1.
Saint
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A saint, also historically known as a hallow, is a term used for a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness or likeness to God. Depending on the context and denomination, the term also retains its original Christian meaning, as any believer who is in Christ and in whom Christ dwells, whether in Heaven or on Earth. Depending on the religion, saints are recognized either by official ecclesiastical declaration, the English word saint comes from the Latin sanctus. The word translated the Greek ἅγιος, which derives from the verb ἁγιάζω, the word ἅγιος appears 229 times in the Greek New Testament, and its English translation 60 times in the corresponding text of the King James Version of the Bible. In the New Testament, saint did not denote the deceased who had recognized as especially holy or emulable. Many religions also use similar concepts to venerate persons worthy of some honor, the anthropologist Lawrence Babb in an article about Sathya Sai Baba asks the question Who is a saint. These saintly figures, he asserts, are the points of spiritual force-fields. They exert powerful attractive influence on followers but touch the lives of others in transforming ways as well. In the Bible, only one person is called a saint, They envied Moses also in the camp. The apostle Paul declared himself to be less than the least of all saints in Ephesians 3,8, in the Catholic Church, a saint is anyone in Heaven, whether recognized on Earth or not. There are many persons that the Church believes to be in Heaven who have not been formally canonized, sometimes the word saint also denotes living Christians. They remind us that the Church is holy, can never stop being holy and is called to show the holiness of God by living the life of Christ, the Catholic Church teaches that it does not make or create saints, but rather recognizes them. Proofs of heroicity required in the process of beatification will serve to illustrate in detail the general principles exposed above upon proof of their holiness or likeness to God. On 3 January 993, Pope John XV became the first pope to proclaim a person a saint, on the petition of the German ruler, before that time, the popular cults, or venerations, of saints had been local and spontaneous. Pope John XVIII subsequently permitted a cult of five Polish martyrs, walter of Pontoise was the last person in Western Europe to be canonized by an authority other than the Pope, Hugh de Boves, the Archbishop of Rouen, canonized him in 1153. Thenceforth a decree of Pope Alexander III in 1170 reserved the prerogative of canonization to the Pope, one source claims that there are over 10,000 named saints and beatified people from history, the Roman Martyrology and Orthodox sources, but no definitive head count. Alban Butler published Lives of the Saints in 1756, including a total of 1,486 saints, the latest revision of this book, edited by Rev. Herbert Thurston, SJ and British author Donald Attwater, contains the lives of 2,565 saints. Monsignor Robert Sarno, an official of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints of the Holy See, expressed that it is impossible to give an exact number of saints
2.
Third Order of St. Francis
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The Third Order of Saint Francis, historically known as the Order of Penance of Saint Francis, is a third order within the Franciscan movement of the Catholic Church. It includes both congregations of vowed men and women and fraternities of men and women living standard lives in the world and it has been believed that the Third Order of Saint Francis was the oldest of all third orders, but historical evidence does not support this. Similar institutions are found in documentation of some monastic orders in the 12th century, in addition, a third order has been found among the Humiliati, confirmed together with its rule by Pope Innocent III in 1201. In 1978, the Third Order of Saint Francis was re-organised, with the new rule, the name used by the secular branch of the order was changed to the Secular Franciscan Order. There also are Third Order, Society of St. Francis within the Anglican & Episcopal Church. Tertiaries, or what is known as Third Orders, are persons who live according to the Third Rule of religious orders. There are differing opinions as to the origins of the Third Order of St. Francis, another group of scholars believe that St. Francis name became associated with pre-existing penitential lay-confraternities, without his having any special connection with or influence on them. Thomas of Celano and others held that Francis did indeed found a Third Order, in the composition of this rule St. Francis was assisted by his friend Cardinal Ugolino. As to the place where the Third Order was first introduced nothing certain is known, the preponderance of opinion is for Florence, chiefly on the authority of Mariano of Florence, or Faenza, who cites the first papal bull known on the subject. The less authoritative Fioretti assigns Cannara, a town two hours walk from the Portiuncula, as the birthplace of the Third Order. Mariano and the Bull for Faenza suggest that 1221 was the earliest date for founding of the Third Order, thomas of Celano wrote that the oldest preserved rule was dated 1221. This rule contained originally twelve chapters, a thirteenth was added under Pope Gregory IX, among other things, it prescribes simplicity in dress, considerable fasting and abstinence, and the canonical office or other prayers instead. Because of the prohibition of bearing arms, the followers of this came into conflict with local authorities. In the 13th century, there were Third Order Confraternities with local variations, in 1289 Pope Nicholas IV confirmed the rule in the bull Supra montem. The rule published and approved by Pope Nicholas IV was substantially the same as the oldest 1221 text, Nicholas IV introduced unity of rule and of direction into the Third Order, which was put under the care of the Friars Minor. By the 15th century, numerous individuals living under the Rule of the Third Order were living in small communities and they had been living under the same rule as the married penitents who led more routine forms of life. A papal decree of 1447 organized the more isolated communities into a new, from that point, members were defined either as Third Order Regular, or as the Third Order Secular, for those members of the Order who lived in the world. In the later centuries of the Franciscan movement, the Order of Regular Tertiaries was considered as equivalent to the friars of the First Order, the influence of the Franciscan Third Order Secular upon the society of medieval Europe was significant
3.
Virgin
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Virginity is the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. Like chastity, the concept of virginity has traditionally involved sexual abstinence, the concept of virginity usually involves moral or religious issues and can have consequences in terms of social status and in interpersonal relationships. Although virginity has social implications and had significant legal implications in some societies in the past, the term virgin originally only referred to sexually inexperienced women, but has evolved to encompass a range of definitions, as found in traditional, modern, and ethical concepts. The social implications of virginity still remain in societies. The word virgin comes via Old French virgine from the form of Latin virgo, genitive virgin-is. As in Latin, the English word is often used with wider reference, by relaxing the age. In this case, more mature women can be virgins, men can be virgins, and potential initiates into many fields can be colloquially termed virgins, for example, in the latter usage, virgin means uninitiated. The Latin word likely arose by analogy with a suit of lexemes based on vireo, meaning to be green, fresh or flourishing, mostly with botanic reference—in particular, virga meaning strip of wood. The first known use of virgin in English is found in a Middle English manuscript held at Trinity College, Cambridge of about 1200, martirs, and confessors, and uirgines maked faier bode inne to women. By about 1300, the word was expanded to also to Mary. These are three of the eighteen definitions of virgin from the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, most of the OED1 definitions, however, are similar. The German word for virgin is Jungfrau, Jungfrau literally means young woman, but is not used in this sense. Instead junge Frau can be used, the rather dated German word for a young woman, without implications regarding sexuality, is Fräulein. Fräulein was used in German as a title of respect, equivalent to current usage of Miss in English, Jungfrau is the word reserved specifically for sexual inexperience. As Frau means woman, it suggests a female referent, unlike English, German also has a specific word for a male virgin Jüngling. It is, however, dated too and rarely used, Jungfrau, with some masculine modifier, is more typical, as evidenced by the film, The 40-Year-Old Virgin, about a 40-year-old male virgin, titled in German, Jungfrau, männlich, sucht…. Note that the used for the starsign virgo also is Jungfrau. German also distinguishes between young women and girls, who are denoted by the word Mädchen, the English cognate maid was often used to imply virginity, especially in poetry - e. g. Maid Marian, the love interest of the legendary outlaw Robin Hood in English folklore
4.
Recluse
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A recluse is a person who lives in voluntary seclusion from the public and society. The word is from the Latin recludere, which means shut up or sequester, historically, the word referred to a hermits total isolation from the world. Celebrated figures who spent, or have spent, significant portions of their lives as recluses include Virgil, Michelangelo, Isaac Newton, Emily Brontë, J. D. In Japan, an estimated 1.2 million people are part of the phenomenon of Hikikomori or social withdrawal, entrepreneur Kim Smiley wrote, We live in a society that stigmatizes seclusion, yet has an almost rabid fascination with it at the same time. A survey of history shows that some of the most brilliant thinkers, writers, springfield, Massachusetts, C. & G. Merriam Co
5.
