1.
Lucknow
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Lucknow is the capital of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and is also the administrative headquarters of the eponymous District and Division. It is the largest city in Uttar Pradesh, the eleventh most populous city, in North India, it is the third largest city after Delhi and Jaipur. Lucknow has always known as a multicultural city that flourished as a North Indian cultural and artistic hub. It continues to be an important centre of governance, administration, education, commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, culture, tourism, music, the city stands at an elevation of approximately 123 metres above sea level. Lucknow district covers an area of 2,528 square kilometres, bounded on the east by Barabanki, on the west by Unnao, on the south by Raebareli and in the north by Sitapur and Hardoi, Lucknow sits on the northwestern shore of the Gomti River. Hindi is the language of the city and Urdu is also widely spoken. Lucknow is the centre of Shia Islam in India with the highest Shia Muslim population in India, historically, the capital of Awadh was controlled by the Delhi Sultanate which then came under Mughal rule. It was later transferred to the Nawabs of Awadh, in 1856, the British East India Company abolished local rule and took complete control of the city along with the rest of Awadh and, in 1857, transferred it to the British Raj. Along with the rest of India, Lucknow became independent from Britain on 15 August 1947 and it has been listed the 17th fastest growing city in India and 74th in world. Lucknow, along with Agra and Varanasi, is in the Uttar Pradesh Heritage Arc, Lucknow is the anglicised spelling of the local pronunciation lakhnau. According to one legend, the city is named after Lakshmana, the legend states that Lakshmana had a palace or an estate in the area, which was called Lakshmanapuri. However the Dalit movement believes that Lakhan Pasi, a ruler, was the settler of the city and is named after him. The settlement came to be known as Lakhanpur by the 11th century, a similar theory states that the city was known as Lakshmanavati after Lakshmana. The name changed to Lakhanavati, then Lakhnauti and finally Lakhnau, yet another theory states that the citys name is connected with Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth. Over time, the changed to Laksmanauti, Laksmnaut, Lakhsnaut, Lakhsnau and, finally. From 1350 onwards, Lucknow and parts of the Awadh region were ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, Sharqi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, Nawabs of Awadh, the British East India Company and the British Raj. Lucknow was one of the centres of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and actively participated in Indias independence movement. Until 1719, the subah of Awadh was a province of the Mughal Empire administered by a Governor appointed by the Emperor, persian adventurer Saadat Khan, also known as Burhan-ul-Mulk, was appointed nizam of Awadh in 1722 and established his court in Faizabad, near Lucknow
2.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
3.
Indian people
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Indian people are citizens of India, the second most populous nation containing 17. 50% of the worlds population. Indian refers to nationality, but not ethnicity or language, the Indian nationality consists of many regional ethno-linguistic groups, reflecting the rich and complex history of India. India hosts all major ethnic groups found in the Indian Subcontinent, population estimates vary from a conservative 12 million to 20 million diaspora. The name Bhārata has been used as a name by people of the Indian subcontinent. The designation Bhārata appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, the name is derived from the ancient Vedic and Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as Bhārata varṣam and uses this term to distinguish it from other varṣas or continents. The Bhāratas were a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings. India is named after legendary Emperor Bharata who was a descendant of the Bhāratas tribe, in early Vedic literature, the term Āryāvarta was in popular use before Bhārata. The Manusmṛti gives the name Āryāvarta to the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern to the Western Sea, while the word Indian and India is derived from Greek Ἰνδία, via Latin India. The name is derived ultimately from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river Indus, the next great ancient Empire of the Indian people was the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, the ancient Indian mathematicians Aryabhata, Bhāskara I and Brahmagupta invented the concept of zero and the Hindu decimal system during this period. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia. During the early period the great Rashtrakuta dynasty dominated the major part of the Indian subcontinent. From the 8th to 10th century and the Indian Emperor Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was described by the Arab traveller Sulaiman as one of the four kings of the world. The greatest maritime Empire of the medieval Indians was the Chola dynasty, under the great Indian Emperors Rajaraja Chola I and his successor Rajendra Chola I the Chola dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. The Mughal Empire unified much of Indian sub-continent under one realm, under the Mughals India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. This marked a huge influence in the Indian society, the Mughal Empire balanced and pacified local societies through new administrative practices and had diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. The Marathas and Sikhs emerged in the 17th century and established the Maratha Empire, the Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north and Bengal, India is one of the worlds oldest civilisations
4.
Panjab University
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Panjab University a public collegiate university located in Chandigarh, India. It originated in 1882, but established in 1947, making it one of the oldest universities in India, Panjab University is ranked among the top institutions of higher education in India and in Asia. The university has 75 teaching and research departments and 15 centres for teaching and it has 190 affiliated colleges spread over the eight districts of Punjab state and union-territory of Chandigarh, with Regional Centres at Muktsar, Ludhiana and Hoshiarpur cities in Punjab state. The campus is residential, spread over 550 acres in sector 14 and 25 of the city of Chandigarh, the main administrative and academic buildings are located in sector 14, beside a health centre, a sports complex, hostels and residential housing. The present-day Panjab University traces its roots to the University of the Punjab established on 14 October 1882 at Lahore, most of the colleges affiliated to University of the Punjab were in the present Indian part of British India. After the partition of India in 1947, the university was split into two for Indian Punjab and Pakistani Punjab, a new university was then established/relocated in the Punjab, India in 1947. To distinguish the two, the name of the university on the Indian side, the spelling for Punjab was changed to Panjab, after 1947 the university had no campus of its own for nearly a decade. The administrative office was in Solan and the teaching departments functioned from Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Delhi, in 1956 the university was relocated to Chandigarh, on a red sandstone campus designed by Pierre Jeanneret under the guidance of the legendary Le Corbusier. T. of Chandigarh. With the re-organisation of Punjab, the university became an Inter-State Body Corporate catering to the newly organised state of Punjab, signifying the spirit of modern intellect, the Panjab University ushered in the dawn of a new future. Its chequerboard masterplan, a brainchild of Swiss French Architect Pierre Jeanneret, was a pace setter, harvansh Singh Judge Institute of dental Sciences and Hospital, UIAMS, Institute of Biological sciences etc. The campus is adjacent to an institution known as the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education. The teaching departments, students hostels, faculty residences and other amenities are all walking distance of one another. Most departments have their own libraries, Centre for Human Rights & Duties Centre for Police Administration Centre for Social Work Department cum Centre for Womens Studies & Development P. U. Harvansh Singh Judge Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital Department of Evening Studies P. U, the university library has been recognised as one of the six national centres for data-information-distribution in the UGCs INFLIBNET program. It has a hall which is open 24 hours. Book and journal collections are augmented by online sources, the Indian Council of Social Science Research has set up its North-Western Regional Centre on the campus. The centre runs a library, a complex and a guest house for visiting scholars under its study-grants programme. University Institute of Engineering and Technology is an on campus engineering institute and it offers undergraduate, postgraduate as well as doctoral courses
5.
