1.
Ukrainian language
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Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
2.
Latin alphabet
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The Latin alphabet is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the script of the English language and is often referred to simply as the alphabet in English. It is an alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, the phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles developed. Two such styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters, due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. The Latin alphabet started out as uppercase serifed letters known as roman square capitals, the lowercase letters evolved through cursive styles that developed to adapt the formerly inscribed alphabet to being written with a pen. Throughout the ages, many stylistic variations of each letter have evolved that are still identified as being the same letter. From the Cumae alphabet, the Etruscan alphabet was derived, the Latins ultimately adopted 21 of the original 26 Etruscan letters. Gaius Julius Hyginus, who recorded much Roman mythology, mentions in Fab, the Parcae, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos invented seven Greek letters — A B H T I Y. Others say that Mercury invented them from the flight of cranes, which, palamedes, too, son of Nauplius, invented eleven letters, Simonides, too, invented four letters — Ó E Z PH, Epicharmus of Sicily, two — P and PS. The Greek letters Mercury is said to have brought to Egypt, Cadmus in exile from Arcadia, took them to Italy, and his mother Carmenta changed them to Latin to the number of 15. Apollo on the added the rest. The original Latin alphabet was, The oldest Latin inscriptions do not distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, representing both by C, K and Q according to position, K was used before A, Q was used before O or V, C was used elsewhere. This is explained by the fact that the Etruscan language did not make this distinction, C originated as a turned form of Greek Gamma and Q from Greek Koppa. In later Latin, K survived only in a few such as Kalendae, Q survived only before V. G was later invented to distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, it was simply a C with an additional diacritic. C stood for /ɡ/ I stood for both /i/ and /j/, V stood for both /u/ and /w/. K was marginalized in favour of C, which stood for both /ɡ/ and /k/
3.
Ukrainian alphabet
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The Ukrainian alphabet is the set of letters used to write Ukrainian, the official language of Ukraine. It is one of the variations of the Cyrillic script. In Ukrainian, it is called українська абетка, from the initial letters а and б, алфавіт, or, archaically, азбука, from the acrophonic early Cyrillic letter names азъ and буки. Ukrainian text is romanized, written in the Latin alphabet. See romanization of Ukrainian for details of specific romanization systems, There have also been several historical proposals for a native Latin alphabet for Ukrainian, but none have caught on. The alphabet comprises thirty-three letters, representing thirty-eight phonemes and an additional sign, Ukrainian orthography is based on the phonemic principle, with one letter generally corresponding to one phoneme. The orthography also has cases in which semantic, historical, twenty letters represent consonants, ten vowels, and two semivowels. The soft sign ь has no phonetic value itself but indicates softening of a preceding consonant. Also, certain consonants are palatalized when followed by vowels, д, з, л, н, с, т, ц and дз are softened when they are followed by a soft vowel. The apostrophe negates palatalization in places that it would be applied by normal orthographic rules and it is also retained in transliterations from the Latin alphabet, Кот-д’Івуар and О’Тул. There are other exceptions to the principle in the alphabet. Some letters represent two phonemes, щ /ʂʈ͡ʂ/, ї /ji/ or /jɪ/, and є /jɛ/, ю /ju/, the digraphs дз and дж are normally used to represent single affricates /d͡z/ and /ɖ͡ʐ/. Palatalization of consonants before е, у, а is indicated by writing the corresponding letter є, ю, я instead. Compared to other Cyrillic alphabets, the modern Ukrainian alphabet is the most similar to those of the other East Slavic languages, Belarusian, Russian, and Rusyn. It has retained the two early Cyrillic letters i and izhe. to represent related sounds /i/ and /ɪ/ as well as the two historical forms e and ye. Unique letters are these, ge, used for the less-common velar plosive /ɡ/ sound, in Ukrainian Common Slavic г, which represents a glottal fricative /ɦ/. yi /ji/ or /jɪ/. The apostrophe is used in Belarusian, and the same function is served in Russian by the hard sign. The Cyrillic script was a system developed in the First Bulgarian Empire in the tenth century
4.
Cyrillic script
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The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
5.
Pronunciation
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Pronunciation is the way a word or a language is spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word. If one is said to have correct pronunciation, then it refers to both within a particular dialect, syllables are counted as units of sound that they use in their language. The branch of linguistics which studies these units of sound is phonetics, phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called phonemes, the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or phonology. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the International Phonetic Alphabet
6.
Keyboard layout
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A keyboard layout is any specific mechanical, visual, or functional arrangement of the keys, legends, or key-meaning associations of a computer, typewriter, or other typographic keyboard. Mechanical layout The placements and keys of a keyboard, visual layout The arrangement of the legends that appear on the keys of a keyboard. Functional layout The arrangement of the associations, determined in software. Most computer keyboards are designed to send scancodes to the operating system, from there, the series of scancodes is converted into a character stream by keyboard layout software. This allows a keyboard to be dynamically mapped to any number of layouts without switching hardware components – merely by changing the software that interprets the keystrokes. It is usually possible for a user to change keyboard operation. There is some variation between different keyboard models in the mechanical layout – i. e. how many there are. However, differences between national layouts are mostly due to different selections and placements of symbols on the character keys, the core section of a keyboard comprises character keys, which can be used to type letters and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing letters and punctuation, a row for typing digits and special symbols. The positioning of the keys is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter. Besides the character keys, a keyboard incorporates special keys that do nothing by themselves, for example, the ⇧ Shift key can be used to alter the output of character keys, whereas the Ctrl and Alt keys trigger special operations when used in concert with other keys. Typically, a key is held down while another key is struck. To facilitate this, modifier keys usually come in pairs, one functionally identical key for each hand, so holding a modifier key with one hand leaves the other hand free to strike another key. An alphanumeric key labeled with only a letter can generally be struck to type either a lower case or capital letter. The ⇧ Shift key is used to type the upper of two symbols engraved on a given key, the lower being typed without using the modifier key. The English alphanumeric keyboard has a key for each of the letters A–Z, along with keys for punctuation. In many other languages there are additional letters or symbols, which also need to be available on the keyboard, to make room for additional symbols, keyboards often have what is effectively a secondary shift key, labeled AltGr. It can be used to type an extra symbol in addition to the two otherwise available with a key, and using it simultaneously with the Shift key may even give access to a fourth symbol
7.