Viterbo
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See also Viterbo, Texas and Viterbo University. For the municipality in Colombia, see Viterbo, Caldas Viterbo listen is an ancient city and comune in the Lazio region of central Italy and it conquered and absorbed the neighboring town of Ferento in its early history. It is approximately 80 kilometres north of GRA on the Via Cassia, the historic center of the city is surrounded by medieval walls, still intact, built during the 11th and 12th centuries. Entrance to the center of the city is through ancient gates. Apart from agriculture, the resources of Viterbos area are pottery, marble. The town is home to the Italian gold reserves, an important Academy of Fine Arts, the University of Tuscia, and it is located in a wide thermal area, attracting many tourists from the whole of central Italy. The first report of the new city dates to the eighth century CE and it was fortified in 773 by the Lombard King Desiderius in his vain attempt to conquer Rome. In 1164, Frederick Barbarossa made Viterbo the seat of his antipope Paschal III, three years later he gave it the title of city and used its militias against Rome. In 1172, Viterbo started its expansion, destroying the old city of Ferento, in this age it was a rich and prosperous comune, one of the most important of Central Italy, with a population of almost 60,000. In 1207, Pope Innocent III held a council in the cathedral, in 1210, however, Viterbo managed to defeat Emperor Otto IV and was again at war against Rome. In the thirteenth century it was ruled alternately by the tyrants of the Gatti, Frederick II drew Viterbo to the Ghibelline side in 1240, but when the citizens expelled his turbulent German troops in 1243 he returned and besieged the city, but in vain. From that point Viterbo was always a loyal Guelph city, between 1257 and 1261 it was the seat of Pope Alexander IV, who also died there. His successor Urban IV was elected in Viterbo, in 1266–1268, Clement IV chose Viterbo as the base of his ruthless fight against the Hohenstaufen. Here, from the loggia of the palace, he excommunicated the army of Conradin of Swabia which was passing on the Via Cassia. Other popes elected in Viterbo were Gregory X and John XXI, Nicholas III and they were subsequently excommunicated, and the popes avoided Viterbo for 86 years. Without the popes, the city fell into the hands of the Di Vicos, in the fourteenth century, Giovanni di Vico had created a seignory extending to Civitavecchia, Tarquinia, Bolsena, Orvieto, Todi, Narni and Amelia. His dominion was crushed by Cardinal Gil de Albornoz in 1354, sent by the Avignonese popes to recover the Papal States, but Pope Boniface IXs troops drove him away in 1396 and established a firm papal suzerainty over the city. The last Di Vico to hold power in Viterbo was Giacomo, thenceforth Viterbo became a city of secondary importance, following the vicissitudes of the Papal States
6.
Papal States
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The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
7.
Canonization
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Originally, persons were recognized as saints without any formal process. Later, different processes were developed, such as used today in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The first persons honored as saints were the martyrs, pious legends of their deaths were considered affirmations of the truth of their faith in Christ. The Roman Rites Canon of the Mass contains only the names of martyrs, along with that of the Blessed Virgin Mary and, since 1962, that of St. Joseph her spouse. By the fourth century, however, confessors—people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word, examples of such people are Saint Hilarion and Saint Ephrem the Syrian in the East, and Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Hilary of Poitiers in the West. Their names were inserted in the diptychs, the lists of saints venerated in the liturgy. Since the witness of their lives was not as unequivocal as that of the martyrs and this process is often referred to as local canonization. This approval was required even for veneration of a reputed martyr, and Saint Cyprian recommended that the utmost diligence be observed in investigating the claims of those who were said to have died for the faith. Evidence was sought from the records of the trials or from people who had been present at the trials. Saint Augustine of Hippo tells of the procedure which was followed in his day for the recognition of a martyr, the bishop of the diocese in which the martyrdom took place set up a canonical process for conducting the inquiry with the utmost severity. Other churches still use the older practice, in the Catholic Church, canonization is a decree that allows universal veneration of the saint in the liturgy of the Roman Rite. For permission to venerate merely locally, only beatification is needed, only acceptance of the cultus by the Pope made the cultus universal, because he alone can rule the universal Catholic Church. In the Medieval West, the Apostolic See was asked to intervene in the question of canonizations so as to more authoritative decisions. Swibert by Pope Leo III in 804, thereafter, recourse to the judgment of the Pope was had more frequently. Pope Urban II, Pope Calixtus II, and Pope Eugene III conformed to this discipline, a decree of Pope Alexander III1170 gave the prerogative to the ope thenceforth, so far as the Western Church was concerned. However, the procedure initiated by the decretal of Pope Alexander III was confirmed by a bull of Pope Innocent III issued on the occasion of the canonization of St. Cunegunda in 1200. The bull of Pope Innocent III resulted in increasingly elaborate inquiries to the Apostolic See concerning canonizations and he further regulated both of these acts by issuing his Decreta servanda in beatificatione et canonizatione Sanctorum on 12 March 1642. His work published from 1734-8 governed the proceedings until 1917, the article Beatification and canonization process in 1914 describes the procedures followed until the promulgation of the Codex of 1917
8.
Pope Callistus III
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Pope Callixtus III or Callistus III, born Alfons de Borja, was Pope from 8 April 1455 to his death in 1458. He is the most recent pope to have taken the name of Callixtus upon his election. He was also responsible for the retrial of Joan of Arc that saw her vindicated, a member of the powerful Borgia family, Callixtus III was the uncle of Pope Alexander VI, whom he appointed to the College of Cardinals. Alfons de Borja was born in La Torreta in 1378, La Torreta was at the time in the Señorío de Torre de Canals but now a neighborhood of Canals in Valencia. At the time he was born in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon and he was the son of Domingo de Borja and Francina Llançol. He was the eldest child and his siblings were Isabel, Juana, Catalina and he was baptized at Saint Marys Basilica in Xativa, where he is now honored with a statue in his memory. During the Great Western Schism he supported Antipope Benedict XIII and was also the force behind Antipope Clement VIIIs submission to Pope Martin V in 1429. Borgia studied grammar, logic and the arts in Valencia and went in 1392 to the University of Lleida where he obtained a doctorate in canon law and civil law. His early career was spent as a professor of law at the University of Lleida and he served as a diplomat to the Kings of Aragon. When he was a priest he attended a sermon that Vincent Ferrer - future saint - held around 1411. At the end of his message, the Dominican said to the pope, My son, you one day will be called to be the ornament of your house. You will be invested with the highest dignity that can fall to the lot of man, after my death, I shall be the object of your special honour. Endeavor to persevere in a life of virtue, as pope, Borja canonized Ferrer on 3 June 1455. Borgia was chosen as a delegate of the Diocese of Lerida to the Council of Constance in 1416, because of this he went to Barcelona as a representative of his diocese in a synod. In 1418 he was named as the rector of San Nicolas of Valencia and he was also the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Lerida from 1420 to 1423. In 1424 he resigned his position and dedicated his service to the Aragonese king, in 1424 he was named as the apostolic administrator of the see of Mallorca. It was at time that the king desired that he be made a Cardinal. Borgia was appointed Bishop of Valencia by Pope Martin V on 20 August 1429 and was consecrated on 31 August 1429 and he authorized Pedro Llorens to take possession of the see in his name
9.
Shrine
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A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which offerings are made is called an altar. Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, or in the home, a shrine may become a focus of a cult image. Many shrines are located buildings and in the temples designed specifically for worship, such as a church in Christianity. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in the building, in such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine. In classical temple architecture, the shrine may be synonymous with the cella, historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, and also in modern faiths, such as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official religion. Small household shrines are common among the Chinese and people from South and Southeast Asia, whether Hindu. Usually a small lamp and small offerings are kept daily by the shrine, Buddhist household shrines must be on a shelf above the head, Chinese shrines must stand directly on the floor. Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the bottom of many gardens, following various religions, including historically. Shrines are found in most, though not all, religions, Shrines therefore attract the practice of pilgrimage. Shrines are found in many, though not all, forms of Christianity, Roman Catholicism, the largest denomination of Christianity, has many shrines, as do Orthodox Christianity and Anglicanism. For a shrine to be described as national, the approval of the Episcopal Conference is necessary, for it to be described as international, the approval of the Holy See is required. Another use of the shrine in colloquial Catholic terminology is a niche or alcove in most – especially larger – churches used by parishioners when praying privately in the church. They were also called Devotional Altars, since they could look like small Side Altars or bye-altars, Shrines were always centered on some image of Christ or a saint – for instance, a statue, painting, mural or mosaic, and may have had a reredos behind them. However, Mass would not be celebrated at them, they were used to aid or give a visual focus for prayers. Side altars, where Mass could actually be celebrated, were used in a way to shrines by parishioners
10.