SOAS, University of London
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SOAS University of London, is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS was ranked within the top 30 universities in the United Kingdom by The Guardian University Guide 2017, the School is organised into faculties of humanities, languages and social sciences. It is home to the SOAS School of Law, SOAS offers around 350 undergraduate bachelors degree combinations, over 100 one-year masters degrees and PhD programmes in nearly every department. SOAS has produced several heads of states, government ministers, diplomats, Supreme Court judges, the School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1916 at 2 Finsbury Circus, London, the then premises of the London Institution. The school received its charter on 5 June 1916 and admitted its first students on 18 January 1917. The school was inaugurated a month later on 23 February 1917 by King George V. Among those in attendance were Earl Curzon of Kedleston, formerly Viceroy of India, the School of Oriental Studies was founded by the British state as an instrument to strengthen Britains political, commercial and military presence in Asia and Africa. The school immediately became integral in training British administrators, colonial officials, Africa was added to the schools name in 1938. Its move to new premises in Bloomsbury was held up by delays in construction, with the onset of the Second World War, many University of London colleges were evacuated from London in 1939 and billeted on universities all over the provinces. The School was, on the Governments advice, transferred to Christs College, Cambridge. In 1940, when it became apparent that a return to London was possible, in 1942, the War Office joined with the schools Japanese department to help alleviate the shortage in Japanese linguists. State scholarships were offered to select grammar and public school boys to train as military translators, lodged at Dulwich College in south London, the students became affectionately known as the Dulwich boys. The courses were directed by army cryptographer, Col. John Tiltman, the SOAS School of Law was established in 1947 with Professor Vesey-Fitzgerald as its first head. Growth however was curtailed by following years of austerity, and upon Sir Cyril Philips assuming the directorship in 1956. Over his twenty-year stewardship, Phillips transformed the school, raising funds, a college of the University of London, the Schools fields include Law, Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages with special reference to Asia and Africa. The SOAS Library, located in the Philips Building, is the UKs national resource for materials relating to Asia and Africa and is the largest of its kind in the world. The school has grown considerably over the past thirty years, from fewer than 1,000 students in the 1970s to more than 6,000 students today, nearly half of them postgraduates. SOAS is partnered with the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris which is considered the French equivalent of SOAS
6.
History of India
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Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period and this civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the texts of Hinduism. The Vedic Civilisation extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas, in one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th, from the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Southern India saw the rise of imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, the early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced. The 15th century saw the emergence of Sikhism, in the 16th century, Mughals came from Central Asia and gradually covered most of India. From the late 18th century to the century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire. James Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations and this periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, according to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The ancient history of the region some of South Asias oldest settlements. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley, soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, early Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent is represented by the Bhirrana findings in Haryana, India as well as Mehrgarh findings in Balochistan, Pakistan. The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, the Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India
7.
Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi
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Jawaharlal Nehru University is a public central university in New Delhi, the capital of India. In 2012 The National Assessment and Accreditation Council gave the university a grade of 3.9 out of 4 and it is one of the top universities in the country, ranking third according to the National Institutional Ranking Framework. It is known for leading faculties and research emphasis on liberal arts, Jawaharlal Nehru University was established in 1969 by an act of parliament. It was named after Jawaharlal Nehru, Indias first Prime Minister, G. Parthsarthi was the first vice-chancellor. The bill for the establishment of Jawaharlal Nehru University was placed in the Rajya Sabha on September 1,1965 by the minister of education. During the discussion that followed, Bhushan Gupta, member of parliament, the JNU Bill was passed in Lok Sabha on 16 November 1966 and the JNU Act came into force on 22 April 1969. JNU has granted recognition and accreditation to the following institutions across the country, the University has also sent a proposal to set up a Center in Bihar. The Indian Administrative Service trainees officers will be awarded an MA degree in Public Management from Jawaharlal Nehru University, the JNU is infused with an intense political life on campus. Students that leave campus are said to acquire a permanently changed outlook on life as a result of the student politics, the politicisation of campus life has led to a refusal to brush under the carpet social issues such as feminism, minority rights, social and economic justice. All such issues are debated fiercely in formal and informal gatherings, the JNU student politics is left-of-centre even though, in recent years, right-wing student groups have also entered the field. Political involvement is celebratory in spirit, the student union elections are preceded by days of debates and meetings, keeping all students involved. The JNU has the reputation of a bastion of Marxist revolution. However, the student activists deny the charge, stating that the politics at JNU is issue-based, the university is known for its alumni who now occupy important political and bureaucratic positions. On 24 October 2008 the Supreme Court of India stayed the JNU elections, after a prolonged struggle and multi-party negotiations, the ban was lifted on 8 December 2011. After a gap of more than four years, interim elections were scheduled again on 1 March 2012, following the election results declared on 3 March 2012, AISA candidates won all four central panel seats and Sucheta De, the president of AISA became the president of JNUSU. Students organisations at the left and right side of the political spectrum, in April 2000, two army officers who disturbed an Indo-Pak mushaira at the JNU campus were beaten up by agitated students. The officers were angered by anti-war poems recited by two Pakistani poets and disrupted the mushaira and they were enraged at the recited lines of a poem Tum bhi hum jaise nikle and interpreted the lines as a criticism of India. One of them started to shout anti-Pakistan slogans, when the audience asked for silence, one of them pulled a gun
8.
Padma Bhushan
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The Padma Bhushan is the third-highest civilian award in the Republic of India, preceded by the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan and followed by the Padma Shri. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for distinguished service of a high order, as of 2017, the award has been bestowed on 1231 individuals, including 19 posthumous and 92 non-citizen recipients. The Padma Awards Committee is constituted every year by the Prime Minister of India, the committee later submits their recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for the further approval. The award recipients are announced on 26 January, the Republic Day of India, when instituted in 1954, twenty-three recipients were honoured with the Padma Bhushan. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous conferrals but this was modified in the January 1955 statute. The Padma Bhushan, along with other personal civil honours, was suspended twice, from July 1977 to January 1980. Some of the recipients have refused or returned their conferments, on 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards, the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri. The award, along with other personal civilian honours, was suspended twice in its history. The first time in July 1977 when Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of India, for being worthless, the suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980 after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being titles per an interpretation of Article 18 of the Constitution of India, on 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court of India was formed comprising five judges, A. M. Ahmadi C. J. Kuldip Singh, B. P. Jeevan Reddy, N. P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgment that the Bharat Ratna, the award is conferred for distinguished service of a high order. without distinction of race, occupation, position or sex. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was modified in the January 1955 statute. Kizhakemuri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1999, the recommendations received during 1 May and 15 September of every year are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee, convened by the Prime Minister of India. The Awards Committee later submits its recommendations to the Prime Minister, the conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. The original specification of the award was a made of standard silver 1 3⁄8 inches in diameter. A floral wreath was embossed along the edge and a lotus wreath at the top along the upper edge. The State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the side with the text Desh Seva in Devanagari Script on the lower edge
9.