Romanization
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Romanization, in linguistics, is the conversion of writing from a different writing system to the Roman script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics, source, or donor language – A system may be tailored to romanize text from a particular language, or a series of languages, or for any language in a particular writing system. A language-specific system typically preserves language features like pronunciation, while the one may be better for cataloguing international texts. Target, or receiver language – Most systems are intended for an audience that speaks or reads a particular language and this affects the ease of creation, digital storage and transmission, reproduction, and reading of the romanized text. Reversibility – Whether or not the original can be restored from the converted text, some reversible systems allow for an irreversible simplified version. Most romanizations are intended to enable the reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language, the popular Hepburn romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription, for most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves tradeoffs between the two extremes. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written language, written native language. Reducing the number of processes, i. e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription, Romanization standards include the following, Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Adopted by the International Convention of Orientalist Scholars in Rome. It is the basis for the very influential Hans Wehr dictionary, qalam, A system that focuses upon preserving the spelling, rather than the pronunciation, and uses mixed case ISO 233-2, Simplified transliteration. Buckwalter transliteration, Developed at Xerox by Tim Buckwalter, doesnt require unusual diacritics ALA-LC Arabic chat alphabet There are romanization systems for both Modern and Ancient Greek. ALA-LC Beta Code Greeklish ISO843 The Hebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards, ANSI Z39.25 UNGEGN ISO259, ALA-LC The Brahmic family of abugidas is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a tradition in the west to study Sanskrit. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones, ISO15919, A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO15919 standard. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic consonants, see also Transliteration of Indic scripts, how to use ISO15919
8.
Ukrainian Latin alphabet
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A Latin alphabet for the Ukrainian language has been proposed or imposed several times in the history in Ukraine, but has never challenged the conventional Cyrillic Ukrainian alphabet. The Ukrainian literary language has been written with the Cyrillic script, in a tradition going back to the introduction of Christianity, proposals for Latinization, if not imposed for outright political reasons, have always been politically charged, and have never been generally accepted. Although some proposals to create an official Latin alphabet for Ukrainian language have been expressed lately by national intelligentsia, technically, most have resembled the linguistically related Polish and Czech alphabets. Ukrainian was occasionally written in the Latin script as far back as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in using the Polish. The use of the Latin script for Ukrainian was promoted by authorities in Galicia under the Austrian Habsburg Empire, franc Miklošič developed a Latin alphabet for Ukrainian in 1852, based on the Polish and Czech alphabets. This initiative was taken into interest by Czech politician Josef Jireček and this started a fierce publicly debated War of the Alphabets, and in the end the Latin alphabet was rejected. Ukrainian books continued to be published in Cyrillic, while the Latin alphabet was used in editions for those who read Polish only in Galicia, Podlaskie. A Latin alphabet for Ukrainian publications was also imposed in Romanian Bessarabia, Bukovina and Dobrudja and it was also used by immigrants from these regions in the United States. The Ems Ukaz banning Ukrainian-language publication doomed this reform to obscurity, in Soviet Ukraine, during the 1927 orthographical conference in Kharkiv, linguists M. Johansen, B. Tkačenko, and M. Nakonečnyj proposed the application of the more international Latin script to Ukrainian, later, Vasyl Simovych was a proponent of the Latin script during the tentative latinization in the USSR. Some letters borrowed from Polish were used in the Ukrainian Łatynka as stated above, although never broadly accepted, it was used mostly by Ukrainians living in territories near Poland. The orthography is explained in Łatynycia, a western Ukrainian publication of the 1900s, as example, the Introduction of Josyp Łozynśkyjs Ruskoje Wesile, Perédmowa W tym opysi skazuju, jaksia wesile po sełach meży prostym ruskim ludom widprawlaje. Ne mohu jednako utrymowaty, jakoby toj sposób wesile widprawlaty wsiude newidminni był zachowanym, bo hdenekodyj szczoś dodajut, hdeinde szczoś wypuskajut, I toj sposób opysałjem w nynijszуj knyżoczci dodajuczy jednako hdenekodyj i miscowyi widminy. Nykotorych obradkiw był jem sam okozritelnym świdkom, Josef Jireček proposed an alphabet based more closely on Czech orthography. In modern Ukraine, use of Latin alphabets for the Ukrainian language is very rare, however, discussions of united format of Latynka and its status still continue. The most popular versions are Luchukivka and Ukrainian Gajica. Comparison of two traditional and two versions of Ukrainian Latin alphabet in example of the national anthem of Ukraine. In Volodymyr Kubijovyč, ed. Ukraine, A Concise Encyclopædia, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Ruthenian Wedding Sample Text Contemporary literature concerning the Alphabet Wars, Markijan Szaszkewicz
9.
West Slavic languages
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The West Slavic languages are a subdivision of the Slavic language group that includes Czech, Polish, Slovak, Silesian, Kashubian, Lower Sorbian and Upper Sorbian. The West Slavic languages are all written using Latin script, in contrast to the Cyrillic-using East Slavic branch, the early Slavic expansion reached Central Europe in c. the 7th century, and the West Slavic dialects diverged from Common Slavic over the following centuries. West Slavic polities of the 9th century include the Principality of Nitra, the West Slavic tribes settled on the eastern fringes of the Carolingian Empire, along the Limes Saxoniae. The Obotrites were given territories by Charlemagne in exchange for their support in his war against the Saxons, in the high medieval period, the West Slavic tribes were again pushed to the east by the incipient German Ostsiedlung, decisively so following the Wendish Crusade in the 11th century. The Sorbs and other Polabian Slavs like Obodrites and Veleti came under the domination of the Holy Roman Empire and were strongly Germanized. The central Polish tribe of the Polans established their own state – the Duchy of Poland – in the 10th century under Duke Mieszko I, the Bohemians established the Duchy of Bohemia in the 9th century, which was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in the early 11th century. At the end of the 12th century the duchy was raised to the status of kingdom, lusatia, the homeland of the remaining Sorbs, became a crown land of Bohemia in the 11th century, and Silesia followed suit in 1335. The Slovaks, on the hand, never became part of the Holy Roman Empire. Hungary fell under Habsburg rule alongside Austria and Bohemia in the 16th century, thus uniting the Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, West Slavs Comparison of Czech and Slovak
10.