Longview, Washington
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Longview is a city in Cowlitz County, Washington, United States. It is the city of the Longview, Washington Metropolitan Statistical Area. Longviews population was 36,648 at the time of the 2010 census, the city is located in southwestern Washington, at the junction of the Cowlitz and Columbia rivers. Longview shares a border with Kelso to the east, which is the county seat, the Cowlitz Indian Tribe, a federally recognized tribe of Cowlitz people, is headquartered in Longview. The Long-Bell Lumber Company, led by Robert A. Long, a total of 14,000 workers were needed to run the two large mills as well as lumber camps that were planned. The number of workers needed was more than a town, or the nearest town. Long planned and built a city in 1921 that could support a population of up to 50,000. Several buildings in the city were built from Longs private funds, Longview was the location of Mount Coffin, an ancestral burial ground for the local indigenous people. The Longview area was first settled by European-Americans, led by pioneers Harry and Rebecca Jane Huntington, the area was named Monticello in honor of Thomas Jeffersons home in Virginia. In 1852 a group assembled in what would be called the Monticello Convention to petition Congress for statehood to be called Columbia, Congress agreed to statehood but as Washington, after President Washington, to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia. A monument to the convention is located near the Longview Civic Center, the area remained sparsely populated for nearly 60 years, consisting mostly of farmland and wilderness. In 1918, Missouri timber baron Robert A, Long decided to move his operation out to the west coast, owing to the Long-Bell Lumber Companys dwindling supplies in the south. By 1921, Wesley Vandercook had decided to build a mill near the town of Kelso. It was apparent that Kelso, with a population of barely 2,000 would not be able to support the approximately 14,000 men that would be required to run the mill. The Long-Bell company contracted with George Kessler, a city planner based in St. Louis, Longview was officially incorporated on February 14,1924. At the time of its conception, Longview was the planned city of its magnitude to have ever been conceived of. A number of prominent buildings in Longview were purchased with R. A. Longs personal funds, Long High School, the Longview Public Library, the YMCA building and the Monticello Hotel. A park, a bridge, and many buildings are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, along with the Civic Center, the city has seven council members and a mayor as well as a city manager
11.
Calendar of saints
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The word feast in this context does not mean a large meal, typically a celebratory one, but instead an annual religious celebration, a day dedicated to a particular saint. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a calendar of saints is called a Menologion, Menologion may also mean a set of icons on which saints are depicted in the order of the dates of their feasts, often made in two panels. As the number of recognized saints increased during Late Antiquity and the first half of the Middle Ages, eventually every day of the year had at least one saint who was commemorated on that date. To deal with this increase, some saints were moved to days in some traditions or completely removed. For example, St. Perpetua and Felicity died on 7 March, when the 1969 reform of the Catholic calendar moved him to 28 January, they were moved back to 7 March. Both days can thus be said to be their feast day, the Roman Catholic calendars of saints in their various forms, which list those saints celebrated in the entire church, contains only a selection of the saints for each of its days. A fuller list is found in the Roman Martyrology, and some of the saints there may be celebrated locally, Saint Martin of Tours is said to be the first or at least one of the first non-martyrs to be venerated as a saint. The title confessor was used for saints, who had confessed their faith in Christ by their lives rather than by their deaths. Martyrs are regarded as dying in the service of the Lord, a broader range of titles was used later, such as, Virgin, Pastor, Bishop, Monk, Priest, Founder, Abbot, Apostle, Doctor of the Church. Pope Pius XII added a common formula for Popes, the 1962 Roman Missal of Pope John XXIII omitted the common of Apostles, assigning a proper Mass to every feast day of an Apostle. The present Roman Missal has common formulas for the Dedication of Churches, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Martyrs, Pastors, Doctors of the Church, Virgins, some Christians continue the tradition of dating by saints days, their works may appear dated as The Feast of Saint Martin. Poets such as John Keats commemorate the importance of The Eve of Saint Agnes, as different Christian jurisdictions parted ways theologically, differing lists of saints began to develop. In the present ordinary form of the Roman Rite, feast days are ranked as solemnities and those who use even earlier forms of the Roman Rite rank feast days as Doubles, Semidoubles, and Simples. See Ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite, in the Eastern Orthodox Church the ranking of feasts varies from church to church. In the Russian Orthodox Church they are, Great Feasts, middle, each portion of such feasts may also be called feasts as follows, All-Night Vigils, Polyeleos, Great Doxology, Sextuple. There are also distinctions between Simple feasts and Double, in Double Feasts the order of hymns and readings for each feast are rigidly instructed in Typikon, the liturgy book. In the Church of England, there are Principal Feasts and Principal Holy Days, Festivals, Lesser Festivals, and Commemorations. com
12.
Saint symbolism
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Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings. Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life, symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem, the study of these forms part of iconography in art history. They were particularly used so that the illiterate could recognize a scene and they are often carried in the hand by the Saint. Attributes often vary with time or geography, especially between Eastern Christianity and the West. Orthodox images more often contained inscriptions with the names of saints, many of the most prominent saints, like Saint Peter and Saint John the Evangelist can also be recognised by a distinctive facial type – as can Christ. Some attributes are general, such as the palm frond carried by martyrs, the use of a symbol in a work of art depicting a Saint reminds people who is being shown and of their story. The following is a list of some of these attributes, a New Dictionary of Saints, East and West. Catholic Forum Patron Saints Index Saints Badges or Shields On the Canonizations of John Paul II
13.
Crucifix
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A crucifix is an image of Jesus on the cross, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the corpus, the crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians, and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts. The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations, the crucifix emphasizes Jesus sacrifice — his death by crucifixion, which Christians believe brought about the redemption of mankind. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than any other shape, Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional corpus, but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief. Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, an entire painting of the Crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not a crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood. By the late Middle Ages these were a feature of Western churches. The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix consists of an upright post or stipes, there may also be a short projecting nameplate, showing the letters INRI. The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful, more sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy, including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses. Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering, in Orthodoxy he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christs suffering. The S-shaped position of Jesus body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy, by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. Its in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus suffering and realistic details, during the 13th century the suffering Italian model triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the S-shape is generally less pronounced. He may be robed as a prophet, crowned as a king, on some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha, the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew the place of the skull. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental, is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, and also privately
14.
Patron saint
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Catholics believe that patron saints, having already transcended to the metaphysical, are able to intercede effectively for the needs of their special charges. Historically, a practice has also occurred in many Islamic lands. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active, professions sometimes have a patron saint owing to that individual being involved somewhat with it, although some of the connections were tenuous. Lacking such a saint, an occupation would have a patron whose acts or miracles in some way recall the profession and it is, however, generally discouraged in some Protestant branches such as Calvinism, where the practice is considered a form of idolatry. In Islam, the veneration or commemoration and recognition of saints is found in many branches of traditional Sunnism
15.