A. L. Basham
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Arthur Llewellyn Basham was a noted historian and indologist and author of a number of books. As a Professor at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London in the 1950s, Arthur Llewellyn Basham was born on 24 May 1914, in Loughton, Essex, the son of Abraham Arthur Edward Basham and Maria Jane Basham née Thompson. Although an only child, he grew up in Essex with his adopted sister and his mother was also a journalist and short story writer further instilling a love of language and literature. As a child, he was introduced to music and learnt to play the piano to a high standard. As an undergrad at ANU in the 1970s I well remember attending his Asian Civilizations lectures in the HC Coombs lecture theatre, one morning in 1974 we noticed that an upright piano had been left from a performance the previous evening. Upon arrival for his lecture, Prof Basham calmly strolled over to the piano, sat down, a standing ovation from his students followed. I can still see him striding across the campus, pipe-in-mouth, Basham developed a keen interest in religion which began with the Christianity he was brought up with and then extended into Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. He went on to take a BA in Sanskrit from the School of Oriental and African Studies, after the war he returned to SOAS and began researching for a Ph. D under Professor L. D. For his research into the History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas he received a scholarship and he became a lecturer in 1948, attained the Ph. D in 1950, became a Reader in 1954, and in 1958 was promoted to Professorship. When the Head of the Department of History, Professor C. H, after retiring from ANU in 1979, Basham accepted a series of one year visiting professorships with various universities. Basham was one of the first western historians to critically gauge the impact of Swami Vivekananda from a global perspective, Basham was appointed Swami Vivekananda Professor in Oriental Studies at the Asiatic Society of Calcutta in September 1985. He died in Calcutta in India in 1986, an annual public lecture series is given at the ANU in his memory. Possibly his most popular book is The Wonder That was India - published seven years after the 1947 Independence of India, revised editions of the book were released in 1963 and then 1967. Rupa & Co, New Delhi brought out an edition in 1981. London, brought out an edition in 1985. By 2001, the version was in its 37th edition. Amazon. com staff review/book description reads most widely used introduction to Indian civilization, although first published in 1954, it has remained a classic interpretation. In book he mention that man can escape from Law of Gravity as well as passage of Time but not from his deeds. Basham also wrote History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, based on his PhD work done under L. D. Barnett, several of his key papers on Hinduism were edited as the book The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism by Kenneth G. Zysk
10.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
11.
Kurukshetra University
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Kurukshetra University is a university established on 11 January 1957 in Kurukshetra in the Indian state of Haryana,160 kilometres from the capital, Delhi. It is a member of Association of Commonwealth Universities, the university was the idea of the then Punjab governor, Sir Chandeshwar Prasad Narayan Singh, a Sanskrit scholar, who wanted to set up an institute to promote Indian culture and traditions. The Department of Sanskrit was the first and the department in the university when it was inaugurated by Bharatratna Dr. Rajendra Prasad. Its campus is spread over 400 acres, the University is equipping its students with the skills, insights, attitudes and practical experience that will enable them to become discerning citizens. The University’s programs combine the value of a liberal arts education with the skills. The University has 445 teaching faculty members, the University also has 457 affiliated colleges and institutes in the Districts of Ambala, Panipat, Kaithal, Yamuna Nagar, Hisar, Fatehabad, Jind, Karnal, Sirsa, Kurukshetra and Panchkula. The Campus of the University has often been rated as one of the most beautiful campuses in India and it resembles a large, self-contained village with lecture theatres, seminar rooms, accommodation, cafeterias, canteens, shops and sports facilities, libraries and laboratories. The most remarkable feature of the campus is the interconnection of nature. There are a number of lush gardens, water fountains and side walks which provide an ideal environment on the campus for study. The University Institute of Engineering and Technology was started in 2005, the University received Grade A rating in the 2009 National Assessment and Accreditation Council grading. The Department of Electronic Science in 2011, was awarded a ₹2.96 crore project on nanoscience by Department of Science and Technology, in 2012, the Department of philosophy introduced academic course on Gita. The Department of Geophysics has also received the aid of about 3 crore from D. S. T and this department is running a 3-year M. Tech. Applied Geophysics course since 1985 which is affiliated by A. I. C. T. E and U. G. C, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra has a number of achievements in sports. Recently Boxing Team of Kurukshetra University won All India Inter-University Boxing Championship among more than 100 Universities from all over India, All India Inter-University Boxing Championship was held at LPU, Jalandhar. Where Boxers from KUK won 3 Gold and 3 Bronze Medals under the guidance of their boxing coach Rajesh Kumar Rajound and gain 37 points. Various colleges are affiliated with Kurukshetra University, Shri Krishan Institute of Engineering and Technology Swami Devi Dyal Group of Professional Institutions- swamidevidyal. ac. in/ P. I. E
12.
University of Delhi
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The University of Delhi informally known as Delhi University is a public central collegiate university, located in New Delhi, India. The University of Delhi was established in 1922 as a unitary, teaching, the University was originally to be named Prince Charles University. He suggested the name by which it is known today, the university thus had modest beginnings with only four colleges, two faculties, and about 750 students. The seat of power in British India had been transferred from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911, the Viceregal Lodge Estate became the residence of the Viceroy of India until October,1933, when it was given to the University of Delhi. Since then, it has housed the office of the vice-chancellor, when Sir Maurice Gwyer came to India to serve as Chief Justice of British India, he was nominated as Vice-Chancellor of University of Delhi. Daulat Singh Kothari in Physics, Prof. T. R. Sheshadri in Chemistry, Prof. Panchanan Maheshwari in Botany, Sir Maurice Gwyer is also called the maker of university. He served the post of vice-chancellor till 1950. S, twenty-five years later the golden jubilee celebrations of 1973 were attended by then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, Satyajit Ray, Amrita Pritam and M S Subbulakshmi. The University has grown one of the largest universities in India. There are also 261,169 students in non-formal education programme, five departments namely Chemistry, Geology, Zoology, Sociology and History have been awarded the status of the Centres of Advanced Studies. These Centres of Advanced Studies have carved a niche for themselves as centres of excellence in teaching, in addition, a good number of university departments are also receiving grants under the Special Assistance Programme of the UGC in recognition of their outstanding academic work. DU is one of the most sought after institution of education in India. It is also among the university with highest publication count in India, K. Laxman, Scientist CNR Rao and former Prime Minister of United Kingdom - Gordon Brown. There are about 77 colleges affiliated to the University of Delhi, There are two main campuses of the University, the North Campus & the South Campus. North Campus hosts the three founding colleges of the university which constituted the University of Delhi when it was founded, ramjas College, St. Stephens College and Shri Ram College of Commerce. The extended off campus also has colleges in Old Rajendra Nagar, Pitampura, the campus also houses other centres and institutes of Delhi which includes Cluster Innovation Centre, Delhi School of Economics, etc. It moved to its present location on Benito Juarez Road, near Dhaula Kuan, the Campus is spread across 28 hectares of green, hilly terrain and its buildings blend attractively with the natural surroundings. The various Departments are located in the Faculty of Arts, Inter-disciplinary, Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Social Sciences & Humanities, The faculty has two departments namely - Business Economics and Slavonic & Finno-Ugrian Studies. Faculty of Commerce and Business Studies, It has two departments, - Commerce Financial Studies, Faculty of Education, There is only one department of Faculty of Education i. e. Department of Education
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Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
14.