Ruthenian language
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Ruthenian was the group of varieties of Eastern Slavonic spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The written form is also called Chancery Slavonic by Lithuanian linguists, scholars do not agree whether Ruthenian was a separate language, or a Western dialect or set of dialects of Old East Slavic, but it is agreed that Ruthenian has a close genetic relationship with it. Old East Slavic was the language used in Kievan Rus. Ruthenian can be seen as a predecessor of modern Belarusian, Rusyn, indeed, all these languages, from Old East Slavic to Rusyn, have been labelled as Ruthenian. In modern texts, the language in question is sometimes called Old Belarusian or starabelaruskaya mova, as Ruthenian was always in a kind of diglossic opposition to Church Slavonic, this vernacular language was and still is often called prosta mova, literally simple language. On the other hand, there exists a school of thought that Old Belarusian, names in contemporary use Ruthenian — by the contemporaries, but, generally, not in contemporary Russia. Simple Ruthenian or simple talk — publisher Grigoriy Khodkevich, Lithuanian — possibly, exclusive reference to it in the contemporary Russia. West Russian, language or dialect — chiefly by the supporters of the concept of the Proto-Russian phase, esp. since the end of the 19th century, e. g. by Karskiy, Russian Wikipedia uses the term West Russian written language. Belarusian — rarely in contemporary Russia, lithuanian-Russian — by 19th-century Russian researchers Keppen, archbishop Filaret, Sakharov, Karatayev. Lithuanian-Slavonic — by 19th-century Russian researcher Baranovskiy, ruski — used by Norman Davies in Vanished Kingdoms, The History of Half-Forgotten Europe. Both were usually called Ruskij or Slovenskij, only when a differentiation between the language of Muscovy and the one of Lithuania was needed was the former called Moskovskij Muscovite. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania came under direct administration by the Polish Crown. It is possible that this resulted in differences concerning the status of Ruthenian as an official language, in his 1827 Little Russian Folksongs Mykhaylo Maksymovych used a new orthography for the Ukrainian language which was based on etymology. Maksymovychivka looked quite similar to Russian, but it was a first step towards an independent orthography, the split between literary Ruthenian and the successor literary languages can be seen at once in the newly designed Belarusian and Ukrainian orthographies. After that Belarusian only survived as a spoken language with almost no written tradition until the mid-19th century. For disambiguation, in English these people are called by the native form of their name. Thus, in the 19th century, the literary Ruthenian language had evolved into three modern literary languages, for their further development, see Belarusian language, Rusyn language, and Ukrainian language. Ukrainian language Belarusian language Rusyn language East Slavic languages Brogi Bercoff, Giovanna, “Plurilingualism in Eastern Slavic culture of the 17th century, The case of Simeon Polockij. ”In, Slavia, Časopis pro slovanskou filologii, danylenko, Andrii, Prostaja mova, Kitab, and Polissian Standard
11.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
12.
Serbo-Croatian language
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It is a pluricentric language with four mutually intelligible standard varieties. South Slavic dialects historically formed a continuum, the turbulent history of the area, particularly due to expansion of the Ottoman Empire, resulted in a patchwork of dialectal and religious differences. Due to population migrations, Shtokavian became the most widespread in the western Balkans, Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs differ in religion and were historically often part of different cultural circles, although a large part of the nations have lived side by side under foreign overlords. Serbo-Croatian was standardized in the mid-19th-century Vienna Literary Agreement by Croatian and Serbian writers and philologists, from the very beginning, there were slightly different literary Serbian and Croatian standards, although both were based on the same Shtokavian subdialect, Eastern Herzegovinian. In the 20th century, Serbo-Croatian served as the language of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The breakup of Yugoslavia affected language attitudes, so that social conceptions of the language separated on ethnic, since the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bosnian has likewise been established as an official standard in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there is an ongoing movement to codify a separate Montenegrin standard. Serbo-Croatian thus generally goes by the ethnic names Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, like other South Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian has a simple phonology, with the common five-vowel system and twenty-five consonants. Its grammar evolved from Common Slavic, with inflection, preserving seven grammatical cases in nouns, pronouns. Verbs exhibit imperfective or perfective aspect, with a complex tense system. Serbo-Croatian is a language with flexible word order, subject–verb–object being the default. It can be written in Serbian Cyrillic or Gajs Latin alphabet, whose thirty letters mutually map one-to-one, throughout the history of the South Slavs, the vernacular, literary, and written languages of the various regions and ethnicities developed and diverged independently. Prior to the 19th century, they were collectively called Illyric, Slavic, at that time, Serb and Croat lands were still part of the Ottoman and Austrian Empires. Officially, the language was called variously Serbo-Croat, Croato-Serbian, Serbian and Croatian, Croatian and Serbian, Serbian or Croatian, Croatian or Serbian, today, use of the term Serbo-Croatian is controversial due to the prejudice that nation and language must match. Old Church Slavonic was adopted as the language of the liturgy and this language was gradually adapted to non-liturgical purposes and became known as the Croatian version of Old Slavonic. The two variants of the language, liturgical and non-liturgical, continued to be a part of the Glagolitic service as late as the middle of the 19th century, the earliest known Croatian Church Slavonic Glagolitic manuscripts are the Glagolita Clozianus and the Vienna Folia from the 11th century. Serbo-Croatian competed with the established literary languages of Latin and Old Slavonic in the west and Persian. Old Slavonic developed into the Serbo-Croatian variant of Church Slavonic between the 12th and 16th centuries, the Baška tablet from the late 11th century was written in Glagolitic. It is a stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy
13.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
14.