Secular Franciscan Order
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The Secular Franciscan Order is a community of Catholic men and women in the world who seek to pattern their lives after Jesus in the spirit of Francis of Assisi. Secular Franciscans are tertiaries, or members of the Third Order of Saint Francis founded by Francis of Assisi 800 years ago. Originally known as the Brothers and Sisters of Penance, the Order is open to any Catholic not bound by religious vows to another order and is made up of both the laity and secular clergy. Although Secular Franciscans make a profession and are consecrated, they are not bound by public vows as are religious living in community. The Third Order Regular, which out of the Third Order Secular, do make religious vows. In the composition of this rule St. Francis was assisted by his friend Cardinal Ugolino di Conti, as to the place where the Third Order was first introduced nothing certain is known. The preponderance of opinion is for Florence, chiefly on the authority of Mariano of Florence, or Faenza, the less authoritative Fioretti assigns Cannara, a small town two hours walk from the Portiuncula, as the birthplace of the Third Order. Mariano and the Bull for Faenza suggest that 1221 was the earliest date for founding of the Third Order, Thomas of Celano wrote that the oldest preserved rule was dated 1221. Another story tells of Luchesius Modestini, a merchant from Poggibonzi. He and his wife Buonadonna were moved to dedicate their lives to prayer, while many couples of that era who experienced a religious conversion chose to separate and enter monasteries, this couple felt called to live out this new way of life together. Francis was moved to write a Rule for them which would allow them to do so, thus began the Brothers and Sisters of Penance in the Franciscan movement, which came to be called the Franciscan Third Order. The Chiesa della Buona Morte in the city of Cannara, claims to be the birthplace of the Third Order, another contender from the same city is the Church of S. Francesco. This way of life was quickly embraced by many couples and single men and women who did not feel called to the poverty of the friars and nuns. They zealously practiced the lessons Francis had taught them concerning prayer, humility, peacemaking, self-denial, fidelity to the duties of their state, like Francis himself, they cared for lepers and outcasts. Even canonical hermits were able to follow this Rule and bring themselves into the orbit of the Franciscan vision, the Third Order of St. Francis was established by the Recollects at Quebec in 1671, and some years later at Three Rivers and Montreal. In 1681 a Recollect notes that many people of Quebec belong to the Third Order. After the cession of Canada to England in 1763 following the French defeat in the Seven Years War, in the 1840s, it began to revive. It was re-established about 1840 by Ignatius Bourget, Bishop of Montreal, noted naturalist Léon Abel Provancher was particularly active
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Commune
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In addition to the communal economy, consensus decision-making, non-hierarchical structures and ecological living have become important core principles for many communes. There are many contemporary intentional communities all over the world, a list of which can be found at the Fellowship for Intentional Community, for the usually larger-scale, political entities in communist political theory, see socialist communes, which are similar but distinct social organizations. Some communes, such as the ashrams of the Vedanta Society or the Theosophical commune Lomaland, formed around spiritual leaders, for others, the glue is simply the desire for a more shared, sociable lifestyle. Moreover, some find it is more economical to live communally. The central characteristics of communes, or core principles that define communes, have expressed in various forms over the years. At the start of the 1970s, The New Communes author Ron E. Roberts classified communes as a subclass of a category of Utopias. Roberts three listed items were, first, egalitarianism – that communes specifically rejected hierarchy or graduations of social status as being necessary to social order. Second, human scale – that members of some communes saw the scale of society as it was organised as being too industrialized. And third, that communes were consciously anti-bureaucratic, twenty five years later, Dr. Sharing everyday life and facilities, a commune is an idealized form of family, being a new sort of primary group. Commune members have emotional bonds to the group rather than to any sub-group. With the simple definition of a commune as a community with 100% income sharing. Some of these are institutions such as abbeys and monasteries. Many communes are part of the New Age movement, in Germany, a large number of the intentional communities define themselves as communes and there is a network of political communes called Kommuja with about 30 member groups. Germany has a tradition of intentional communities going back to the groups inspired by the principles of Lebensreform in the 19th century. Later, about 100 intentional communities were started in the Weimar Republic after World War I, in the 1960s, there was a resurgence of communities calling themselves communes, starting with the Kommune 1 in Berlin, followed by Kommune 2 and Kommune 3 in Wolfsburg. Today, there are dozens of urban communes growing in the cities of Israel, the urban kibbutzim are smaller and more anarchist. Most of the communes in Israel emphasize social change, education. Some of the communes have members who are graduates of zionist-socialist youth movements, like HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed, HaMahanot HaOlim
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Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
18.
Mysticism
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Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths, the term mysticism has Ancient Greek origins with various historically determined meanings. Derived from the Greek word μυω, meaning to conceal, mysticism referred to the liturgical, spiritual. During the early period, the definition of mysticism grew to include a broad range of beliefs. In modern times, mysticism has acquired a limited definition, with applications, as meaning the aim at the union with the Absolute. This limited definition has been applied to a range of religious traditions and practices. Since the 1960s scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist approaches in the research of mystical experiences. The perennial position is now largely dismissed by scholars, most scholars using a contextual approach, Mysticism is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning I conceal, and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning an initiate. The verb μυώ has received a different meaning in the Greek language. The primary meanings it has are induct and initiate, secondary meanings include introduce, make someone aware of something, train, familiarize, give first experience of something. The related form of the verb appears in the New Testament. As explained in Strongs Concordance, it properly means shutting the eyes and its figurative meaning is to be initiated into the mystery revelation. The meaning derives from the rites of the pagan mysteries. Also appearing in the New Testament is the related noun μυστήριον, the term means anything hidden, a mystery or secret, of which initiation is necessary. According to Thayers Greek Lexicon, the term μυστήριον in classical Greek meant a hidden thing, a particular meaning it took in Classical antiquity was a religious secret or religious secrets, confided only to the initiated and not to be communicated by them to ordinary mortals. In the Septuagint and the New Testament the meaning it took was that of a purpose or counsel. It is sometimes used for the hidden wills of humans, but is often used for the hidden will of God. Elsewhere in the Bible it takes the meaning of the mystic or hidden sense of things and it is used for the secrets behind sayings, names, or behind images seen in visions and dreams
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Mary, mother of Jesus
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Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
20.
Penance
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Penance is repentance of sins as well as the proper name of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession. It also plays a part in non-sacramental confession among Lutherans and other Protestants, the word penance derives from Old French and Latin paenitentia, both of which derive from the same root meaning repentance, the desire to be forgiven. Word derivations occur in many languages, rather, Gods kindness is meant to lead you to repentance. In his Of Justification By Faith, Calvin says, without forgiveness no man is pleasing to God, nonetheless, in traditions formed by a Calvinist or Zwinglian sensibility there has traditionally been a stress on reconciliation as a precondition to fellowship. The attitude of penance or repentance can be externalized in acts that a believer imposes on himself or herself, Penitential activity is particularly common during the season of Lent and Holy Week. In some cultural traditions, this week, which commemorates the Passion of Christ, Advent is another season during which, to a lesser extent, penances are performed. Acts of self-discipline are used as tokens of repentance, easier acts of self-discipline include devoting time to prayer or reading of the Bible or other spiritual books. Examples of harder acts of self-discipline are fasting, continence, abstaining from alcohol or tobacco, self-flagellation and the wearing of a cilice are more rarely used. Such acts are associated also with the sacrament, in early Christianity, public penance was imposed on penitents, the severity of which varied according to the seriousness of the offences forgiven. The act imposed is called a penance or epitemia. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, penance is usually called Sacred Mystery of Confession, in Orthodoxy, the intention of the sacramental mystery of Holy Confession is to provide reconciliation with God through means of healing. Similar to the Eastern Catholic Churches, in the Eastern Orthodox Church there are no confessionals, traditionally the penitent stands or kneels before either the Icon of Christ the Teacher or in front of an Icon of Christ, Not Made by Hands. This is because in Orthodox sacramental theology, confession is not made to the priest, but to Christ, on an analogion in front of the penitent has been placed a Gospel Book and a Crucifix. The penitent venerates the Gospel Book and the cross and kneels and this is to show humility before the whole church and before Christ. Once they are ready to start, the priest says, “Blessed is our God, always, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages, ” reads the Trisagion Prayers, the penitent then accuses himself of sins. The priest quietly and patiently listens, gently asking questions to encourage the penitent not to any sins out of fear or shame. After the confessant reveals all their sins, the priest offers advice, the priest may modify the prayer rule of the penitent, or even prescribe another rule, if needed to combat the sins the penitent struggles most with. Penances, known as epitemia, are given with a therapeutic intent, epitemia are neither a punishment nor merely a pious action, but are specifically aimed at healing the spiritual ailment that has been confessed