Somnath temple
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The Somnath temple located in Prabhas Patan near Veraval in Saurashtra on the western coast of Gujarat, India, is believed to be the first among the twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva. It is an important pilgrimage and tourist spot of Gujarat, destroyed and reconstructed several times in the past, the present temple was reconstructed in Chalukya style of Hindu temple architecture and completed in May 1951. The reconstruction was envisioned by Vallabhbhai Patel and was completed under K. M. Munshi, the temple is considered sacred due to the various legends connected to it. Somnath means Lord of the Soma, an epithet of Shiva, the Somnath temple is known as the Shrine Eternal, following a book of K. M. Munshi by this title and his narration of the temples destruction and reconstruction many times in history. According to tradition, the Shivalinga in Somnath is one of the twelve jyotirlingas in India, the jyotirlingas are taken as the supreme, undivided reality out of which Shiva partly appears. Each of the twelve jyotirlinga sites take the name of a different manifestation of Shiva, at all these sites, the primary image is a lingam representing the beginning-less and endless stambha, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva. In addition to the one at Somnath, the others are at Varanasi, Rameswaram, Dwarka, the site of Somnath has been a pilgrimage site from ancient times on account of being a Triveni sangam. Soma, the Moon god, is believed to have lost his lustre due to a curse, the result is the waxing and waning of the moon, no doubt an allusion to the waxing and waning of the tides at this sea shore location. The name of the town Prabhas, meaning lustre, as well as the alternative names Someshvar, according to popular tradition documented by J. Gordon Melton, the first Siva temple at Somanath is believed to have been built at some unknown time in the past. The second temple is said to have built at the same site by the Yadava kings of Vallabhi around 649 CE. In 725 CE, Al-Junayd, the Arab governor of Sindh is said to have destroyed the temple as part of his invasions of Gujarat. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II is said to have constructed the temple in 815 CE. However, there is no record of an attack on Somnath by Al-Junayd. Nagabhata II is known to have visited tirthas in Saurashtra, including Someshvara, the Chaulukya king Mularaja possibly built the first temple at the site sometime before 997 CE, even though some historians believe that he may have renovated a smaller earlier temple. In 1024, during the reign of Bhima I, the prominent Turkic ruler Mahmud of Ghazni raided Gujarat, plundering the Somnath temple and he took away a booty of 20 million dinars. Historians expect the damage to the temple to have been minimal because there are records of pilgrimages to the temple in 1038, however, powerful legends with intricate detail developed in the Turko-Persian literature regarding Mahmuds raid, which electrified the Muslim world according to scholar Meenakshi Jain. The temple at the time of Mahmuds attack appears to have been a wooden structure, kumarapala rebuilt it in excellent stone and studded it with jewels, according to an inscription in 1169. In 1299, Alauddin Khiljis army under the leadership of Ulugh Khan defeated Karandev II of the Vaghela dynasty, kanhadadeva the Raja of Jalore later defeated the Khilji army, recovered the broken pieces of the lingam and freed the prisoners
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Ashoka
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Ashoka was an ancient Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. One of Indias greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over a realm that stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan to the state of Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, the empires capital was Pataliputra, with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain. In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga. He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done and he embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations, Ashoka converted gradually to Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia, Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural foundation for political unity. Ashoka is now remembered as a philanthropic administrator, in the Kalinga edicts, he addresses his people as his children, and mentions that as a father he desires their good. Ashokas name Aśoka means painless, without sorrow in Sanskrit, in his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya, and Priyadarśin. His fondness for his names connection to the Saraca asoca tree, along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana, and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa. The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife, Subhadrangī. Ashoka became a great emperor despite having an appearance that was unfavorable to his father. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan dynasty, since, according to Roman historian Appian, Ashokas grandfather Chandragupta had made a marital alliance with Seleucus, there is a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī, according to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor, this eventually ended and it is from her exclamation I am now without sorrow, that Ashoka got his name. The Divyāvadāna tells a story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī. Ashoka had several siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of Bindusara. His fighting qualities were apparent from an age and he was given royal military training
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Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
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University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
18.
British Academy
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The British Academy is the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and the social sciences. It receives a grant from the Department for Business, Innovation. In 2014/15 the British Academys total income was £33,100,000, including £27,000,000 from BIS. £32,900,000 was distributed during the year in grants, awards. The British Academy was established in 1902 and received its Royal Charter in the same year and it is now a fellowship of more than 900 leading scholars spanning all disciplines across the humanities and social sciences. The Academy is a self-governing and independent registered charity, based at 10–11 Carlton House Terrace in London, as a learned society, it seeks to foster and promote the full range of work that makes up the humanities and social sciences, including inter- and multi-disciplinary work. Until 1927–28 the Academy had no premises, then it moved to some rooms in No.6 Burlington Gardens. In 1968 it moved the short distance to Burlington House and it subsequently moved to headquarters near Regents Park. Then in 1998 the Academy moved to its present headquarters in Carlton House Terrace, overlooking St Jamess Park, the Terrace was designed by John Nash and built in the 1820s and 1830s. Number 10 was formerly the London residence of the Ridley family, in March 2010, the Academy embarked on a £2. 75m project to renovate and restore the public rooms in No. 11, following the departure of former tenant the Foreign Press Association, the work was completed in January 2011 and the new spaces include a new 150-seat Wolfson Auditorium are available for public hire. The history, problems and achievements of the Academy have been recorded in works by two of its Secretaries, Sir Frederic Kenyon’s volume of 37 pages covers the years up to 1951, Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s volume covers the years 1949 to 1968. Election as a Fellow of the British Academy recognises high scholarly distinction in the humanities or social sciences, fellows may use the letters FBA after their names. The British Academy channels substantial public funding support for individuals and organisations pursuing humanities and social sciences research and scholarship in the UK. In 2014/15, the Academy received around £30m to support research and researchers across the humanities, funds available to the Academy were invested in the following main areas, research career development, a portfolio of research grant opportunities, and international engagement. The demand and quality of applications submitted for Academy funding remains high and this year the Academy received around 3,600 applications and made 588 awards to scholars based in around 100 different universities across the UK – a success rate of 16%. The Academy also funds and coordinates a network of overseas institutes which provide local expertise, logistical support, as the UKs national voice for the humanities and social sciences, the British Academy seeks to promote and protect the interests and health of these disciplines and their research base. The Centre was established in October 2009 initially funded by the Economic and Social Research Council and it oversees a programme of activity engaging the expertise within the humanities and social sciences to shed light on policy issues. It produces substantive reports making recommendations on policy and practice
19.
Lady Margaret Hall
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Lady Margaret Hall is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England, located at the end of Norham Gardens in north Oxford. It was founded in 1878 as the first womens college in Oxford and has accepted both men and women since 1979, LMH admits both undergraduate and graduate students. In 2016 it ranked 23rd in Oxfords Norrington Table, the current principal of the college is Alan Rusbridger. The colleges coat of arms features devices that recall those associated with its foundation, the portcullis is from the arms of Lady Margaret Beaufort, the bell is a symbol of the Wordsworth family, and the Talbot dogs represent Edward Talbot. Its colours are blue and yellow, and its motto is Souvent me Souviens, Lady Margaret Hall, the first womens college in Oxford, was founded in 1878 and opened its doors to its first nine students the following year. It was founded by Edward Stuart Talbot, then Warden of Keble College, the college was named after Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII, renowned patron of scholarship and learning. Its first principal was Elizabeth Wordsworth, the great-niece of the poet William Wordsworth and daughter of Christopher Wordsworth, with a new building opening in 1894 the college expanded to 25 students which was intended to be the final number. However over the years LMH continued to expand, in 1979, one hundred years after its foundation, LMH began admitting men as well as women, it was the first of the womens colleges to do so, along with St. Annes. In 2005 the college commissioned John Simpson Architects to prepare a masterplan for the enlargement of LMH. The first phase, the Pipe Partridge Building, was completed in early 2010. and was opened by the Chancellor of the University of Oxford, Lord Patten of Barnes, a new porters lodge, graduate centre and further accommodation was finished in March 2017. The colleges oldest buildings are along the South East side of the entrance quad, the colleges original house, a white brick gothic villa, is now known as Old Old Hall, while the adjoining red brick extension is known as new old hall. The quad was completed in March 2017 with the addition of the Donald Fothergill Building for student accommodation on the North West side, the Clore graduate centre extends further out to the South East towards university parks. The architect of the college buildings was Sir Reginald Blomfield who used the French Renaissance style of the 17th century. Talbot Hall contains some fine oak panelling donated by students to honour Elizabeth Wordsworth. In the Library is a marble statue by Edith Bateson. On the North West is Lynda Grier housing the library while on the South West Wolfson West which used to be the main entrance. These buildings were designed by Raymond Erith, the ground floor of Lynda Grier was originally student accommodation but in 2006 it was converted into a law library it was opened that year by Cherie Blair. To the North of the Main quad is the large Deneke block along with the hall, the chapel is in the form of a Greek cross was dedicated by the colleges founder Edward Stuart Talbot, in January 1933
20.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
21.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
22.