Polish alphabet
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The Polish alphabet is the script of the Polish language, the basis for the Polish system of orthography. It is based on the Latin alphabet but includes certain letters with diacritics, the kreska or acute accent, the overdot or kropka, the tail or ogonek, and the stroke. The letters q, v and x, which are used only in words, are frequently not considered part of the Polish alphabet. However, prior to the standardization of the Polish language, the x was sometimes used in place of ks. Modified variations of the Polish alphabet are used for writing Silesian and Kashubian, whereas the Sorbian languages use a mixture of the Polish, when Q, V and X are excluded, there are 32 letters in the Polish alphabet,9 vowels and 23 consonants. Diacritics are shown for the sake of clarity, for more information about the sounds, see Polish phonology. ^ Sequences /t. t͡ʂ d. d͡ʐ/ may be pronounced as geminates, ^ /ɘ/ is most often transcribed as /ɨ/, sometimes as /ɪ/. The letters q, v, and x do not belong to the Polish alphabet, in loanwords they are often replaced by kw, w, and ks, respectively. For digraphs and other rules about spelling and the corresponding pronunciations, the spoken Polish names of the letters are given in the table under Letters above. The additional letters Q, V and X are named ku, fau, some letters may be referred to in alternative ways, often consisting of just the sound of the letter. For example, Y may be called y rather than igrek, when giving the spelling of words, certain letters may be said in more emphatic ways to distinguish them from other identically pronounced characters. For example, H may be referred to as samo h to distinguish it from CH, the letter Ż may be called żet z kropką to distinguish it from RZ. The letter U may be called u otwarte, to distinguish it from Ó, Polish alphabetical ordering uses the order of letters as in the table under Letters above. Q, V and X, if present, take their positions in the Latin alphabet. Note that Polish letters with diacritics are treated as independent letters in alphabetical ordering. For example, być comes after bycie, the diacritic letters also have their own sections in dictionaries. Digraphs are not given any special treatment in alphabetical ordering, for example, ch is treated simply as c followed by h, and not as a single letter as in Czech. There are several systems for encoding the Polish alphabet for computers, all letters of the Polish alphabet are included in Unicode, and thus Unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 can be used
15.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
16.
BSI Group
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BSI Group, also known as the British Standards Institution, is the national standards body of the United Kingdom. BSI produces technical standards on a range of products and services. BSI Group was founded as the Engineering Standards Committee in London in 1901, in 1998 a revision of the Charter enabled the organization to diversify and acquire other businesses, and the trading name was changed to BSI Group. The Group now operates in 182 countries, the core business remains standards and standards related services, although the majority of the Groups revenue comes from management systems assessment and certification work. BSI produces British Standards, and, as the UK’s National Standards Body, is responsible for the UK publication, in English, of international. BSI is obliged to adopt and publish all European Standards as identical British Standards, however, it has the option to adopt and publish international standards. In response to demands, BSI also produces commissioned standards products such as Publicly Available Specifications, Private Standards. These products are commissioned by organizations and trade associations to meet their needs for standardised specifications. Because they are not subject to the consultation and consensus requirements as formal standards. BSI also publishes standards-related books, CD-ROMs, subscription products and web-based solutions as well as providing training on standards-related issues, with 80,000 clients, BSI Group is one of the world’s largest certification bodies. It audits and provides certification to companies worldwide who implement management systems standards, BSI also runs training courses that cover the implementation and auditing requirements of national and international management systems standards. AS9100, AS9110, AS9120 Aerospace EU Emissions Trading System Within Testing Services, BSIs best known product in the UK is the Kitemark, BSI also conducts testing of products for a range of certifications, including for CE marking. CE marking must be applied to a range of products intended for sale in the European Economic Area. Frequently manufacturers or importers need a third-party certification of their product from an accredited or ‘Notified’ body, BSI holds Notified Body status for 15 EU Directives, including construction products, marine equipment, pressurised equipment and personal protective equipment. It is the leader in the USA, the world’s biggest healthcare market. BSI is the world’s first national standards body, BSI created one of the world’s first quality marks in 1903, when the letters ‘B’ and ‘S’ were combined with V to produce the Kitemark logo. BSI was instrumental in the formation of ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, in 1947 and of its European equivalent, CEN, BSI published the world’s first environmental management standard, BS7750, in 1992. This led to the publication of the first international environmental management standard, ISO14001, BSI also published the world’s first sustainability standard, BS8900, in 2006
17.
United States Board on Geographic Names
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The United States Board on Geographic Names is a federal body within the United States Geological Survey, an agency of the Department of the Interior. The purpose of the board is to establish and maintain uniform usage of names throughout the federal government of the United States. The Board was created in 1890, its present form derives from a law of 1947, under the U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, the BGN was created by presidential order. Mendenhall, superintendent of the U. S. President Benjamin Harrison signed an Executive Order on September 4,1890, to this Board shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning geographic names. The decisions of the Board are to be accepted … as the authority for such matters. The Board was given authority to resolve all unsettled questions concerning geographic names, Decisions of the Board were accepted as binding by all departments and agencies of the federal government. The Board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of domestic and it also deals with the names of geographical features underseas and in Antarctica. Although its official purpose is to resolve problems and new name proposals for the federal government. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the Board to render decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes. Generally, the BGN defers federal name use to comply with local usage, for example, in rare cases where a locally used name is very offensive, the BGN may decide against adoption of the local name for federal use. In federal mapping and names collection efforts, there is often a phase lag where a delay occurs in adoption of a locally used name, sometimes the delay is several decades. Volunteers in the Earth Science Corps are used to assist the U. S. Geological Survey in collecting names of geographic features. The Geographic Names Information System, developed by the BGN in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, includes topographic map names, the names of books and historic maps which confirm the feature or place name are cited. Variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded, the BGN has members from six federal departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency, the Government Publishing Office, the Library of Congress, and the U. S. Postal Service. The BGN rules on hundreds of naming decisions annually and stores over two million records in its databases at geonames. usgs. gov. State and local governments, and private mapping organizations usually follow the BGNs decisions, the BGN has an executive committee and two permanent committees with full authority, the 10 to 15-member Domestic Names Committee and the 8 to 10-member Foreign Names Committee. The BGN does not create a name, the BGN responds to proposals for names from federal agencies, state, local, and tribal governments. The BGN does not translate terms, but instead accurately uses foreign names in the Roman alphabet, for non-Roman languages, the BGN uses transliteration systems or creates them for less well-known languages
18.