21.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Frederick II was a Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily in the Middle Ages, a member of the House of Hohenstaufen. His political and cultural ambitions, based in Sicily and stretching through Italy to Germany, however, his enemies, especially the popes, prevailed, and his dynasty collapsed soon after his death. As such, he was King of Germany, of Italy, at the age of three, he was crowned King of Sicily as a co-ruler with his mother, Constance of Hauteville, the daughter of Roger II of Sicily. His other royal title was King of Jerusalem by virtue of marriage, Pope Gregory IX went so far as to call him an Antichrist. Speaking six languages, Frederick was a patron of science. He played a role in promoting literature through the Sicilian School of poetry. His Sicilian royal court in Palermo, from around 1220 to his death, saw the first use of a form of an Italo-Romance language. The poetry that emanated from the school had a significant influence on literature and he was also the first king who explicitly outlawed trials by ordeal as they were considered irrational. After his death, his line died out and the House of Hohenstaufen came to an end. Born in Iesi, near Ancona, Italy, Frederick was the son of the emperor Henry VI and he was known as the puer Apuliae. Some chronicles say that his mother, the forty-year-old Constance, gave birth to him in a square in order to forestall any doubt about his origin. In 1196 at Frankfurt am Main the infant Frederick was elected King of the Germans and his rights in Germany were disputed by Henrys brother Philip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick. At the death of his father in 1197, Frederick was in Italy travelling towards Germany when the bad news reached his guardian, Conrad of Spoleto. Frederick was hastily brought back to his mother Constance in Palermo, Sicily, Constance of Sicily was in her own right queen of Sicily, and she established herself as regent. Upon Constances death in 1198, Pope Innocent III succeeded as Fredericks guardian, Fredericks tutor during this period was Cencio, who would become Pope Honorius III. However, Markward of Annweiler, with the support of Henrys brother, Philip of Swabia, reclaimed the regency for himself, in 1200, with the help of Genoese ships, he landed in Sicily and one year later seized the young Frederick. He thus ruled Sicily until 1202, when he was succeeded by another German captain, William of Capparone, Frederick was subsequently under tutor Walter of Palearia, until, in 1208, he was declared of age. His first task was to reassert his power over Sicily and southern Italy, Otto of Brunswick had been crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III in 1209
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Third order
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Less often, they belong to a religious institute that is called a third order regular. The old monastic orders had attached to their abbeys confraternities of lay men and women, the Confraternity Book of Durham is extant and embraces some 20,000 names in the course of eight centuries. Emperors and kings and the most illustrious men in church and state were commonly confraters of one or other of the great Benedictine abbeys. Religious orders that arose in the 12th-13th centuries often had a first order, the second order, Saint Francis of Assisi, for example, is said to have established the Friars Minor, the Poor Clares, and the Third Order of Saint Francis. In some cases the members of an order, wishing to live in a more monastic and regulated way of life. But the essential nature of the tertiary is really an innovation of the thirteenth century, at that date many of the laity, impatient of the indolent and sometimes scandalous lives of the clergy in lower Europe, were seized with the idea of reforming Christendom by preaching. This admirable intention caused the rise of the Waldensians under Peter Waldo, some became priests, were gathered into a cloister, and took up religious life. Others remained outside, yet spiritually dependent on the clerical portion, the name tertiary comes from the Latin tertiarius meaning basically third. Hence it has used for centuries to denote those who belonged to a third order. This was due to the reality of the Tertiaries of the Humiliati. They were the form of this life. The Humiliati seem to have been the first to have tertiaries in the twelfth century and these lived a rule of life within the world. The name was used to an extent in the Franciscan Order. Other orders too had tertiaries such as the Trinitarians and the Dominicans and these were followed over time by a number of others such as the Carmelites, Servites, Augustinians, Augustinian Recollects, Discalced Carmelites and others. They shared the same spirituality, the superiors, and even aspects of the same habit such as the scapular. Eventually the name became popularized and attached to all who lived in this way. There have been a number of beatified or canonized tertiaries, with the advent of the Second Vatican Council came an elaboration of the lay vocation. The lay vocation is a distinct from that of the consecrated state
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Religious habit
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A religious habit is a distinctive set of garments worn by members of a religious order. Modern habits are sometimes eschewed in favor of a business suit. Catholic Canon Law requires only that it be in some way identifiable so that the person may serve as a witness to Gospel values, for instance in Turkey, where religious garb is not allowed in public, a Franciscan might wear street clothes. In many orders, the conclusion of postulancy and the beginning of the novitiate is marked by a ceremony, among some Franciscan communities of men, novices wear a sort of overshirt over their tunic, Carthusian novices wear a black cloak over their white habit. In some orders, different types or levels of profession are indicated by differences in habits, kāṣāya, chougu are the robes of Buddhist monks and nuns, named after a brown or saffron dye. In Sanskrit and Pali, these robes are also given the general term cīvara. Buddhist kāṣāya are said to have originated in India as set of robes for the devotees of Gautama Buddha, a notable variant has a pattern reminiscent of an Asian rice field. Original kāṣāya were constructed of discarded fabric and these were stitched together to form three rectangular pieces of cloth, which were then fit over the body in a specific manner. The three main pieces of cloth are the antarvāsa, the uttarāsaṅga, and the saṃghāti, together they form the triple robe, or tricīvara. The tricīvara is described fully in the Theravāda Vinaya. The antarvāsa is the robe covering the lower body. It is the undergarment that flows underneath the layers of clothing. It has a neck, and almost entirely covers the torso. In representations of the Buddha, the bottom of the antarvāsa usually protrudes, a robe covering the upper body. It comes over the undergarment, or antarvāsa, in representations of the Buddha, the uttarāsaṅga rarely appears as the uppermost garment, since it is often covered by the outer robe, or saṃghāti. The saṃghāti is a robe used for various occasions. It comes over the robe, and the undergarment. In representations of the Buddha, the saṃghāti is usually the most visible garment and it is quite similar in shape to the Greek himation, and its shape and folds have been treated in Greek style in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra
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Tunic
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A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious
25.
Soriano nel Cimino
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Soriano nel Cimino is a town and comune in the province of Viterbo, Lazio, central Italy. The town is overlooked by Monte Cimino, the highest peak in the Monti Cimini, the Orsini Castle, built by Orso Orsini in the 13th century. It was the residence of Pope Nicholas III, uncle of Orso. It was a high security castle until the 1990s and is now managed by the Tuscia University, the Palazzo Chigi-Albani, designed by Ottaviano Schiratti. The interior houses the Papacqua Fountain, the small Romanesque church of San Giorgio. Cathedral, of San Nicola di Bari from 1794, fontana Vecchia, built in the 15th century. Porta Romana, a copy of the Porta Pia in Rome
26.
Witchcraft
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Witchcraft broadly means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and abilities that are able to be exercised by individuals and certain social groups. Witchcraft often occupies a religious, divinatory or medicinal role, and is present within societies. The concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have existed throughout recorded history and it posits a theosophical conflict between good and evil, where witchcraft was generally evil and often associated with the Devil and Devil worship. Christian views in the day are diverse and cover the gamut of views from intense belief and opposition to non-belief. From the mid-20th century, witchcraft – sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to clearly distinguish it from older beliefs – became the name of a branch of modern paganism and it is most notably practiced in the Wiccan and modern witchcraft traditions, and no longer practices in secrecy. The Western mainstream Christian view is far from the only societal perspective about witchcraft, Beliefs related to witchcraft and magic in these cultures were at times influenced by the prevailing Western concepts. Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in countries to this day. HIV/AIDS and Ebola virus disease are two examples of infectious disease epidemics whose medical care and containment has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include tuberculosis, leprosy, epilepsy, the word witchcraft derives from the Old English wiccecræft, a compound of wicce and cræft. This definition was pioneered in a study of central African magical beliefs by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, European witchcraft is seen by historians and anthropologists as an ideology for explaining misfortune, however, this ideology has manifested in diverse ways, as described below. Some modern commentators believe the malefic nature of witchcraft is a Christian projection, many examples appear in early texts, such as those from ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Malicious magic users can become a cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence. Witchcraft of a benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves, there has also existed in popular belief the concept of white witches and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess ethical codes that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a spell, spell being the word used to signify the means employed to carry out a magical action. A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these. Strictly speaking, necromancy is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for divination or prophecy – although the term has also applied to raising the dead for other purposes
27.