University of Calcutta
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The University of Calcutta is a public state university located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India established on 24 January 1857. It was the first institution in Asia to be established as a multidisciplinary, within India it is recognized as a Five-Star University and a Centre with Potential for Excellence by the University Grants Commission and the National Assessment and Accreditation Council. There are seven Nobel laureates associated with this university including Ronald Ross, Rabindranath Tagore, C. V. Raman, the University of Calcutta was ranked 601-650 in the QS World University Rankings of 2011 and 43 in the QS University Rankings for Asia in 2012. In India, it was ranked second by India Today in its list of Top India Universities of 2012,2013 and 2014 and it is 16th Best University in All over India by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. The Calcutta University Act came into force on 24 January 1857, the land for the establishment of this university was given by Maharaja Maheshwar Singh Bahadur, who was a Maharaja of Darbhanga. When the university was first established it had a catchment area covering the area from Lahore to Rangoon, and Ceylon, the first Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor of the Calcutta University were Governor General Lord Canning and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Sir James William Colvile, respectively. In 1858, Joddu Nath Bose and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay became the first graduates of the university, on 30 January 1858, the Syndicate of the Calcutta University started functioning. Following its inauguration, many institutions came under its jurisdiction. Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu became the first female graduates of the country in 1882, the Honourable Justice Gooroodas Banerjee became the first Indian Vice-Chancellor of University of Calcutta in the year 1890. Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee was the Vice-Chancellor for four consecutive two-year terms, four Nobel laureates were associated with this university, Ronald Ross. Rabindra Nath Tagore, C. V. Raman and Amartya Sen, the current university seal is the modified version of the sixth seal. The motto Advancement of Learning has remained the same through the seals transitions, the university has a total of 14 campuses spread over the city of Kolkata and its suburbs. The major campuses are the Central Campus in College Street, Rashbehari Shiksha Prangan in Rajabazar, Taraknath Palit Shiksha Prangan in Ballygunge, other campuses include the Hazra Road Campus, the University Press and Book Depot, the B. T. Road Campus, the Viharilal College of Home Science Campus, the University Health Service, the Haringhata Campus, the Dhakuria Lakes, asutosh Siksha Prangan is the main campus of the university, where the administrative work is done. Located on College Street, is spread over an area of 2.7 acres. Sahid Khudiram Siksha Prangan at Alipore houses the department of History, Archeology, Business Management, Political Science, Sociology and others. The university is building a campus which is known as Technology Campus or Tech Campus, to bring together the Three engineering and technical departments, in Sector 3, JD Block, Salt Lake. As of December 2016, most of these departments have moved to this campus
23.
University of Hyderabad
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The University of Hyderabad is an Indian Public Research University located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. Founded in 1974, this mostly residential campus has more than 5,000 students and 400 faculty, the Governor of the state of Telangana is ex-officio the Chief Rector of the University, while the President of India is the Visitor to the University. The university was established along the lines of the Six-Point Formula of 1973, the first Vice-Chancellor of the University was Banaras Hindu University organic chemist Gurbaksh Singh, from 1974 to 1979. Shri B D Jatti was the first Chancellor of the University, the University of Hyderabad is regarded as a premier varsity in the country. The university has consistently ranked among the top ten Indian universities, especially for research, by NIRF, NAAC. In January 2015, the University of Hyderabad received the Visitor’s Award for the Best Central University in India, the university is located in Gachibowli, on 2300-odd acres. The campus is rich in flora and fauna, home to over 734 flower plants, ten species of mammals, fifteen species of reptiles, the University is primarily a post-graduate research university. UoH conducts its own entrance examinations for all courses during the months of May-June each year and interviews in the month of May annually. The University offers Integrated M. Sc, M. A, MSc, M. F. A, M. Tech, M. B. A, M. C. A, M. Phil, admissions to UoH are highly competitive. The University follows the reservation system as per University Grants Commission of India guidelines. The School offers facilities for training and research in the basic areas of Mathematics, Statistics. The School of Physics has developed high quality teaching programmes at the M. Sc. and M. Tech, the School has research programme to train Ph. D. The School of Chemistry admits students to the M. Sc. the emphasis at the curricular level is to give a broad coverage of all branches of chemistry in keeping with the interdisciplinary nature of the subject today. The M. Sc. degree course has no specialisation, however students take elective courses, the School of Life Sciences has been established with an emphasis on interdisciplinary teaching and research in modern biology. Sc. and Ph. D. programmes of study. The School aims at providing a centre of common awareness and a sense of human responsibility, in addition, it is committed to the achievement of academic and linguistic excellence, creativity and all-round development of students. The courses offered in the School reflect these objectives and concerns, in addition, the School has Human Rights Programme functioning under the auspices of Political Science Department and a Centre for Indian Diaspora. The School of Social Sciences also has an interdisciplinary Women’s Studies Cell which takes up projects on gender issues. An Archival Cell with the support of the UGC is functioning under the auspices the Department of History for preservation of rare, the Department of Anthropology has developed a museum as a teaching aid for students
24.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
25.
St Antony's College, Oxford
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St Antonys College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The colleges areas of specialist study include Europe, Russia and the former Soviet states, Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, Japan, China, and South and South East Asia. The college is located in North Oxford, with Woodstock Road to the west, Bevington Road to the south, as of 2012, St Antonys had an estimated financial endowment of £30m. St Antonys was founded in 1950 as the result of the gift of Sir Antonin Besse of Aden, in 1947, Besse was considering giving around £2 million to the University of Oxford to found a new college. Ultimately, on the advice of his solicitor, R Clyde, the university was initially unreceptive to the offer, and recommended that Besse instead devote his funds to improving the finances of some of the poorer existing colleges. Eventually Besse acquiesced, contributing a total of £250,000 in varied amounts to the colleges, Keble, Worcester, St Peters, Wadham, Exeter, Pembroke, Lincoln. The attention of the university turned to providing the new college, by then called St Antonys. Ripon Hall was initially considered as an option for a building in which to house the college. None of these options proved tenable, and the college began to look elsewhere and it is said that Besse became very frustrated with the university and its apparent disinterest in his project at this point, and almost gave up any hope of its completion. However the college acquired its current premises at 62 Woodstock Road in 1950. The College first admitted students in Michaelmas Term 1950 and received its Royal Charter in 1953, a supplementary charter was granted in 1962 to allow the College to admit women as well as men, and in 1963 the College became a full member of the University of Oxford. By 1952 the number of students at St Antonys had increased to 27 and by the end of the decade that number had risen to 260, since then, St Antonys has almost constantly been financially insecure. This led to the cancellation of a number of proposed physical developments at its site on Woodstock Road, the college is still true to its founding principle, remaining one of the most international colleges of the university, and home to many of Oxfords region-specific study departments. The colleges name alludes to its founder, whose name, Antonin Besse, is derived from the linguistic root. For a long time it was not made clear whether Anthony the Great or Anthony of Padua was the intended namesake. Despite this, the banner is flown each year on both saints days as a matter of tradition, and a statue of the wrong Anthony, Anthony of Padua. The order commissioned Charles Buckeridge, an architect of some renown. Whilst initially there were plans to enlarge the convent with an extension, for which place was made in the buildings design
26.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
27.
