in a public session, what is needed is that this certain and immutable doctrine, to which the faithful owe obedience, be studied afresh and reformulated in contemporary terms. For this deposit of faith, or truths which are contained in our time-honored teaching is one thing, roncalli, Angelo Giuseppe, Opening address, Council, Rome, IT.13 October 1962 marked the initial working session of the Council. That days agenda included the election for members of the ten conciliar commissions, each would have sixteen elected and eight appointed members, and were expected to do most of the work of the Council
26.
Eucharist
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The Eucharist /ˈjuːkərɪst/ is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches. Through the Eucharistic celebration Christians remember Christs sacrifice of himself on the cross, the elements of the Eucharist, bread and wine, are consecrated on an altar and consumed thereafter. Communicants may speak of receiving the Eucharist, as well as celebrating the Eucharist, Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. While all agree there is no perceptible change in the elements, Catholics believe that they actually become the body. Some Protestants view the Eucharist as an ordinance in which the ceremony is not as a specific channel of divine grace. Do this in remembrance of me, the term Eucharist is that by which the rite is referred by the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr. Today, the Eucharist is the still used by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians. Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring either Communion, one remains hungry, another gets drunk. Communion or Holy Communion are used by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation to mean the entire Eucharistic rite. The term Communion is derived from Latin communio, which translates Greek κοινωνία in 1 Corinthians 10,16, the bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ. The phrase appears five times in the New Testament in contexts which, according to some and it is the term used by the Plymouth Brethren. The Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar are common terms used by Catholics, Lutherans and some Anglicans for the consecrated elements, Sacrament of the Altar is in common use also among Lutherans. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term The Sacrament is used of the rite. Among the many terms used in the Catholic Church are Holy Mass, the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. The term Mass is probably derived from the fact that the Roman rite celebrates the Eucharist with unleavened bread and this explains why the Eastern Catholic Liturgies are never referred to as the Mass. Eastern rite Liturgies are celebrated with leavened bread, although the prevailing theory is that it is derived from the Latin word missa, a word used in the concluding formula of Mass in Latin, Ite, missa est. The reverse is more likely. The word dismissal probably came about because the Mass signaled the time for the Catechumens to leave, thus, the term Misa came to imply a mission, because at the end of the Mass the congregation are sent out to serve Christ
27.
Pre-Tridentine Mass
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Outside of Rome in the period before 1570, many other liturgical rites were in use, not only in Eastern Christianity, but also in the West. Some of the Western rites, such as the Mozarabic Rite, were unrelated to the Roman Rite that Pope Pius V revised and ordered to be adopted generally, but even the areas that at one time or another had accepted the Roman rite had soon introduced changes and additions. As a result, every province and almost every diocese had its local use, such as the Use of Sarum, the Use of York. In France there were traces of the Gallican Rite. For that reason, this article only the liturgy of the Mass as celebrated in Rome. In chapter 65, Justin Martyr says that the kiss of peace was given before the bread, the descriptions of the Mass liturgy in Rome by Hippolytus and Novatian are similar to Justins. It is unclear when the language of the changed from Greek to Latin. Pope Victor I, may have been the first to use Latin in the liturgy in Rome, others think Latin was finally adopted nearly a century later. The change was gradual, with both languages being used for a while. Pope Gregory I made a revision of the liturgy of the Mass, removing many things, changing a few, adding some, as his biographer, John the Deacon. He is credited with adding the words diesque nostros in tua pace disponas to the Hanc igitur, towards the end of the eighth century Charlemagne ordered the Roman rite of Mass to be used throughout his domains. Gallican influence is responsible for the introduction into the Roman rite of dramatic and symbolic such as the blessing of candles, ashes, palms. The recitation of the Credo after the Gospel is attributed to the influence of Emperor Henry II, Gallican influence explains the practice of incensing persons, introduced in the eleventh or twelfth century, before that time incense was burned only during processions. Private prayers for the priest to say before Communion were another novelty and these were produced in Milan, Venice, Paris and Lyon. Local Missals, such as the Parisian Missal, of which at least 16 printed editions appeared between 1481 and 1738, showed more important differences, source, Hoppin, Richard, Medieval Music, New York, Norton, pp.119,122. Roman Catholic Church Eucharist The Mass Tridentine Mass Mass of Paul VI Roman Missal Sarum rite Missale Aboense Use of York Stowe Missal Durham Rite Sodi, Manlio, Triacca, Achille Maria, atchley, E. G. Ordo Romanus Primus, Archive. Davies, Michael, A Short History of the Roman Mass, Sure server, based on Adrian Fortescues The Mass, father Adrian Fortescue, Liturgy of the Mass, Catholic Encyclopedia, New York, Robert Appleton by a renowned liturgist. Duchesne, Louis, McClure, ML, ed. Christian Worship, Its Origin and Evolution, tracts on the Mass, includes two variants of the Ordinary of the Sarum Mass and a Pre-Tridentine variant of the Curial Use of the Roman Mass
28.