Pyre
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A pyre, also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite or execution. As a form of cremation, a body is placed upon or under the pyre, the composition of a pyre may be determined through use of charcoal analysis. Charcoal analysis helps to predict composition of the fuel and local forestry of the charcoal being studied, in Templenoe, pyres typically consisted of oak and fruit wood compositions. Polish pyres consisted of primarily pine trees, as pines were dense in local woodlands. All parts of the tree were used including the trunk, branches, twigs, worked antler and bone objects, along with flint and flake tools, and copper-alloys are most commonly found in pyre cremation remains. The copper-alloys leave a stain and are typically fused to the ribs, arms. Bones without blood vessels, spongy bone, will circularly fissure and shrink while bones with blood vessels, compact bone, will still fissure and distort but shrink less. The more movement, which depending on the crematorium, the hot bone goes through the more likely it is that breakage will occur. Sometimes even movement of the bone after it has cooled down can cause breakage, Pyre cremations create the same kind of heat and thus yield the same bone conditions as the cremation process. A study was done on the fragments of cremations to show that not only will movement of the bone fragments cause breakage. It was concluded that if cremated bone is placed in an urn berfor burial the original bone fragment size will be preserved, traditionally, pyres are used for the cremation of the dead in the Hindu and Sikh religions, a practice which dates back several thousands of years. Funeral pyres were used in Viking and Roman culture. Pyres and bonfires are used in celebrations and remembrance in services, examples of these are Guy Fawkes Night in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, where the Guy, either seen as an effigy of Guy Fawkes or the Pope, is burned. Funeral pyres were used by the Nazis to cremate the bodies of 1,500, 000+ prisoners in Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka extermination camps, pyres have also been used to dispose of large quantities of livestock in agriculture, particularly those infected with disease. The heating of the atmosphere from carbonaceous aerosols resulting from human activities is a significant contributor to climate change in South Asia, in this region, fossil fuel use and residential biofuels have been documented to be the primary emitter of light-absorbing black carbon aerosols. The study determined the emitted organic carbon contributed 40% to smoke absorption of solar radiation. A second study examined the carbonaceous fractions associated with indoor PM2. 5/PM10 during Asian cultural and ritual burning practices and these high chemical levels were also found to correlate to higher aerosol fraction levels during winter months in both Muslim Holy Shrines and marriage places. Environmental Impacts in India A traditional Hindu funeral pyre takes six hours, every year fifty to sixty million trees are burned during cremations in India, which results in about eight million tonnes of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gas emissions
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Poor Clares
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The Poor Clares were the second Franciscan Order to be established. Founded by Saints Clare of Assisi and Francis of Assisi on Palm Sunday in the year 1212, they were organized after the Order of Friars Minor, as of 2011 there were over 20,000 Poor Clare nuns in over 75 countries throughout the world. They follow several different observances and are organized into federations, the Poor Clares follow the Rule of St. Clare, which was approved by Pope Innocent IV the day before Clares death in 1253. The main branch of the Order follows the observance of Pope Urban, other branches established since that time, who operate under their own unique Constitutions, are the Colettine Poor Clares, the Capuchin Poor Clares and the Poor Clares of Perpetual Adoration. The Poor Clares were founded by Clare of Assisi in the year 1212, little is known of Clares early life, although popular tradition hints that she came from a fairly well-to-do family in Assisi. At the age of eighteen, inspired by the preaching of Francis in the cathedral, Clare ran away home to join his community of friars at the Portiuncula. Although, according to tradition, her family wanted to take her back by force, Clares dedication to holiness and she was given the habit of a nun and transferred to Benedictine monasteries, first at Bastia and then at Sant Angelo di Panzo, for her monastic formation. By 1216 Francis was able to offer Clare and her companions a monastery adjoining the chapel of San Damiano where she became abbess, Clares mother, two of her sisters and some other wealthy women from Florence soon joined her new Order. Clare dedicated her order to the principles of Francis, setting a rule of extreme poverty far more severe than that of any female order of the time. By this time the order had grown to number three monasteries, the movement quickly spread, though in a somewhat disorganized fashion, with several monasteries of women devoted to the Franciscan ideal springing up elsewhere in Northern Italy. At this point Ugolino, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, was given the task of overseeing all such monasteries, communities adopting this less rigorous came to be known as the Order of Saint Clare or the Urbanist Poor Clares. Clare herself resisted the Ugolino Rule, since it did not closely follow the ideal of complete poverty advocated by Francis. Originally applying only to Clares community at San Damiano, this rule was adopted by many monasteries. Communities that followed this rule were fewer in number than the followers of the rule formulated by Cardinal Ugolino. The situation was further complicated a century later when Saint Colette of Corbie restored the rule of strict poverty to 17 French monasteries. Her followers came to be called the Colettine Poor Clares, two further branches, the Capuchin Poor Clares and the Alcantarines, also followed the strict observance. The later group disappeared as a group when their observance among the friars was ended. The spread of the began in 1218 when a monastery was founded in Perugia, new foundations quickly followed in Florence, Venice, Mantua
29.
Monastery
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A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
30.
Dowry
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A dowry is a transfer of parental property at the marriage of a daughter. Dowry contrasts with the concepts of bride price and dower. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, Dowry is an ancient custom, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected, and demanded as a condition to accept a proposal, in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia, Northern Africa. In some parts of the world, disputes related to dowry sometimes result in acts of violence against women, including killings, the custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that expect women to reside with or near their husbands family. Dowries have a history in Europe, South Asia, Africa. A dowry is the transfer of property to a daughter at her marriage rather than at the owners death. A dowry establishes a type of fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of security in widowhood or against a negligent husband. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include such as linens. This practice differs from the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice homogenous inheritance in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the bride price, drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of the work is done by women and these are the societies that give brideprice. Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy, in plough agriculture farming is largely mens work, this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with property and marriage tends to be monogamous. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to property within the group. There is a debate on Goodys theory. She notes that Goodys is a model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today
31.
Pope Innocent IV
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Pope Innocent IV, born Sinibaldo Fieschi, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 25 June 1243 to his death in 1254. Born in Genoa in an year, Sinibaldo was the son of Beatrice Grillo and Ugo Fieschi. The Fieschi were a merchant family of Liguria. Sinibaldo received his education at the universities of Parma and Bologna and, for a time and it is pointed out by Agostino Paravicini-Bagliani, however, that there is no documentary evidence of such a professorship. From 1216-1227 he was Canon of the Cathedral of Parma and he was considered one of the best canonists of his time, and was called to serve Pope Honorius III in the Roman Curia as Auditor causarum, from 11 November 1226 to 30 May 1227. He was then promoted to the office of Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, though he retained the office, Vice-Chancellor Sinibaldo Fieschi was created Cardinal Priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina on 18 September 1227 by Pope Gregory IX. He later served as governor of the March of Ancona. It is widely repeated, from the 17th century on, that he became bishop of Albenga in 1235, Innocents immediate predecessor was Pope Celestine IV, elected 25 October 1241, whose reign lasted a mere fifteen days. The two prelates remained incarcerated and missed the conclave that immediately elected Celestine, the conclave that reconvened after his death fell into camps supporting contradictory policies about how to treat with the emperor. After a year and a half of debate and coercion. Cardinal de Fieschi very reluctantly accepted election as Pope 25 June 1243, as Cardinal de Fieschi, Sinibaldo had been on friendly terms with Frederick, even after his excommunication. The Emperor also greatly admired the cardinals wisdom, having enjoyed discussions with him from time to time, following the election the witty Frederick remarked that he had lost the friendship of a cardinal but made up for it by gaining the enmity of a pope. Negotiations leading to this objective began shortly afterwards, but proved abortive, the Emperors machinations caused a good deal of anti-papal feeling to rise in Italy, particularly in the Papal States, and imperial agents encouraged plots against papal rule. Realizing how untenable his position in Rome was growing, Innocent IV secretly and hurriedly withdrew, traveling in disguise, Innocent made his way to Sutri and Civitavecchia, to Genoa, his birthplace, where he arrived on 7 July. From there, on 5 October, he fled to France, making his way to Lyon, where he arrived on November 29,1244, Innocent was happily greeted by the magistrates of the city. The bishops met for three sessions,28 June,5 July, and 17 July 1245. Their principal business was to subjugate the Emperor Frederick II, Gregory IX, had issued letters on 9 June 1239, ordering all the bishops of France to confiscate all Talmuds in the possession of the Jews. Agents were to raid each synagogue on the first Saturday of Lent of 1240, the Bishop of Paris was ordered to see to it that copies of the Popes mandate reached all the bishops of France, England, Aragon, Navarre, Castile and León, and Portugal
32.
Parish church
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A parish church in Christianity is the church which acts as the religious centre of a parish. The church building reflects this status, and there is variety in the size. Many villages in Europe have churches that date back to the Middle Ages, in England, it is the basic administrative unit of episcopal churches. Nearly every part of England is in a parish, and most parishes have an Anglican parish church, in cities without a cathedral of a certain Christian denomination, the parish church may have administrative functions similar to that of a cathedral. However, the diocese will still have a cathedral, while smaller villages may only have a parish church, larger towns may have a parish church and then also smaller churches in various districts which do not have the status of parish church. Often the parish church will be the one to have a full-time minister. One sign of this is that the church is the only one to have a baptismal font. The Church of Scotland, the established Presbyterian church, also uses a system of parish churches, in Massachusetts, towns elected publicly funded parish churches from 1780 until 1834. Toward the end of the 20th century, a new resurgence in interest in parish churches emerged across the United States and this has given rise to efforts like the Slow Church Movement and The Parish Collective which focus heavily on localized involvement across work, home, and church life. Theologically, many Protestants have embraced the model as having roots in a Reformed view of eschatology. It’s a way of saying ‘I believe in the Incarnation, ’” says pastor Raymond F. Cannata, “Having an earthy eschatology is part of it. ”Roman Catholic parish church Church of England parish church Smith, C. Slow Church, Cultivating Community in the Patient Way of Jesus
33.