John W. Kluge Center
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The John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress invites and welcomes scholars to the Library of Congress to conduct research and interact with policymakers and the public. It also manages the Library of Congress Kluge Scholars Council and administers the Kluge Prize, established in 2000 within the restored Thomas Jefferson Building, the Center is named for its benefactor, John W. In addition, his gift established a $1 million Kluge Prize to be given in recognition of a lifetime of achievement in the human sciences, the Kluge Center invites three levels of scholars, senior scholars, post-doctoral fellows, and doctoral candidates. The Kluge Center hosts frequent public lectures, conferences, symposia, the Kluge Center was founded in 2000 with a gift to the Library of Congress by philanthropist John W. Kluge. The Center opened in summer 2002, welcoming its first scholars in July, the Kluge Center charter states that the Kluge Center will bring a small number of the worlds best thinkers into residence at the Library of Congress. The Centers Scholars and Fellows will help bridge the divide between knowledge and power, the charter adds that invitations to additional distinguished visiting scholars may be made to pursue special projects. The charter commits the Center to accommodating younger scholars as Fellows, the selection of the Fellows is by competition. The charter also states that the Kluge Center will be responsible for awarding the Kluge Prize and these include partnerships with, NASA - on the Baruch S. The event brought back to Washington some of the Centers best scholars for two days of lightning conversations on Capitol Hill, the Washington Post described the event as speed dating for the intelligentsia. This article incorporates text from the Library of Congress website which is a product of the US Government and in the public domain
28.
President of India
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The President of the Republic of India is the Head of State of India and the Commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The oath of the President is taken in the presence of the Chief Justice of India, the President resides in an estate known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan situated in Raisina Hill in New Delhi. The presidential retreats are The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam in Hyderabad, the 13th and current President is Pranab Mukherjee, who was elected on 22 July 2012, and sworn in on 25 July 2012. He is also the first Bengali to be elected as President, India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, the constitution of the Republic of India gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after Presidents assent, the president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution, the primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath. The President is the head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations and supervisory powers over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution, there is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law. Legislative power is vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head. The President of the Republic summons both the Houses of the Parliament and prorogues them and he can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections, the Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111, after a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, when, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent from it. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the validity of any issue. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval, ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Re-promulgation of ordinances after failing to get approval within stipulated time of the houses of parliament is unconstitutional act by the President
29.
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
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Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam better known as A. P. J. Abdul Kalam /ˈæbdʊl kəˈlɑːm/, was the 11th President of India from 2002 to 2007, a career scientist turned statesman, Kalam was born and raised in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, and studied physics and aerospace engineering. He thus came to be known as the Missile Man of India for his work on the development of ballistic missile and launch vehicle technology. He also played a pivotal organisational, technical, and political role in Indias Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, Kalam was elected as the 11th President of India in 2002 with the support of both the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party and the then-opposition Indian National Congress. Widely referred to as the Peoples President, he returned to his life of education, writing. He was a recipient of prestigious awards, including the Bharat Ratna. While delivering a lecture at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong, Kalam collapsed and died from an apparent cardiac arrest on 27 July 2015, thousands including national-level dignitaries attended the funeral ceremony held in his hometown of Rameshwaram, where he was buried with full state honours. His father Jainulabudeen was an owner and imam of a local mosque. His father owned a ferry that took Hindu pilgrims back and forth between Rameswaram and the now uninhabited Dhanushkodi, Kalam was the youngest of four brothers and one sister in his family. His ancestors had been traders and landowners, with numerous properties. Their business had involved trading groceries between the mainland and the island and to and from Sri Lanka, as well as ferrying pilgrims between the mainland and Pamban. As a result, the acquired the title of Mara Kalam iyakkivar. With the opening of the Pamban Bridge to the mainland in 1914, however, the businesses failed, by his early childhood, Kalams family had become poor, at an early age, he sold newspapers to supplement his familys income. In his school years, Kalam had average grades but was described as a bright and he spent hours on his studies, especially mathematics. He moved to Madras in 1955 to study engineering in Madras Institute of Technology. Kalam met the deadline, impressing the Dean, who said to him, I was putting you under stress. He narrowly missed achieving his dream of becoming a pilot, as he placed ninth in qualifiers. After graduating from the Madras Institute of Technology in 1960, Kalam joined the Aeronautical Development Establishment of the Defence Research and he started his career by designing a small hovercraft, but remained unconvinced by his choice of a job at DRDO
30.
Peter Brown (historian)
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Peter Robert Lamont Brown, FBA, is Rollins Professor of History Emeritus at Princeton University. He is credited with having brought coherence to the field of Late Antiquity and his work has concerned, in particular, the religious culture of the later Roman Empire and early medieval Europe, and the relation between religion and society. Peter Brown was born in Dublin, Ireland, to a Scots-Irish Protestant family, when asked to comment on his intellectual formation, Brown has indicated that he completed his public schooling a year early, returning to Ireland in 1952, the year he turned 17. It was then in Dublin that he read Mikhail Rostovtzeffs The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire and he went on to read Modern History at New College, Oxford, from 1953 to 1956. In his final year, he undertook a Special Subject on The Age of Augustine. Following his graduation Brown began, but did not complete, a thesis under the external supervision of Arnaldo Momigliano. At a time when it was possible to remain in the College after the Prize Fellowship, All Souls College subsequently elected him a Research Fellow in 1963. The Modern History Faculty of the University of Oxford appointed him a Special Lecturer in 1970 and he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1971. Brown left Oxford to become Professor of Modern History and Head of the Department of History at Royal Holloway College in the University of London. He subsequently left Britain to become Professor of Classics and History in the University of California at Berkeley and then Philip and Beulah Rollins Professor of History at Princeton University. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1979, a Fellow of the Medieval Academy of America in 1988, and a Resident Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1995. Before joining the faculty at UC Berkeley and Princeton, Brown held visiting professorships at both institutions, at UC Berkeley in 1975, and at Princeton in 1983-6. He has also held visiting professorships at UCLA and in Italy, other engagements as a visiting teacher have taken Brown to Toronto in the 1970s and, since 2000, to Hungary and Iceland. At Princeton, Brown was given the Presidents Award for Distinguished Teaching in 2000, a significant number of his former students in the UK and US have gone on to substantive academic posts. Brown has delivered several named lecture series, Richard Lectures at the University of Virginia. He has also delivered a multitude of named single lectures and these include national academic occasions in the UK and US, the Raleigh Lecture in History in the British Academy, and the Charles Homer Haskins Lecture for the American Council of Learned Societies. In 2007, Brown gave a talk at the opening of the Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity. In 2015 he was hosted by the Group for the Study of Late Antiquity at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, Brown has also frequently been a keynote speaker at conferences and congresses
31.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
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Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
33.