GOST
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All sorts of regulated standards are included, with examples ranging from charting rules for design documentation to recipes and nutritional facts of Soviet-era brand names. The notion of GOST has certain significance and recognition in the countries of the standards jurisdiction, Russian Rosstandart government agency has gost. ru as website address. GOST standards were developed by the government of the Soviet Union as part of its national standardization strategy. The word GOST is an acronym for gosudarstvennyy standart, which means state standard, after World War II, the national standardization program went through a major transformation. The first GOST standard, GOST1 State Standardization System, was published in 1968, after the disintegration of the USSR, the GOST standards acquired a new status of the regional standards. They are now administered by the Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification, at present, the collection of GOST standards includes over 20,000 titles used extensively in conformity assessment activities in 12 countries. Because GOST standards are adopted by Russia, the largest and most influential member of the CIS, the national standards of Russia are the GOST R standards. Ukraine scrapped its GOST standards in December 2015, the abbreviation GOST stands for the State Union Standard. From its name we learn that most of the GOST standards of the Russian Federation came from the Soviet Union period, creation and promotion of the Union Standards began in 1918 after introduction of the international systems of weights and measures. The first body for standardization was created by the Council of Labor and its main objective was development and introduction of the Union standards OST standards. The first OST standards gave the requirements for iron and ferrous metals, selected sorts of wheat, until 1940 Narcomats had approved the standards. But in that year the Union Standardization Committee was founded and the standardization was redirected to creation of OST standards, in 1968 the state system of standardization as the first in the world practice. It included creation and development of the standards, GOST – State Standard of the Soviet Union, RST— Republican standard, IST — Industrial Standard. Within the state standard system they have their own indexes and the SSS has index 1, the USCD and USTD systems take special place among other inter-industrial systems. They are interrelated and they formulate requirements for technical documentation in all industries of economy. The task of harmonization of Russias standards and the GOST standards was set in 1990 by the Soviet Council of Ministers at the beginning of the transit to market economy, at that time they formulated a direction that obeying the GOST standards may be obligatory or recommendable. The obligatory requirements are the ones that deal with safety, conformity of products, ecological friendliness, the Act of the USSR Government permitted applying of national standards existing in other countries, international requirements if they meet the requirements of the peoples economy. During the past years a number of GOST standards were developed and approved
19.
Comecon
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The descriptive term was often applied to all multilateral activities involving members of the organization, rather than being restricted to the direct functions of Comecon and its organs. According to some historians, Moscow was concerned about the Marshall Plan, Comecon was meant to prevent countries in the Soviets’ sphere of influence from moving towards that of the Americans and South-East Asia. Although Mongolia and Vietnam later gained full membership, China stopped attending Comecon sessions after 1961, Yugoslavia negotiated a form of associate status in the organization, specified in its 1964 agreement with Comecon. In the late 1980s there were ten members, the Soviet Union, six East European countries. Geography, therefore, no longer united Comecon members, wide variations in economic size and level of economic development also tended to generate divergent interests among the member countries. All these factors combined to give rise to significant differences in the member states expectations about the benefits to be derived from membership in Comecon, unity was provided instead by political and ideological factors. All Comecon members were united by a commonality of fundamental class interests, in 1949 the ruling communist parties of the founding states were also linked internationally through the Cominform, from which Yugoslavia had been expelled the previous year. Although the Cominform was disbanded in 1956, interparty links continued to be strong among Comecon members, Comecon provided a mechanism through which its leading member, the Soviet Union, sought to foster economic links with and among its closest political and military allies. The East European members of Comecon were also allied with the Soviet Union in the Warsaw Pact. There were three kinds of relationships – besides the 10 full memberships – with the Comecon, Yugoslavia was the country considered to have associate member status. On the basis of the 1964 agreement, Yugoslavia participated in twenty-one of the thirty-two key Comecon institutions as if it were a full member, finland, Iraq, Mexico, and Nicaragua had a nonsocialist cooperant status with Comecon. Because the governments of countries were not empowered to conclude agreements in the name of private companies. They were represented in Comecon by commissions made up of members of the government, the commissions were empowered to sign various framework agreements with Comecons Joint Commission on Cooperation. After 1957, Comecon allowed certain countries with communist or pro-Soviet governments to attend sessions as observers, in November 1986, delegations from Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Laos, Nicaragua, and the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen attended the 42nd Council Session as observers. The Comecon was founded in 1949 by the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. This has been described as the moment of truth in the post-World War II division of Europe, according to the Soviet view the Anglo-American bloc and American monopolists. Furthermore, GATTs notion of nondiscriminatory treatment of trade partners was incompatible with notions of socialist solidarity, recent research by the Romanian researcher Elena Dragomir suggests that Romania played a rather important role in the Comecons creation in 1949. According to Dragomir, in December 1948, the Romanian leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej sent a letter to Stalin, at first, planning seemed to be moving along rapidly
20.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
21.