Tridentine Mass
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The most widely used Mass liturgy in the world until the introduction of the Mass of Paul VI in 1969, it is celebrated in ecclesiastical Latin. Tridentine is derived from the Latin Tridentinus, related to the city of Tridentum, in 2007, Pope Benedict XVI issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, accompanied by a letter to the worlds bishops authorizing use of the Tridentine Mass and Ritual for competent priests. The Pope stated that the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal is to be considered a form of the Roman Rite, of which the 1970 Mass of Paul VI is the ordinary. Since that is the authorized extraordinary form, some refer to the 1962 Tridentine Mass as the extraordinary form of the Mass. In Masses celebrated without the people, Latin Rite Catholic priests are free to use either the 1962 Tridentine missal or the Ordinary Form missal. These Masses may — observing all the norms of law — also be attended by faithful who, of their own free will, permission to use the Tridentine Mass as parish liturgies may be given by the pastor or rector. In most countries, the used for celebrating the Tridentine Mass was Latin. Episcopal conferences were to decide, with the consent of the Holy See, what parts, if any. Most Old Catholics use the Tridentine Mass, either in the vernacular or in Latin, the Catholic Church uses the term extraordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass among other terms. The most widespread term for the rite, other than Tridentine Mass, is Latin Mass, likewise, the ordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass was promulgated in Latin and can be celebrated in that language. Occasionally the term Gregorian Rite is used when talking about the Tridentine Mass, as is, more frequently, Pope Benedict XVI declared it inappropriate to speak of the versions of the Roman Missal of before and after 1970 as if they were two rites. Rather, he said, it is a matter of a use of one. Traditionalist Catholics, whose characteristic is an attachment to the Tridentine Mass. Standardization was required also in order to prevent the introduction into the liturgy of Protestant ideas in the wake of the Protestant Reformation. Pope St. Pius V accordingly imposed uniformity by law in 1570 with the papal bull Quo primum and he allowed only those rites that were at least 200 years old to survive the promulgation of his 1570 Missal. The Carmelite, Carthusian and Dominican religious orders kept their rites, the rite of Braga, in northern Portugal, seems to have been practically abandoned, since 18 November 1971 that archdiocese authorizes its use only on an optional basis. This ended when Abbot Guéranger and others initiated in the 19th century a campaign to return to the Roman Missal, Pius Vs revision of the liturgy had as one of its declared aims the restoration of the Roman Missal to the original form and rite of the holy Fathers. Due to the limited resources available to his scholars, this aim was in fact not realised
29.
Mass of Paul VI
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It is now the ordinary or standard form of the Roman Rite Mass. In its official documents, the Church identifies the forms of the Roman Rite Mass by the editions of the Roman Missal used in celebrating them. Thus, in his motu proprio Summorum Pontificum of 7 July 2007, the names Mass of Paul VI and Pauline Mass are equivalent to this. In advance of the 1969 decision on the form of the revision of the liturgy, the section containing the unvarying part of the Mass is called Ordo Missae since at least 1634. In a speech he gave in 1976, Pope Paul VI unremarkably referred to this section as novus Ordo Missae. Later, some began to use Novus Ordo Missae, or simply Novus Ordo, traditionalist Catholics often use it in a pejorative manner, and sometimes employ it as a blanket condemnatory term for the present-day Church. However, Novus Ordo appears in no official Church document as a term for the form of the Roman Rite Mass. The current official text of the Mass of Paul VI in Latin is the typical edition of the revised Roman Missal, published in 2002 and reprinted with corrections. Translations into the languages have appeared, the English translation was promulgated in 2010 and was used progressively from September 2011. Two earlier typical editions of the revised Missal were issued in 1970 and 1975, for details of the Order of Mass in the Mass of Paul VI, see Mass. It envisaged only minor reforms of the liturgy itself, the most important changes it sought affected the calendar and it also focused on promoting Gregorian Chant. By the 1920s, the Liturgical Movement still did not advocate a revision of the rite of Mass. The priest reciting many of the most important prayers inaudibly, duplications such as the second Confiteor. Another objective of the Movement was the introduction of the vernacular language and this, it was believed, would assist the congregations spiritual development by enabling them to participate in the celebration of Mass with understanding. He granted permission for the use of languages in the renewal of baptismal promises in the Easter Vigil service. In section 4 of Mediator Dei, Pope Pius XII praised the work of these scholars, for instance, the general intercessions or prayer of the faithful, of which a slight trace remained in the isolated single word Oremus, had not been restored to the Mass liturgy. The Roman Missal was revised on a number of occasions after 1570, after only 34 years, Pope Clement VIII made a general revision, other Popes added new feasts or made other minor adjustments. It was not until the twentieth century, however, that began on a more radical rewriting
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Extraordinary form of the Roman Rite
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The full text of Article 1 of the motu proprio is, Art 1. The Roman Missal promulgated by Pope Paul VI is the expression of the lex orandi of the Catholic Church of the Latin rite. These two expressions of the Churchs lex orandi will in no way lead to a division in the Churchs lex credendi and it is not appropriate to speak of these two versions of the Roman Missal as if they were two Rites. Rather, it is a matter of a use of one. At the time of the introduction of the new Missal, it did not seem necessary to issue specific norms for the use of the earlier Missal. The Extraordinary Form of the Mass - Explained Summorum Pontificum Tridentine Mass
31.
Summorum Pontificum
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The document, dated 7 July 2007 and in force since 14 September 2007, was released along with a letter in which Pope Benedict explained his reasons for issuing it. The document replaced the motu proprio Ecclesia Dei of 1988, which allowed individual bishops to establish places where Mass could be using the 1962 Missal. As is customary for papal documents, the motu proprio is referred to by its incipit, Supreme Pontiff is a title of the popes, and the opening sentence states that it has always been a concern of the Supreme Pontiffs that the Church should offer fitting worship to God. Pope Benedict XVI released the document after much reflection, numerous consultations, in article 1 of the document, he spoke of the typical edition of the Roman Missal, which was promulgated by Blessed John XXIII in 1962, as never abrogated. In the letter he specified this as never juridically abrogated, for such a celebration with either Missal, the priest needs no permission from the Apostolic See or from his own Ordinary. g. He also allowed bishops, on the condition, to use the earlier Pontifical in administering Confirmation. Bishops may establish personal parishes or appoint chaplains for administering the sacraments according to the old form, the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei, whose role the document confirmed, was given authority to ensure observance of the rules laid down in the document. Stable groups of the mentioned in article 5 whose parish priest does not grant them their request should inform the diocesan bishop. If he does not wish to do so, they should inform the Pontifical Commission and he recognised that there have been exaggerations and at times social aspects unduly linked to the attitude of the faithful attached to the ancient Latin liturgical tradition. This will bring out the spiritual richness and the depth of this Missal. Benedict cited interior reconciliation in the heart of the Church as a reason for the motu proprio. Traditionalist groups, such as the Society of St, the total exclusion of the new rite would not in fact be consistent with the recognition of its value and holiness. Thus, while opening the door to the Tridentine Mass, the Pope expects the SSPX to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Mass of Paul VI, SSPX Superior General, Bishop Fellay wrote, The letter which accompanies the Motu Proprio does not hide however the difficulties that still remain. Fellay then stated that the Society is eager after the decree of excommunication which still affects its bishops has been withdrawn—to consider more serenely the disputed doctrinal issues, the Pope stressed, There is no contradiction between the two editions of the Roman Missal. In the history of the liturgy there is growth and progress, what earlier generations held as sacred, remains sacred and great for us too, and it cannot be all of a sudden entirely forbidden or even considered harmful. It behooves all of us to preserve the riches which have developed in the Church’s faith and prayer and he continued by demanding recognition also of the value and holiness of celebration according to the new books. For such a celebration with either Missal, the priest need no permission from the Apostolic See or from his own Ordinary, the celebrations of Mass mentioned above. May be attended also by members of the lay faithful who spontaneously request to do so, in churches other than parish or conventual churches, it is for the rector of the church to grant the above permission
32.