Bharatiya Janata Party
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The Bharatiya Janata Party is one of the two major political parties in India, along with the Indian National Congress. As of 2016, it is the countrys largest political party in terms of representation in the parliament and state assemblies. The BJP is a party, with close ideological and organisational links to the Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. The BJPs origins lie in the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, formed in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mookerjee, after the State of Emergency in 1977, the Jana Sangh merged with several other parties to form the Janata Party, it defeated the incumbent Congress party in the 1977 general election. After three years in power, the Janata party dissolved in 1980 with the members of the erstwhile Jana Sangh reconvening to form the BJP. Although initially unsuccessful, winning two seats in the 1984 general election, it grew in strength on the back of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement. After the 1998 general election, the BJP-led coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance formed a government under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee for a year. Following fresh elections, the NDA government, again headed by Vajpayee, lasted for a term in office. In the 2004 general election, the NDA suffered an unexpected defeat, long time Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi led it to a landslide victory in the 2014 general election. Since that election, Modi leads the NDA government as Prime Minister and as of March 2017, the official ideology of the BJP is integral humanism, first formulated by Deendayal Upadhyaya in 1965. The party expresses a commitment to Hindutva, and its policy has historically reflected Hindu nationalist positions, the BJP advocates social conservatism and a foreign policy centred on nationalist principles. Its key issues have included the abrogation of the status to Jammu and Kashmir, the building of a Ram temple in Ayodhya. However, the 1998–2004 NDA government did not pursue any of these controversial issues and it instead focused on a largely neoliberal economic policy prioritising globalisation and economic growth over social welfare. The BJPs origins lie in the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, popularly known as the Jana Sangh and it was founded in collaboration with the Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, and was widely regarded as the political arm of the RSS. The RSS loaned several of its leading pracharaks, or full-time workers, prominent among these was Deendayal Upadhyaya, who was appointed General Secretary. The Jana Sangh won only three Lok Sabha seats in the first general elections in 1952 and it maintained a minor presence in parliament until 1967. The Jana Sanghs first major campaign, begun in early 1953, centred on a demand for the integration of Jammu. Mookerjee was arrested in May 1953 for violating orders from the state government restraining him from entering Kashmir and he died of a heart attack the following month, while still in jail
34.
Hindutva
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Hindutva, or Hinduness, a term popularised by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923, is the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India. The Bharatiya Janata Party adopted it as its ideology in 1989. It is championed by the Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and its affiliate organisations, many Indian social scientists have described the Hindutva movement as fascist, adhering to the concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony. Some Indian social scientists, as well as the Hindutva movement, on 2 January 2017, the Supreme Court of India declined to reconsider its 1995 judgment, which defined Hindutva as a way of life and not a religion. The notion of Hindutva, meaning Hinduness was coined in the early 20th century, referring to three meanings of Hindu, viz. Indian, follower of Indian religions in general, and follower of Hinduism. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, an activist interned in Ratnagiri prison in the 1920s and his tract, Essentials of Hindutva, better known under the later title Hindutva, Who Is a Hindu. Defined a Hindu as one who was born of Hindu parents, the three essentials of Hindutva were said to be the common nation, common race and common culture/civilisation. Hindus thus defined formed a nation that had existed since antiquity, Savarkar claimed and it was a form of ethnic nationalism as understood by Clifford Geertz, Lloyd Fallers and Anthony D. Smith. Savarkars formulation of Hinduness was regarded in his time as akin to a scientific discovery, christophe Jaffrelot states that Savarkars idea of Hindutva marked a qualitative change in Hindu nationalism. Hedgewar, another Indian independence activist in Nagpur, who was concerned with the weaknesses of the Hindu society against foreign domination. He visited Savarkar in Ratnagiri in March 1925 and discussed with him methods for organising the Hindu nation, in September that year, he started Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh with this mission. However, the term Hindutva was not used to describe the ideology of the new organisation, the official constitution of the RSS, adopted in 1948, used the phrase Hindu Samaj. In the words of an RSS publication, it became evident that Hindus were the nation in Bharat, both the terms Hindutva and Hindu Rashtra were used liberally in the Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha, a party Savarkar became the president of in 1937. He asked for the membership of Hindu Mahasabha to be open to all communities. When this was not accepted, he resigned from the party, thus, yet another term Bharatiya came into parlance with rough resemblance to Hindutva, which continues to be used in the successor party Bharatiya Janata Party to this day. Whereas Savarkars Hindutva was an identity and religion was considered a part of the culture. The all-comprehensive religion of the Indian nation is Hinduism of which the culture is a product. Those only are nationalist patriots, who with the aspiration to glorify the Hindu race, the rest are traitors and enemies to the National Cause
35.
Irfan Habib
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Irfan Habib is an Indian historian of ancient and medieval India, following the approach of Marxist historiography. He is well known for his stance against Hindu and Islamic fundamentalism. He has authored a number of books, including Agrarian System of Mughal India, Irfan was born into an Indian Muslim family, the son of Mohammad Habib, a marxist historian and ideologue belonging to the Communist Party of India, by his wife Sohaila Habib. Irfans wife Sayera Habib was Professor of Economics at Aligarh Muslim University, the couple have three sons and a daughter. The elder son is a scientist in America, the third son, Amber Habib, is head of the department of mathematics at Shiv Nadar University, and is married to Abha Dev Habib, a professor at Delhi University. Irfans second son, Faiz Habib, is a cartographer at the Center of Advanced Study in History and his daughter, Saman Habib, is a scientist. After he returned from Oxford he joined AMU as a member of the faculty and he was Professor of History at Aligarh from 1969–91. He is presently appointed as Professor Emeritus at the Department of History of the AMU and he delivered the Radhakrishnan Lecture at Oxford in 1991. He is an Elected Corresponding Fellow of the British Royal Historical Society since 1997, Habib has worked on the historical geography of Ancient India, the history of Indian technology, medieval administrative and economic history, colonialism and its impact on India, and historiography. He was Coordinator/Chairman of the Centre for Advanced Studies, AMU from 1975–77 and he was Chairman of the Indian Council of Historical Research during 1986–90. He was the secretary, Sectional President, and then the General President of the Indian History Congress. Habib identifies himself as a Marxist and uses Marxist historiography in his work, Habib has also written books about Vedas and Vedic age, he considers Vedas to be a good historical source, which describes the oral transmission in a priestly culture, that valued faithfulness. He further lays out the reasons that the texts were transmitted for hundreds of years. Habib had a commitment to secularism. He led the historians at the Indian History Congress of 1998 who moved a resolution against the saffronisation of history, to counter Irfan Habib, Murli Manohar Joshi released a book which rebuts the history of what the former minister calls ‘Habib & Co’. Among the first six Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowships,1968, watumull Prize of American Historical Association,1982. Yash Bharti,2016 Books Authored The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556–1707, first published in 1963 by Asia Publishing House. Second, extensively revised, edition published in 1999 by Oxford University Press, an Atlas of the Mughal Empire, Political and Economic Maps With Detailed Notes, Bibliography, and Index
36.