Grapheme
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In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest unit of a writing system of any given language. An individual grapheme may or may not carry meaning by itself, graphemes include alphabetic letters, typographic ligatures, Chinese characters, numerical digits, punctuation marks, and other individual symbols. The word grapheme, coined in analogy with phoneme, is derived from Greek γράφω, meaning write, the study of graphemes is called graphemics. The concept of graphemes is an one and similar to the notion in computing of a character. By comparison, a shape that represents any particular grapheme in a specific typeface is called a glyph. For example, the corresponding to the abstract concept of the Arabic numeral one has two distinct glyphs in the fonts Times New Roman and Helvetica. Graphemes are often notated within angle brackets, as ⟨a⟩, ⟨B⟩ and this is analogous to the slash notation used for phonemes, and the square bracket notation used for phonetic transcriptions. Hence a grapheme can be regarded as an abstraction of a collection of glyphs that are all semantically equivalent, for example, in written English, there are many different physical representations of the lowercase letter a, such as a, ɑ, etc. But because the substitution of any of these for any other cannot change the meaning of a word, they are considered to be allographs of the same grapheme, italic and bold face are also allographic. There is some disagreement as to whether capital and lower-case letters are allographs or distinct graphemes, some linguists consider digraphs like the ⟨sh⟩ in ship to be distinct graphemes, but these are generally analyzed as sequences of graphemes. Ligatures, however, such as ⟨æ⟩, are distinct graphemes, as are letters with distinctive diacritics. For a full discussion of the different types, see Writing system § Functional classification, there are additional graphemic components used in writing, such as punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, word dividers such as the space, and other typographic symbols. As mentioned in the section, in languages that use alphabetic writing systems. In practice, however, the orthographies of such languages entail at least an amount of deviation from the ideal of exact grapheme–phoneme correspondence. A phoneme may be represented by a multigraph, as the digraph sh represents a sound in English. Multigraphs representing a single phoneme are normally treated as combinations of separate letters, for more examples, see Alphabetical order § Language-specific conventions. Conversion of scripts Character Grapheme–color synesthesia Grapheme–color ideasthesia Sign
22.
Phoneme
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A phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language. The difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/, two words that differ in meaning through a contrast of a single phoneme form a minimal pair. In linguistics, phonemes are written between slashes like this, /p/, whereas when it is desired to show the exact pronunciation of any sound, linguists use square brackets. Within linguistics there are differing views as to exactly what phonemes are, however, a phoneme is generally regarded as an abstraction of a set of speech sounds which are perceived as equivalent to each other in a given language. For example, in English, the k sounds in the kit and skill are not identical. Different speech sounds that are realizations of the same phoneme are known as allophones, phonemes are conventionally placed between slashes in transcription, whereas speech sounds are placed between square brackets. Thus /pʊʃ/ represents a sequence of three phonemes /p/, /ʊ/, /ʃ/, while represents the sequence of sounds. The symbols used for particular phonemes are often taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in such as cat, kit, scat. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects the c/k sounds in words are not identical, in kit the sound is aspirated. The words therefore contain different speech sounds, or phones, transcribed for the aspirated form, the above shows that in English, and are allophones of a single phoneme /k/. For example, in Icelandic, is the first sound of kátur meaning cheerful, Icelandic therefore has two separate phonemes /kʰ/ and /k/. A pair of words like kátur and gátur that differ only in one phone is called a pair for the two alternative phones in question. The existence of pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme. In other languages, though, including Korean, even though both sounds and occur, no minimal pair exists. The lack of minimal pairs distinguishing and in Korean provides evidence that in this language they are allophones of a single phoneme /t/, the word /tata/ is pronounced, for example. Signed languages, such as American Sign Language also have minimal pairs, Sign language minimal pairs refer to one of the signs parameters, handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and non-manual signal/marker
23.
Ge (Cyrillic)
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Ghe or Ge is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It is also known in some languages as He and it commonly represents the voiced velar plosive /ɡ/, like ⟨g⟩ in go. It is generally romanized using the Latin letter G, but to romanize Belarusian, Ukrainian and Rusyn, the Cyrillic letter Ghe was derived directly from the Greek letter Gamma, but the lowercase form is a small version of the capital letter. In the Early Cyrillic alphabet, its name was глаголи, meaning speak, in the Cyrillic numeral system, it had a numerical value of 3. In standard Serbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian the letter Ghe represents a velar plosive /ɡ/ but is devoiced to word-finally or before a voiceless consonant. In standard Russian, Ghe represents the voiced velar plosive /ɡ/ but is devoiced to word-finally or before a voiceless consonant and it represents /ɡʲ/ before a palatalizing vowel. In the Southern Russian dialect, the sound becomes the velar fricative /ɣ/, sometimes, the sound is the glottal fricative /ɦ/ in the regions bordering Belarus and Ukraine. It is acceptable, for people, to pronounce certain Russian words with, Бог, богатый, благо. The sound is considered nonstandard or dialectal in Russian and is avoided by educated Russian speakers. Бог is always pronounced in the nominative case, in the Russian nominal genitive ending -ого, -его, Ghe represents, including in the word сегодня. It represents a voiceless in front of Ka in two Russian words, namely, мягкий and лёгкий, and their derivatives. The Latin letter H of words of Latin, Greek, English or German origin is usually transliterated into Russian with Ghe rather than Kha, hero → герой, hamburger → гамбургер, Haydn → Гайдн. That can occasionally cause ambiguity, as for example English Harry and Gary/Garry would be spelled the same in Russian, nevertheless, in newer loanwords, Kha is often used. In Ukrainian represents a glottal fricative, a breathy voiced counterpart of the English. In Belarusian, the letter corresponds to velar fricative /ɣ/ and it soft counterpart /ɣʲ/, in Ukrainian and Belarusian, a voiced velar plosive /ɡ/ is present only in loanwords and is written with the Cyrillic letter Ghe with upturn in Ukrainian and with the digraph кг in Belarusian. In both languages, the letter is called He and transliterated with H rather than with G, in many non-Slavic languages it can represent both /g/ and /ʁ~ɣ/
24.