Alb
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The alb, one of the liturgical vestments of the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches, is an ample white garment coming down to the ankles and is usually girdled with a cincture. It is simply the long, white linen tunic used by the Romans, as a simple derivative of ordinary first-century clothing, the alb was adopted very early by Christians, and especially by the clergy for the Eucharistic liturgy. In early Medieval Europe it was normally worn by secular clergy in non-liturgical contexts. If the alb does not completely cover the collar, an amice is often worn underneath the alb, the shortening of the alb for use outside a church has given rise to the surplice, and its cousin the rochet, worn by canons and bishops. Post-Tridentine albs often were made with lace, since then, this detail has fallen out of style, except in parts of the Anglo-Catholic movement and some very traditional Arab Catholic parishes. A chasuble-alb is a contemporary Eucharistic vestment that combines features of the chasuble and it is always white in colour. A stole of the colour appointed for the Mass of the day is worn outside it, in place of the normal white alb, a cassock-alb is a vestment that combines features of the cassock and alb. It developed as a convenient undergarment worn by clergy and as an alternative to the alb for deacons
33.
Transubstantiation
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The Catholic Church teaches that the substance, or essence, of the Eucharistic offering is changed into both the body and blood of Christ. All that is accessible to the senses remains unchanged, what remains unaltered is also referred to as the accidents of the bread and wine, but the term accidents is not used in the official definition of the doctrine by the Council of Trent. The manner in which the change occurs, the Catholic Church teaches, is a mystery, The signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ. The precise terminology to be used to refer to the nature Eucharist, in the Greek Orthodox Church, the doctrine has been discussed under the term of metousiosis, coined as a direct loan-translation of transsubstantiatio in the 17th century. In Eastern Orthodoxy in general, the Mystery of the Eucharist is more commonly discussed using alternative terms such as trans-elementation, re-ordination, or simply change. The early Christians who use these terms also speak of it as the flesh and blood of Christ, the same flesh and blood which suffered and died on the cross. Matthew 7,6 A letter by Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans, written in AD106 says, I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ. In about 200 AD, Tertullian wrote, Taking bread and distributing it to his disciples he made it his own body by saying, This is my body, on the other hand, there would not have been a figure unless there was a true body. The Apostolic Constitutions says, Let the bishop give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ, and let him that receiveth say, Amen. And let the deacon take the cup, and when he gives it, say, The blood of Christ, the cup of life, and let him that drinketh say, Amen. Saint Ambrose of Milan wrote, Perhaps you will say, I see something else, how is it that you assert that I receive the Body of Christ. Let us prove that this is not what nature made, but what the blessing consecrated, for that sacrament which you receive is made what it is by the word of Christ. But if the word of Elijah had such power as to bring fire from heaven. Why do you seek the order of nature in the Body of Christ, seeing that the Lord Jesus Himself was born of a Virgin and it is the true Flesh of Christ which was crucified and buried, this is then truly the Sacrament of His Body. The Lord Jesus Himself proclaims, This Is My Body, before the blessing of the heavenly words another nature is spoken of, after the consecration the Body is signified. He Himself speaks of His Blood, before the consecration it has another name, after it is called Blood. And you say, Amen, that is, It is true, Let the heart within confess what the mouth utters, let the soul feel what the voice speaks. Other fourth-century Christian writers say that in the Eucharist there occurs a change, transelementation, transformation, transposing, by the end of the 12th century the term was in widespread use
34.