Ram Sharan Sharma
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Ram Sharan Sharma, commonly referred to as R. S. Sharma, was an eminent historian and academic of Ancient and early Medieval India. He taught at Patna University and Delhi University and was visiting faculty at University of Toronto and he also was a senior fellow at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. He was a University Grants Commission National Fellow and the President of Indian History Congress in 1975 and it was during his tenure as the Dean of Delhi Universitys History Department that major expansion of the department took place in the 1970s. The creation of most of the positions in the Department were the results of his efforts and he was the founding Chairman of the Indian Council of Historical Research and a historian of international repute. Professor Bipan Chandra paid him the most handsome tribute, After D. D, Sharma was the greatest historian of India. ”During his lifetime, he authored 115 books published in fifteen languages. His pioneering effort resolved the border dispute forever as recorded by Sachchinand Sinha in a letter to Rajendra Prasad, Sharma was born in Barauni, Begusarai, Bihar. With great difficulty his father sponsored his education till matriculation, after that he kept on getting scholarships and even did private tuitions to support his education. His later association with Dr. R. S and he passed matriculation in 1937 and joined Patna College, where he studied for six years from intermediate to postgraduate classes. He did his PhD from the School of Oriental and African Studies and he taught at colleges in Arrah and Bhagalpur before coming to Patna College, Patna University in 1946. He became the head of the Department of History at Patna University from 1958–1973 and he became a university professor in 1958. He served as professor and Dean of the History Department at Delhi University from 1973–1978 and he got the Jawaharlal Fellowship in 1969. He was the founding Chairperson of Indian Council of Historical Research from 1972–1977 and he is a member of many academic committees and associations. He has also been recipient of the K. P. Jayaswal Fellowship of the K. P and he got D. Litt from The University of Burdwan and a similar degree from Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi. He is also the president of the group of the scholastic magazine Social Science Probings. He is a member of the Board of Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library and his works have been translated into many Indian languages apart from being written in Hindi and English. Fifteen of his works have translated into Bengali. Apart from Indian languages many of his works have translated into many foreign languages like Japanese, French, German, Russian. In the opinion of fellow historian Professor Irfan Habib, D. D. Kosambi and R. S. Sharma, together with Daniel Thorner, brought peasants into the study of Indian history for the first time
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Amartya Sen
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Amartya Kumar Sen is an Indian economist and philosopher, who since 1972 has taught and worked in the United Kingdom and the United States. He is currently the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor at Harvard University and he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 and Indias Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics. Sen was born in a Bengali Baidya family in Manikganj, to Ashutosh Sen, Sens family was from Wari and Manikganj, Dhaka, both in present-day Bangladesh. Sens mother Amita Sen was the daughter of Kshiti Mohan Sen and he served as the Vice Chancellor of Visva-Bharati University for some years. Sen began his education at St Gregorys School in Dhaka in 1940. From fall 1941, Sen studied at Patha Bhavana, Santiniketan, the school had many progressive features, at the school, any focus on examinations or competitive testing was deeply frowned upon. In addition, the school stressed cultural diversity, and embraced influences from the rest of the world. In 1951, he went to Presidency College, Kolkata, where he earned a B. A. in Economics with First Class, with a minor in Mathematics, while at Presidency, Sen was diagnosed with oral cancer, and given a 15% chance of living five years. With radiation treatment, he survived, and in 1953 he moved to Trinity College, Cambridge and he was elected President of the Cambridge Majlis. While Sen was officially a Ph and he served in that position, starting the new Economics Department, during 1956 to 1958. Meanwhile, Sen was elected to a Prize Fellowship at Trinity College and his interest in philosophy, however, dates back to his college days at Presidency, where he read books on philosophy and debated philosophical themes. In Cambridge, there were major debates between supporters of Keynesian economics on the one hand, and the neo-classical economists skeptical of Keynes, quentin Skinner notes that Sen was a member of the secret society Cambridge Apostles during his time at Cambridge. Sens work on Choice of Technique complemented that of Maurice Dobb, in other words, workers were expected to demand no improvement in their standard of living despite having become more productive. Sens papers in the late 1960s and early 1970s helped develop the theory of social choice, which first came to prominence in the work by the American economist Kenneth Arrow. Sen also argued that the Bengal famine was caused by an economic boom that raised food prices. Sens interest in famine stemmed from personal experience, as a nine-year-old boy, he witnessed the Bengal famine of 1943, in which three million people perished. This staggering loss of life was unnecessary, Sen later concluded, in Poverty and Famines, Sen revealed that in many cases of famine, food supplies were not significantly reduced. In Bengal, for example, food production, while down on the year, was higher than in previous non-famine years
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Praful Bidwai
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Praful Bidwai was an Indian journalist, political analyst, and activist. He was known for his analysis of Indias politics and economics. In Bidwais memory, his friends, including The Transnational Institute, created the Praful Bidwai Memorial Award intended to honour and highlight courageous and independent voices in journalism. Praful Bidwai was a political analyst and commentator, a social researcher. He died by choking on food on 23 June 2015 while attending a conference in Amsterdam, Bidwais journalistic career spanned four decades. His first notable work in journalism was as a columnist for the Economic and Political Weekly and he then worked for magazines and newspapers including Business India, Financial Express and The Times of India between 1981 and 1993, eventually becoming its senior editor. Bidwai was a columnist whose articles were published regularly in the Hindustan Times, Frontline, Rediff. com and he had also been published in The Guardian, The Nation, Le Monde Diplomatique, and Il Manifesto. Praful was a known face of left intellectual tradition in Indian media. Analysis of gradual erosion of left in Indian politics was the subject of his deep study and he himself had taken part in various left-leaning regional movements in the past and was in long term association with them even after. The last book that he authored just a few months before his death was regarding the possibilities of the revival of Indian left politics and he was incredibly anti-communal and championed civil liberty and secularism. Bidwai had been a Professorial Fellow at the Centre for Social Development, New Delhi and he had also served as a member of the Indian Council of Social Science Research, the Central Advisory Board on Education, and the National Book Trust. Bidwai was also a peace activist with anti-Imperialist moorings. Along with Achin Vanaik, Bidwai was the author of New Nukes, India, Pakistan, in 2000, Bidwai and Vanaik were awarded the Sean McBride International Peace Prize by the International Peace Bureau in recognition of their work opposing nuclear weapons development in South Asia. Praful Bidwai was a fellow of the Transnational Institute, an India That Can Say Yes, A Climate-Responsible Development Agenda for Copenhagen and Beyond South Asia on a Short Fuse. Nuclear Politics and the Future of Global Disarmament, with Achin Vanaik, India, Pakistan and Global Nuclear Disarmament Testing Times. The Global Stake in a Nuclear Test Ban, with Achin Vanaik Religion, Religiosity and Communalism, with Harbans Mukhia and Achin Vanaik India Under Siege. Challenges Within and Without, with Muchkund Dubey, Anuradha Chenoy and Arun Ghosh Atoms for Peace, A Failed Promise In, Survey of the Environment 99, The Hindu,1999 Indias Nuclear Daze. The Domestic Politics of Nuclearization In, Testing the Limits, TNI/IPS Amsterdam/Washington, August 1998 Nuclear India, A Short History In, Out of Nuclear Darkness