Pope Alexander IV
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Pope Alexander IV was Pope from 12 December 1254 to his death in 1261. Born as Rinaldo di Jenne in Jenne, he was, on his mothers side, a member of the family de Conti di Segni, the counts of Segni, like Pope Innocent III and Pope Gregory IX. His uncle Gregory IX made him deacon and Protector of the Order of Franciscans in 1227, Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church from 1227 until 1231. He became Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals in 1244, on the death of Pope Innocent IV in 1254 he was elected pope at Naples on 12 December 1254. Alexander IV threatened excommunication and interdict against the party of Manfred without effect, nor could he enlist the kings of England and Norway in a crusade against the Hohenstaufens. Rome itself became too Ghibelline for the Pope, who withdrew to Viterbo and he was buried in Viterbo Cathedral, but his tomb was destroyed during sixteenth-century renovations. On 26 September 1255, Alexander IV canonized S. Clare of Assisi and he also confirmed, on 29 October 1255, in the Bull Benigna Operatio, the reality of the stigmata attributed to S. Francis of Assisi. On 14 May 1254, shortly before his death, Innocent IV had granted Sicily, nicolaus de Curbio, OFM, Vita Innocentii Papae IV, Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores Tomus Tertius pp. 592–592e. Bernardus Guidonis, Vita Alexandri Papae IV, Ludovico Antonio Muratori, alexis François Artaud de Montor, Histoire des souverains Pontifes Romains Tome III, pp. 1–11. Augustinus Theiner, Caesaris S. R. E. Cardinalis Baronii, laderchii Annales Ecclesiastici Tomus Vigesimus Primus 1229-1256. August Karst, Geschichte Manfreds vom Tode Friedrichs II, bourel de la Roncière Les Registres d Alexandre IV Tome premier. F. Gregorovius, History of Rome in the Middle Ages, Volume V.2 second edition, revised Book X, Chapter 1, pp. 335–358. F. Tenckhoff, Papst Alexander IV. S. Andreotta, La famiglia di Alessandro IV e labbazia di Subiaco, rodríguez de Lama, La documentación pontificia de Alejandro IV. Raoul Manselli, Alessandro IV, Dizionario dei Papi. The Crusades, c.1071 – c, herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope Alexander IV. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
34.
Second Vatican Council
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The Second Vatican Council, fully the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council and informally known as Vatican II, addressed relations between the Catholic Church and the modern world. It was the twenty-first and most recent ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, many of these changes remain divisive among the Catholic faithful. At the same time, the worlds bishops faced challenges driven by political, social, economic, some of these bishops sought new ways of addressing those challenges. The First Vatican Council had been nearly a century before but had been cut short when the Italian Army entered the city of Rome at the end of Italian unification. Pope John XXIII, however, gave notice of his intention to convene the Council on 25 January 1959 and this sudden announcement, which caught the Curia by surprise, caused little initial official comment from Church insiders. In various discussions before the Council actually convened, John XXIII often said that it was time to open the windows and he invited other Christians outside the Catholic Church to send observers to the Council. Acceptances came from both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Protestant denominations as internal observers, but these observers did not cast votes in the approbation of the conciliar documents. Pope John XXIIIs announcement on 25 January 1959 of his intention to call a general council came as an even to the cardinals present. The Pontiff pre-announced the council under a full moon when the faithful with their candlelights gathered in St. Peters square, after which, he instructed the people to go back home and give their children a kiss of goodnight, from the Pope himself. He had tested the idea only ten days before one of them, his Cardinal Secretary of State Domenico Tardini. Although the Pope later said the idea came to him in a flash in his conversation with Tardini, two cardinals had earlier attempted to interest him in the idea. They were two of the most conservative, Ernesto Ruffini and Alfredo Ottaviani, who had already in 1948 proposed the idea to Pope Pius XII and who put it before John XXIII on 27 October 1958. These groups, composed mostly of members of the Roman Curia, produced 987 proposed constituting sessions, attendance varied in later sessions from 2,100 to over 2,300. In addition, a number of periti were available for theological consultation—a group that turned out to have a major influence as the council went forward. Seventeen Orthodox Churches and Protestant denominations sent observers, more than three dozen representatives of other Christian communities were present at the opening session, and the number grew to nearly 100 by the end of the 4th Council Sessions. Pope John XXIII opened the Council on 11 October 1962 in a public session, what is needed is that this certain and immutable doctrine, to which the faithful owe obedience, be studied afresh and reformulated in contemporary terms. For this deposit of faith, or truths which are contained in our time-honored teaching is one thing, roncalli, Angelo Giuseppe, Opening address, Council, Rome, IT.13 October 1962 marked the initial working session of the Council. That days agenda included the election for members of the ten conciliar commissions, each would have sixteen elected and eight appointed members, and were expected to do most of the work of the Council
35.
Macchina di Santa Rosa
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The Macchina of Santa Rosa is a 30 metre high tower, which is rebuilt every year in the months of July and August in honor of Saint Rose of Viterbo, the patron saint of the city of Viterbo, Italy. Every year on the evening of 3 September 100 men called Facchini di Santa Rosa hoist the Macchina and carry it through the narrow streets. The whole route is a bit more than 1 km. The procession is an important event in Viterbo and attracts thousands of people, today, the procession is included in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The celebration consists of two distinct parts, on the afternoon of 2 September, a reliquary containing the heart of Santa Rosa is carried in procession accompanied by people in period costumes of the 14th through the 19th centuries. The transport of Machine of Santa Rosa takes place the following evening, the term machine is borrowed from classical Greek theater. The transport of the Macchina dates back to the transfer of the body of Saint Rose of Viterbo. In 1258, six years after her death, her body was moved at the wish of Pope Alexander IV and it is possible that originally a statue of St. Rose lit on a canopy was carried in procession. Guilds were very active in the processions in the 14th century, from 1654 through 1663 the procession was suspended due to the plague. The first machine was designed by Count Sebastian Gregory Fani in 1686. The Civic Museum of Viterbo has a collection of sketches of the dating to 1690. In the 18th century the families of Viterbo sponsored lavish machines of Saint Rose. In 1790 the machine fell during the move, in 1801 the cries of a spectator robbed of her jewels by some pickpockets in the Piazza Fontana Grande panicked some cavalry horses. Twenty-two people in the crowd died in the confusion and later that night the machine caught fire in Piazza delle Erbe. Because of these events, the transport was temporarily banned by Pope Pius VII, in 1814 tilted backwards and a few porters died. In 1893 pouring rain prevented the transport, which proved fortunate when it was discovered that some anarchists were planning to throw bombs at the machine. The transport was suspended with the outbreak of World War I, from 1924 to 1951 the Machine of Santa Rosa was designed and constructed by Virgilio Papini, whose family had a long history of building the machines. In 1967 a new design did not get farther than the end of Via Cavour due to excessive weight, or height
36.
St. Rose of Viterbo Convent
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St. Rose of Viterbo Convent is the motherhouse of the Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, an American religious congregation, which is located in La Crosse, Wisconsin. The convent is dedicated to Rose of Viterbo, a 13th-century Franciscan tertiary who was a noted mystic, the convent contains three chapels, of which one, Mary of the Angels Chapel, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places of the United States. Another, the Adoration Chapel, is the site of adoration of the Blessed Sacrament. The convent was built both as the administrative center of the congregation and also as a secondary school for girls. With the growing numbers of members of the congregation and of the student body, the original building was gutted by fire in 1923 and had to be rebuilt, which took two years. The Sisters built the first Chapel of Mary of the Angels to serve their own spiritual needs and that of their students. It was dedicated on August 2,1873, the Feast of the Dedication of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Angels in Assisi, Italy, the first home of the Franciscan Order. In 1903, they began construction on a new chapel, designed by Eugene R. Liebert, thaddeus von Zukotynski was the artist for the oil-on-canvas painting located immediately above the main altar of the chapel. This work shows St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan Order, at prayer in the Porziuncola, having a vision of Jesus. This chapel, along with the Adoration Chapel, have over 100 windows of Munich-style stained glass created by the Royal Bavarian Stained Glass Factory in Munich, Viterbo University Zimmerman, H. Russell, The architecture of Eugene Liebert, Teutonic style in the American midwest,2006. Media related to St. Rose of Viterbo Convent at Wikimedia Commons Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration
37.