Ghe with upturn
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Ghe with upturn is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It is used in Ukrainian, Rusyn and also in some variants of Urum, in these alphabets its usually called Ge, while the other letter — ‹Г г› — is called He. In Unicode this letter is called Ghe with upturn, the letterform of this letter is based on the letterform of the letter ‹Г г›, but its handwritten and italic lowercase forms do not follow the italic modification of ‹Г г›. It represents the voiced velar plosive /ɡ/, like the pronunciation of ‹g› in go, Ghe with upturn is romanized using the Latin letter G. The common Slavic voiced velar plosive is represented in most Cyrillic orthographies by ‹Г›, in Ukrainian, however, around the early 13th century, the sound lenited to the voiced velar fricative, and around the 16th century, debuccalized to the voiced glottal fricative. The phoneme continued to be represented by ‹Г›, called ге he in Ukrainian, within a century after this sound change began, was re-introduced from Western European loanwords. Since then, it has been represented by several different notations in writing, in early Belarusian and Ukrainian orthographies, Latin ‹g› or the Cyrillic digraph ‹кг› were sometimes used for the sound of Latin ‹g› in assimilated words. The first text to consequently employ the letter ‹ґ› was the 16th-century Peresopnytsia Gospel, later, distinguishing of the sound and using the digraph gradually disappeared from Belarusian orthography. As far as linguistic studies are concerned, the letter ‹ґ› was first introduced into the Slavic alphabet in 1619 by Meletius Smotrytsky in his Slavic Grammar, later, for an identical purpose, it was saved in the new orthography of Ukrainian. The letter ‹ґ› was officially eliminated from the Ukrainian alphabet in the Soviet orthographic reforms of 1933, its function being subsumed into that of the letter ‹г›, however, ‹ґ› continued to be used by Ukrainians in Galicia and in the Ukrainian diaspora worldwide. It was reintroduced to Soviet Ukraine in a 1990 orthographic reform under glasnost, in Belarusian, the plosive realization of the Proto-Slavic voiced velar plosive has been preserved root-internally in the consonant clusters ‹зг›, ‹жг›, ‹дзг›, and ‹джг›. It is present in loanwords such as ганак, гузік. However, consensus on this has never reached, and the letter has never been part of standard Belarusian alphabet. Regular uppercase and lowercase forms of this letter look similarly corresponding regular uppercase and lowercase forms of the Гг letter, handwritten uppercase and lowercase forms of this letter are displayed at the image to the left. Г г, Cyrillic letter Ghe Γ γ, Greek letter Gamma G g, Latin letter G Bušlakoŭ, Juraś, Vincuk Viačorka, Źmicier Sańko, “Да рэформы беларускай азбукі”, у, Працы акадэмічнае конфэрэнцыі па рэформе беларускага правапісу і азбукі. “On the Chronology of H and the New G in Ukrainian”, in, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, vol 1, no 2, “Гук «ґ» у беларускай мове”, у, Ян Станкевіч, Збор твораў у двух тамах. ISBN 985-6599-46-6 The dictionary definition of Ґ at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of ґ at Wiktionary
25.
Romanization of Ukrainian
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The romanization or Latinization of Ukrainian is the representation of the Ukrainian language using Latin letters. Ukrainian is natively written in its own Ukrainian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic script, methods of romanization include transliteration, representing written text, and transcription, representing the spoken word. In contrast to romanization, there have been several proposals for a native Ukrainian Latin alphabet, usually based on those used by West Slavic languages. Transliteration is the representation of text using another writing system. Also called scientific transliteration, this system is most often seen in publications on Slavic languages. It is purely phonemic, meaning each character represents one unit of sound. It was codified in the 1898 Prussian Instructions for libraries, or Preußische Instruktionen and it was later adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, with minor differences, as ISO/R9. Representing all of the diacritics on computers requires Unicode, Latin-2, Latin-4. Other Slavic based romanizations occasionally seen are those based on the Slovak alphabet or the Polish alphabet, the ALA-LC Romanization Tables, published by the American Library Association and Library of Congress. Used to represent bibliographic information by US and Canadian libraries, by the British Library since 1975, the latest 1997 revision is very similar to the 1905 version. Requires Unicode for connecting diacritics—these are used in bibliographies and catalogues, British Standard 2979,1958, from BSI, is used by the Oxford University Press. A variation is used by the British Museum and British Library, a modified version is also mentioned in the Oxford Style Manual. Requires only ASCII characters if optional separators are not used, the Soviet Unions GOST, COMECONs SEV, and Ukraines Derzhstandart are government standards bodies of the former Eurasian communist countries. They published a series of systems for Ukrainian, which were replaced by ISO9,1995. ISO9 is a standard from the International Organization for Standardization and it supports most national Cyrillic alphabets in a single transliteration table. Each Cyrillic character is represented by one unique Latin character. This was originally derived from the Scholarly system in 1954, and is meant to be usable by readers of most European languages, the 1995 revision considers only graphemes and disregards phonemic differences. So, for example, г is always represented by the g, ґ is represented by g̀
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Ukrainian passport
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The Ukrainian passport is a document issued for the nationals of Ukraine as the main proof of Ukrainian citizenship. There are two types of passports issued by the Ukrainian government commonly known as the passport and international passport. The internal passport soft booklet / credit-card-sized Ukrainian identity card is the identification document of Ukrainian citizens used within Ukraine. The international passport is used for overseas travel, see also Biometric passports in Ukraine. Passport for travel abroad, commonly known as an International Passport, is a document used for travel outside Ukraine, the passport information is recorded in Ukrainian and English. Passports are issued upon demand and are valid for 10 years and it is permitted to have more than one passport since December 1,2012. The law of Ukraine on a unified state demographic register and identity documents, the Ukrainian international passport follows international standards. Machine-readable passports with two strings at the bottom of the first page appeared in the mid 1990s. The current Ukrainian international passport is a biometric one, if, based on religious beliefs, a citizen does not wish to receive a biometric passport, he/she can apply for a non-biometric one, providing a written statement before applying for the document. Photos in the passports issued since 2007 are black and white, as a security feature, an additional holders photo is specially imprinted to be seen only when looking to the light through the page of the passport. Previously, passports used to be issued either with a colour photo or with a colour imprinted photo. The previously issued passports are valid until their expiration date, new biometric international passports have dark blue cover and contain 32 pages. Covers of the passports issued in 1990s were red, allowing easy visual distinction from blue-color internal passports. By default, the first and last names in the passport are transliterated from Ukrainian to English according to the National transliteration system. However, any person has an option to request the desired English spelling of his first and last name, according to law amendments by the Ukrainian parliament of 14 July 2016 each citizen who reached the age of 14 must get a passport. Passports will be issued for four years to persons under 18 years of age, previously International Passports were issued only to citizens aged 18 and older. Prior to that age, Ukrainian citizens could get a Travel Document of a Child similar in appearance to the passport valid for 3 years, and has only 8 pages. In some rare case Ukrainian citizens were allowed to have International Passport before the age of 18 or 16, the Ukrainian passport includes the following data, The information page ends with the Machine Readable Zone starting with P<UKR
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Government of Ukraine