Body of Christ
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It may also refer to Christs post-resurrection body in Heaven. There are significant differences in how Christians understand the term as used by Christ at the Last Supper, for some it may be symbolic, for others it becomes a more literal or mystical understanding. As used by Saint Paul in the Pauline epistles it refers to the Christian Church as a group of believers, the Church teachings refer to this change as one of the substance or transubstantiation. It rejects the term consubstantiation, which suggests that the substance or reality of the remains after the consecration. At the same time, the Church holds that all that can be examined directly or by scientific investigation – what in philosophy are called the accidents – remains quite unchanged. In the Roman Rite, the priest or other minister who gives the consecrated host to a communicant says, The body of Christ, indicating what is held to be the reality of what is given. Since the consecrated bread is believed to be the body of Christ and sacred and this is primarily for the purpose of taking Communion to the sick, but also to serve as a focal point for private devotion and prayer. On appropriate occasions, there may be public Eucharistic adoration, the Eastern Orthodox Church also believes that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ. Historically, various Protestant theologians expressed different opinions regarding the Eucharist, in contrast to Zwingli, Martin Luther reasoned that because divinity involves omnipresence, the body of Christ can be present in the Eucharist because of its participation in the divine nature. A long debate took place between Luther and Zwingli on the issue of omnipresence, with providing a variety of theological and biblical arguments to support his view. In current Lutheran teachings, the Body of Christ is used in a similar form to the Catholic teachings. For the Lutheran, the Body of Christ is the title of the bread in the Eucharist. It is also said in the Words of Institution – see Luthers Small Catechism, a similar teaching is taught in various Methodist churches. John Calvin disagreed with Luthers reasoning about omnipresence and, like Zwingli, Calvin stated that Christs body was present in the first Eucharist during the Last Supper, but was thereafter in heaven. Melanchton was accused of supporting Calvin, and the debates between the various groups eventually caused a rift between the followers of Luther and Zwingli. For as the body is one, and hath many members, for by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles, whether we be bond or free, and have been all made to drink into one Spirit. For the body is not one member, but many, —1 Corinthians 12, 12-14 The first meaning that Catholics attach to the expression Body of Christ is the Catholic Church. In the same passage, it also quotes Saint Augustine, Let us rejoice then and give thanks that we have not only Christians
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Jesus
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In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person. There is no discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the days of Christianity theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures. In the period following the Apostolic Age, specific beliefs such as Arianism and Docetism were criticized. On the other end of the spectrum, Docetism argued that Jesus physical body was an illusion, docetic teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of Antioch and were eventually abandoned by proto-orthodox Christians. However, after the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos, historically in the Alexandrian school of christology, Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos paradoxically humanized in history, a divine Person who became enfleshed, uniting himself to the human nature. The views of these schools can be summarized as follows, Alexandria, Antioch, Logos assumes a specific human being The First Council of Ephesus in 431 debated a number of views regarding the Person of Christ. At the same gathering the council debated the doctrines of monophysitism or miaphysitism. The council rejected Nestorianism and adopted the term hypostatic union, referring to divine, the language used in the 431 declaration was further refined at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. However, the Chalcedon creed was not accepted by all Christians, because Saint Augustine died in 430 he did not participate in the Council of Ephesus in 431 or Chalcedon in 451, but his ideas had some impact on both councils. On the other hand, the major theological figure of the Middle Ages. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. John Calvin maintained that there was no element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the Work of Christ in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ, the study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Balthasar argued that the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the absorption of human attributes, thus in his view the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine
36.
Sacramental bread
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Sacramental bread, sometimes called altar bread, Communion bread, the Lamb or simply the host, is the bread which is used in the Christian ritual of the Eucharist. The word hostia is Latin for sacrificial animal, the sacrifice of Jesus according to Christian theology puts an end to the need for animal sacrifice as had been practiced in the Jerusalem Temple and all blood sacrifice once-for-all. The word was retained to describe the bread of Eucharist as a representation of the Christs sacrifice. The Orthodox Church and Eastern-rite Roman Catholic churches use leavened bread for the Eucharist, thus, the sacramental bread symbolizes the Resurrected Christ. The hostia or sacramental bread, known as prosphorá or a πρόσφορον may be out of only four ingredients, fine wheat flour, pure water, yeast. Sometimes holy water will be sprinkled into the dough or on the kneading trough at the beginning of the process. The baking may only be performed by a believing Orthodox Christian in good standing—having preferably been recently to Confession, before baking, each loaf is formed by placing two disks of dough, one on top of the other, and stamping it with a special liturgical seal. The prosphora should be fresh and not stale or moldy when presented at the altar for use in the Divine Liturgy, often several prosphora will be baked and offered by the faithful, and the priest chooses the best one for the Lamb that will be consecrated. The remaining loaves are blessed and offered back to the congregation after the end of the Divine Liturgy, a Hostia is a portion of bread used for Holy Communion in many Christian churches. In Western Christianity the host is often a thin, round unleavened wafer, the word host is derived from the Latin hostia, which means sacrificial victim. The term can be used to describe the bread both before and after consecration, though it is correct to use it after consecration—altar bread being preferred before consecration. Western theology teaches that at the Words of Institution the bread is changed or altered into the Body of Christ, hosts are often made by nuns as a means of supporting their religious communities. In the Latin Rite, unleavened bread is used as in the Jewish Passover or Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic Churches use leavened bread for Prosphora. The Armenian Catholic Church, the Syro-Malabar Church and the Maronite Church have adopted the use of unleavened bread, some traditions proscribe the use of spiced, flavored or sweetened hosts, while others allow it. However, both Eastern and Western traditions insist that the bread must be made from wheat, the Code of Canon Law, Canon 924 requires that the hosts be made from wheat flour and water only and recently made so that there is no danger of spoiling. The General Instruction of the Roman Missal §321 recommends that the eucharistic bread, be made in such a way that the priest at Mass with a congregation is able in practice to break it into parts for distribution to at least some of the faithful. In the varying Protestant denominations, there is a variety of practices concerning the sacramental bread used. Some, such as the Christian Congregation use leavened loaves of bread, others, such as Lutherans, continue to use unleavened wafers like the Roman Catholics, reformed Christians use rolls which are broken and distributed to symbolize their belief that Christ is not physically present in the bread
37.
Incense
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Incense is aromatic biotic material which releases fragrant smoke when burned. The term refers to the material itself, rather than to the aroma that it produces, Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, and in therapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be used as a simple deodorant or insectifuge, Incense is composed of aromatic plant materials, often combined with essential oils. The forms taken by incense differ with the culture, and have changed with advances in technology. Incense can generally be separated into two types, indirect-burning and direct-burning. Indirect-burning incense is not capable of burning on its own, direct-burning incense is lit directly by a flame and then fanned or blown out, leaving a glowing ember that smoulders and releases fragrance. Direct-burning incense is either a paste formed around a bamboo stick, the word incense comes from Latin for incendere meaning to burn. Combustible bouquets were used by the ancient Egyptians, who employed incense within both pragmatic and mystical capacities, Incense was burnt to counteract or obscure malodorous products of human habitation, but was widely perceived to also deter malevolent demons and appease the gods with its pleasant aroma. One of the oldest extant incense burners originates from the 5th dynasty, the Temple of Deir-el-Bahari in Egypt contains a series of carvings that depict an expedition for incense. The Babylonians used incense while offering prayers to divining oracles, Incense spread from there to Greece and Rome. Incense burners have been found in the Indus Civilization, evidence suggests oils were used mainly for their aroma. India also adopted techniques from East Asia, adapting the inherited formulation to encompass aromatic roots and this comprised the initial usage of subterranean plant parts within the fabrication of incense. New herbs like Sarsaparilla seeds, frankincense, and cypress were used by Indians for incense, at around 2000 BCE, Ancient China began the use of incense in the religious sense, namely for worship. Incense was used by Chinese cultures from Neolithic times and became widespread in the Xia, Shang. Incense usage reached its peak during the Song Dynasty with numerous buildings erected specifically for incense ceremonies, during the 14th century Shogunate, a samurai warrior might perfume his helmet and armor with incense to achieve an aura of invincibility. It wasnt until the Muromachi Era during the 15th and 16th century that incense appreciation spread to the upper, a variety of materials have been used in making incense. Historically there has been a preference for using locally available ingredients, for example, sage and cedar were used by the indigenous peoples of North America. Trading in incense materials comprised a part of commerce along the Silk Road and other trade routes
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