La Crosse, Wisconsin
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La Crosse is a city in the U. S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County. Lying alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsins western border, the citys estimated population in 2014 was 52,440. La Crosse is home to the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, Viterbo University, a regional technology and medical hub, La Crosse has received high rankings from some magazines in health, well-being, quality of life, and education. The first Europeans to see the site of La Crosse were French fur traders who traveled the Mississippi River in the late 17th century. There is no record of any visit to the site until 1805. Pike recorded the name as Prairie La Crosse. The name originated from the game with sticks that resembled a bishops crozier or la crosse in French, which was played by Native Americans there. The first white settlement at La Crosse occurred in 1841 when Nathan Myrick, Myrick was disappointed to find that because many fur traders were already well-entrenched there, there were no openings for him in the trade. As a result, he decided to establish a trading post upriver at the still unsettled site of Prairie La Crosse. In 1841, he built a trading post on Barron Island. The following year, Myrick relocated the post to the mainland prairie, the spot Myrick chose to build his trading post proved ideal for settlement. It was near the junction of the Black, La Crosse, because of these advantages, a small village grew around Myricks trading post in the 1840s. A small Mormon community settled at La Crosse in 1844, building several dozen cabins a few south of Myricks post. Although these settlers relocated away from the Midwest after just a year, on June 23,1850, Father James Lloyd Breck of the Episcopal Church said the first Christian liturgy on top of Grandad Bluff. Today a monument to that event stands atop the bluff, near the lot at a scenic overlook. More permanent development took place closer to Myricks trading post, where stores, a hotel, under the direction of Timothy Burns, lieutenant governor of Wisconsin, surveyor William Hood platted the village in 1851. This opened it up for settlement, which was achieved rapidly as a result of promotion of the city in eastern newspapers. By 1855, La Crosse had grown in population to nearly 2,000 residents, the city grew even more rapidly after 1858 with the completion of the La Crosse & Milwaukee Railroad, the second railroad connecting Milwaukee to the Mississippi River
38.
Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration
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The Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration founded Viterbo University and staffed Aquinas High School in La Crosse. The congregation traces its roots to 1849, martin Henni in the newly organized diocese of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 1855 the sisters assumed care and education of orphaned boys at St. Aemilian’s Orphanage for Boys, in 1864 the sisters and their newly elected leader, Mother Antonia Herb, established the motherhouse at St. Coletta Convent in Jefferson, Wisconsin. In 1871 the motherhouse was re-located to St. Rose of Viterbo Convent in La Cross at the request of Bishop Michael Heiss of La Crosse, the Maria Angelorum Chapel is on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1873, Mother Antonia, believing that Seminary work was not a ministry for her sisters. Thirty-seven sisters chose to remain in Seminary ministry and they became the Sisters of St. Francis of Assisi. The community in LaCrosse became known as the Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, in 1890 the sisters began St. Rose Normal School to prepare sisters to teach in elementary schools. It is now known as Viterbo University, a Catholic, Franciscan, in 1955 the FSPA arrived on Guam, where they serve in the Archdiocese of Agana. Common Venture grew out of a 1999 150th anniversary celebration of the founding of the three American Franciscan communities. Together they have contributed more than $1.5 million in goods, sr. Marla Lang FSPA compared the role of the sisters in Cameroon to that of sisters in the United States in the late 19th century. “The systems of care and education are being built up through religious orders. The sisters are pioneers for the people in their country, in 1878, the community initiated the practice of Perpetual Adoration. Since then at least two persons have been praying day and night in the Chapel of the Sacred Heart, in 2014, the congregation marked over 135 years of Perpetual Adoration, supported by prayer partners. In 1997, after the numbers of sisters had declined from 781 in 1980 to 263, compiling prayer requests from all over the world, the sisters assemble a pamphlet of names and intentions for each week. The Sisters are a member of 8th Day Center for Justice. The Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration have their retirement home in St. Josephs Ridge, thea Bowman, FSPA, educator Maria Angelorum Chapel Sisters of St
39.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
40.
Viterbo University
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Viterbo University is a private co-educational Roman Catholic and Franciscan liberal arts university located in La Crosse, Wisconsin, United States. Founded in 1890, Viterbo offers more than 70 undergraduate degree programs, four degrees, one doctoral degree. In 2014 U. S. News & World Report ranked Viterbo in the top universities in the Midwest at #109. With over 18,000 alumni, the university one of only 24 members in the Association of Franciscan Colleges and Universities located in the United States. In 1890, the Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration founded St. Rose Normal School, College courses were introduced in 1923. The school developed a college program, and by the 1931-1932 school year became known as St. Rose Junior College. Lay women were admitted starting in 1934 and in 1937, the school was renamed Viterbo College, in 1939, it received approval as a four-year degree-granting institution and the college became co-ed in 1970 when men were allowed to enter. On September 4,2000 the college was renamed Viterbo University, in 2013, the universitys first doctoral program was introduced offering a Doctor of Nursing Practice. In 1971, the schools Fine Arts Center was completed, in 1987, the schools Varsity Athletic Center was built. In 2004, the Reinhart Center for Ethics in Leadership was completed, the Mathy Center is a collaboration between Viterbo University and the local Boys and Girls Club of La Crosse—the first such effort in the country. A remodel of the Todd Wehr Memorial Library within the academic building, Murphy Center, was completed in 2006. Between 2009 and 2011, the Student Union was remodeled at the expense of the Student Government Association, the Union remodel included upgrades to the security desk, flooring, computer area, television, and furniture. The School of Nursing Building, which opened in fall of 2011, has simulation labs dedicated to care, medical/surgical, maternal newborn care. It also has a nutrition and dietetics lab, since 2013, Viterbo University has shared space at the Weber Center for the Performing Arts, a 30, 000-square-foot facility in downtown La Crosse. As of the fall 2015 semester 2,677 students were enrolled at Viterbo University, there were 1,826 undergraduate students and 851 graduate students. The V-Hawks had been a member of the Midwest Collegiate Conference from 1989 until it disbanded in 2015, Rose of Viterbo Convent Viterbo University Viterbo University Athletics
41.
Goshen College
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Goshen College is a private liberal arts college in Goshen, Indiana. The institution was founded in 1894 as the Elkhart Institute of Science, Industry and the Arts, the college is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. U. S. News and World Reports ranks Goshen as a regional college in the Midwest. Goshen has an enrollment of 839 students, while Goshen maintains a distinctive liberal Mennonite worldview, it admits students of all religions. Its percentage of Mennonite students to other religious affiliations is 43/57, the history of Goshen College is intertwined with that of the history of Mennonites in America, and so Goshens history is best told in the context of this broader history. Old Mennonites had traditionally been suspicious of education, but by the late 19th century. Decades earlier, mainline Protestant church denominations had begun to found colleges across America, as more Old Mennonites sent their children to other Christian colleges, they realized that, without a college of their own, many of their youth would leave the church. Thus, prompted in part as a reaction to mainline Christianity, Goshen was the first Mennonite school of higher education in North America to confer a four-year degree. Mumaw, a physician, first led the small operation, in 1894. The first diploma was awarded in 1898, lured by businessmen to relocate several miles away to Goshen, Indiana, the Institute moved in September 1903 and added a junior college course list, renaming itself Goshen College. By 1906, the Mennonite Board of Education had taken control of the college, a complete college course was established in 1908, and the first Bachelor of Arts degrees were conferred in 1910. After 1910, most of Goshens students were enrolled in college courses, the college-prep academy program of Goshen College was discontinued in 1935. The school was closed during the 1923-1924 school year by the Mennonite Board of Education, one of many factors in closing the college was denominational tension due to modernist and fundamentalist Christian theologies of the 1920s and their impact on Mennonite theology at the school. In response to crisis, many of Goshens faculty and dozens of students, angry with the Mennonite Board of Educations decision. When the institution was reopened, it was marked by the new leadership of president S. C, yoder and dean Harold S. Bender, a man whose influence upon the Old Mennonites was significant for much of the 20th century. Bender carefully piloted the stormy waters of theology by stating that Mennonitism was not liberalism, more than arguing doctrine, Bender and a younger group of intellectuals at Goshen College sought to shape the Mennonite faith that was more ideological than institutional. The goal was to articulate a faith that could stand the test of academic scrutiny in broader society while carefully upholding traditional beliefs of the church, out of this ideology, Bender started The Mennonite Quarterly Review. Throughout this time, Goshen remained the epicenter of Old Mennonite theology and higher education, many Mennonites chose the civilian service alternative because of their beliefs regarding Biblical pacifism and nonresistance
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