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The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, commonly referred to as the Government of Ukraine, is the highest body of state executive power in Ukraine. As Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR, it was formed on 18 April 1991 by the Law of Ukrainian SSR No. 980-XII, vitold Fokin was approved the first Prime Minister of Ukraine. The Cabinet is a body consisting of the Cabinets presidium composed of five individual and several ministries that are represented by their respective minister. Some ministries may be headed by members of the Cabinet presidium, the presidium of Cabinet is composed of the Prime Minister of Ukraine presiding over the Cabinet and assisted by his First Vice Prime and other Vice Prime ministers. The Secretariat of Cabinet of Ministers ensures the operations of the cabinet, the current Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine is since 14 April 2016 the Groysman government. The number of ministries in the cabinet has changed over time, some ministries were abolished, the Cabinet is responsible to the President of Ukraine and is under the control and being held accountable to the Verkhovna Rada. It consists of the Prime Minister, the First Vice-Prime Minister, at one point of time there also was an institute of state ministries that was majorly abolished on February 25,1992 by the Presidential Decree. The Secretariat of Cabinet of Ministers supports the operation of the government. Structural part of the secretariat is also the office of the Prime Minister of Ukraine, parts of Cabinet meetings are broadcast live on Ukrainian TV. Since August 2026 Ukrainians can sign and submit petitions to the Cabinet of ministers of Ukraine to the formation of the priorities of state policy. To be considered, the petition must get at least 25,000 votes three months from the date of publication, Ukraine The duties of the cabinet of ministers are described in the Article 116 of the Constitution of Ukraine. Members of the government are citizens of Ukraine, who have the right of vote, higher education, the members of the government cannot have judgement against them that has not been extinguished and taken away in the established legal order. At the sessions of the Cabinet may participate the President of Ukraine or his representative, authority The Cabinet issues resolutions and orders that are mandatory for execution. Normative legal acts of the Cabinet, ministries, and other bodies of executive power are subject to registration. Failure to register invalidates the act, the Cabinet also possesses the power of legislative initiative and may introduce its own bills to the parliament. The members of Cabinet and deputy ministers may be present at the sessions of the parliament, every year no later than September 15 the Cabinet submits a bill on the State Budget of Ukraine to the Verkhovna Rada. The sessions of the Cabinet are considered if more than a half of the Cabinets members participate in them. In case if a minister cannot participate at the sessions he or she may be replaced by a deputy with a consultative capacity, on propositions of other members of the Cabinet a consultative capacity may be awarded to other participants who allowed at the sessions of the Cabinet
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ASCII
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ASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices, most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII was developed from telegraph code and its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6,1960, the first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting of lists, and added features for other than teleprinters. Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, for example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters,33 are non-printing control characters that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, of these, the IANA encourages use of the name US-ASCII for Internet uses of ASCII. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute and ultimately the American National Standards Institute, there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting, the X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters, renaming some control characters and moving or removing others. ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3. 4-1967, then USAS X3. 4-1968, ANSI X3. 4-1977 and they proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems, like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols. This allows digital devices to communicate each other and to process, store. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters,10 numerical digits, ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a function, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is reliable for data transmission. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code, the committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal
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SMS
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Short Message Service is a text messaging service component of most telephone, World Wide Web, and mobile telephony systems. It uses standardized protocols to enable mobile phone devices to exchange short text messages. SMS, as used on modern handsets, originated from radio telegraphy in radio memo pagers that used standardized phone protocols and these were defined in 1985 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications series of standards. The protocols allowed users to send and receive messages of up to 160 alpha-numeric characters to, though most SMS messages are mobile-to-mobile text messages, support for the service has expanded to include other mobile technologies, such as ANSI CDMA networks and Digital AMPS. SMS is also employed in marketing, a type of direct marketing. Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s, the first action plan of the CEPT Group GSM was approved in December 1982, requesting that, The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks. Should be available in the mobile system and this plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time. The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by Friedhelm Hillebrand, the GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost, however, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of postcard and Telex messages. SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software, hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS. The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies, through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world. The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and this proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services based on a contribution from Germany. There were also discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad. The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 85 document which was distributed to industry, the input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert. The last three words transformed SMS into something more useful than the prevailing messaging paging that some in GSM might have had in mind. SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System, the discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM02.03 TeleServices supported by a GSM PLMN
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Phonology
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Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages, the word phonology can also refer to the phonological system of a given language. This is one of the systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax. Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics, note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. The word phonology comes from Ancient Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, voice, sound, according to Clark et al. it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, Baudouin de Courtenays work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of alternations, and may have had an influence on the work of Saussure according to E. F. K. Koerner. An influential school of phonology in the period was the Prague school. One of its members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century, in 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English, the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features and these features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a fixed set. There are at least two levels of representation, underlying representation and surface phonetic representation, ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation. An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable, furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. Natural phonology is a based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969. In this view, phonology is based on a set of phonological processes that interact with one another, which ones are active. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups, prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance
