1.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million
2.
Serpent (cipher)
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Serpent is a symmetric key block cipher that was a finalist in the Advanced Encryption Standard contest, where it was ranked second to Rijndael. Serpent was designed by Ross Anderson, Eli Biham, and Lars Knudsen, like other AES submissions, Serpent has a block size of 128 bits and supports a key size of 128,192 or 256 bits. The cipher is a 32-round substitution-permutation network operating on a block of four 32-bit words, each round applies one of eight 4-bit to 4-bit S-boxes 32 times in parallel. Serpent was designed so that all operations can be executed in parallel and this maximizes parallelism, but also allows use of the extensive cryptanalysis work performed on DES. The official NIST report on AES competition classified Serpent as having a high security margin along with MARS and Twofish, in contrast to the security margin of RC6. The Serpent cipher algorithm is in the domain and has not been patented. The reference code is public domain software and the code is under GPL. There are no restrictions or encumbrances whatsoever regarding its use, as a result, anyone is free to incorporate Serpent in their software without paying license fees. Serpent is a network which has thirty-two rounds, plus an initial. The round function in Rijndael consists of three parts, a layer, a linear mixing layer, and a key-mixing XOR layer. The nonlinear layer in Rijndael uses an 8×8 S-box whereas Serpent uses eight different 4×4 S-boxes, the 32 rounds means that Serpent has a higher security margin than Rijndael, however, Rijndael with 10 rounds is faster and easier to implement for small blocks. Hence, Rijndael was selected as the winner in the AES competition, the original Serpent, Serpent-0, was presented at the 5th workshop on Fast Software Encryption, but a somewhat tweaked version, Serpent-1, was submitted to the AES competition. The AES submission paper discuss the changes, which include key scheduling differences, the XSL attack, if effective, would weaken Serpent. However, many believe that once implementation considerations are taken into account the XSL attack would be more expensive than a brute force attack. In 2000, a paper by Kohno et al. presents a meet-in-the-middle attack against 6 of 32 rounds of Serpent, a 2009 paper has noticed that the nonlinear order of Serpent s-boxes were not 3 as was claimed by the designers. A2011 attack by Hongjun Wu, Huaxiong Wang and Phuong Ha Nguyen, also using linear cryptanalysis, the same paper also describes two attacks which break 12 rounds of Serpent-256. The first requires 2118 known plaintexts,2228.8 time and 2228 memory, the other attack requires 2116 known plaintexts and 2121 memory but also requires 2237.5 time. Tiger – hash function by the same authors Anderson, Ross, Biham, Eli, Knudsen, cryptography -256 bit ciphers, Reference implementation
3.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
4.
Royal Academy of Engineering
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The Royal Academy of Engineering is the UK’s national academy of engineering. The Academy brings together the UKs leading engineers, from all engineering sectors, to advance. The Academy was founded in June 1976 as the Fellowship of Engineering with support from Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the Fellowship was incorporated and granted a Royal Charter on 17 May 1983 and became the Royal Academy of Engineering on 16 March 1992. It is governed according to the Charter and associated Statutes and Regulations, the Fellowship currently includes over 1,500 engineers from all sectors and disciplines of engineering. The Fellows, distinguished by the title Fellow of The Royal Academy of Engineering, up to 60 engineers are elected each year by their peers. Honorary and International Fellows who have made contributions to engineering are also elected. The current President of the Academy is Professor Dame Ann Dowling OM, DBE, FREng, FRS, the Immediate Past President is Sir John Parker GBE FREng. The Royal Fellows of the Academy comprise Prince Philip, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, as part of its programme to communicate the benefits and value of engineering to society, the Academy publishes a quarterly magazine, Ingenia. The Academy also makes Ingenia available to A-Level students in 3,000 schools in the UK, with the support of the Worshipful Company of Engineers, the Academy manages the annual Royal Academy of Engineering MacRobert Award, the premier prize for UK innovation in engineering. First presented in 1969, the honours the winning company with a gold medal. The Academy also manage the running of the Queen Elizabeth Prize. The QEPrize is an international, £1 million engineering prize that rewards, the objective of the prize is to raise the public profile of engineering and to inspire young people to become engineers. The Academys Sir George Macfarlane Medal is an award that recognises a UK engineer who has demonstrated excellence in the early stage of their career. The Fellowships first meeting, at Buckingham Palace on 11 June 1976, the Fellowship’s first President, Lord Hinton, had driven the UK’s supremacy in nuclear power. The Fellowship focused on championing excellence in all fields of engineering, activities began in earnest in the mid-1970s with the Distinction lecture series, now known as the Hinton lectures. The Fellowship was asked to advise the Department of Industry for the first time, in the 1980s, the Fellowship received its own Royal Charter along with its first government grant-in-aid. In 1990, the Academy launched its first major initiative in education, Engineering Education Continuum, the Academy’s increasing level of influence – in policy, research and education – was recognised when it was granted a royal title and became The Royal Academy of Engineering in 1992. The President of the Royal Academy of Engineering, the officer of the Academy
5.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
6.
Cryptography
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Cryptography or cryptology is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce. Cryptography prior to the age was effectively synonymous with encryption. The originator of an encrypted message shared the decoding technique needed to recover the information only with intended recipients. The cryptography literature often uses Alice for the sender, Bob for the intended recipient and it is theoretically possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known practical means. The growth of technology has raised a number of legal issues in the information age. Cryptographys potential for use as a tool for espionage and sedition has led governments to classify it as a weapon and to limit or even prohibit its use. In some jurisdictions where the use of cryptography is legal, laws permit investigators to compel the disclosure of encryption keys for documents relevant to an investigation, Cryptography also plays a major role in digital rights management and copyright infringement of digital media. Until modern times, cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the process of converting ordinary information into unintelligible text, decryption is the reverse, in other words, moving from the unintelligible ciphertext back to plaintext. A cipher is a pair of algorithms that create the encryption, the detailed operation of a cipher is controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance by a key. The key is a secret, usually a short string of characters, historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such as authentication or integrity checks. There are two kinds of cryptosystems, symmetric and asymmetric, in symmetric systems the same key is used to encrypt and decrypt a message. Data manipulation in symmetric systems is faster than asymmetric systems as they generally use shorter key lengths, asymmetric systems use a public key to encrypt a message and a private key to decrypt it. Use of asymmetric systems enhances the security of communication, examples of asymmetric systems include RSA, and ECC. Symmetric models include the commonly used AES which replaced the older DES, in colloquial use, the term code is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning. However, in cryptography, code has a specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext with a code word, English is more flexible than several other languages in which cryptology is always used in the second sense above. RFC2828 advises that steganography is sometimes included in cryptology, the study of characteristics of languages that have some application in cryptography or cryptology is called cryptolinguistics
7.
Dependability
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In software engineering, dependability is the ability to provide services that can defensibly be trusted within a time-period. This may also encompass mechanisms designed to increase and maintain the dependability of a system or software, but the word predates that period, with the Oxford English Dictionary finding its first use in 1901. In the early 1980s, Jean-Claude Laprie thus chose dependability as the term to encompass studies of fault tolerance, traditionally, dependability for a system incorporates availability, reliability, maintainability but since the 1980s, safety and security have been added to measures of dependability. Attributes are qualities of a system and these can be assessed to determine its overall dependability using Qualitative or Quantitative measures. Confidentiality, i. e. the absence of unauthorized disclosure of information is used when addressing security. Security is a composite of Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability, Security is sometimes classed as an attribute but the current view is to aggregate it together with dependability and treat Dependability as a composite term called Dependability and Security. Practically, applying security measures to the appliances of a system generally improves the dependability by limiting the number of externally originated errors, threats are things that can affect a system and cause a drop in Dependability. There are three terms that must be clearly understood, Fault, A fault is a defect in a system. The presence of a fault in a system may or may not lead to a failure, error, An error is a discrepancy between the intended behaviour of a system and its actual behaviour inside the system boundary. Errors occur at runtime when some part of the system enters a state due to the activation of a fault. Since errors are generated from invalid states they are hard to observe without special mechanisms, failure, A failure is an instance in time when a system displays behaviour that is contrary to its specification. It is important to note that Failures are recorded at the system boundary and they are basically Errors that have propagated to the system boundary and have become observable. Faults, Errors and Failures operate according to a mechanism and this mechanism is sometimes known as a Fault-Error-Failure chain. As a general rule a fault, when activated, can lead to an error, once a fault is activated an error is created. If an error propagates outside the boundary a failure is said to occur. A failure is basically the point at which it can be said that a service is failing to meet its specification, since the mechanism of a Fault-Error-Chain is understood it is possible to construct means to break these chains and thereby increase the dependability of a system. Four means have been identified so far, Prevention Removal Forecasting Tolerance Fault Prevention deals with preventing faults being incorporated into a system and this can be accomplished by use of development methodologies and good implementation techniques. Fault Removal can be sub-divided into two sub-categories, Removal During Development and Removal During Use, Removal during development requires verification so that faults can be detected and removed before a system is put into production
8.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
9.
Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge
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The Computer Laboratory is the computer science department of the University of Cambridge. As of 2007, it employs 35 academic staff,25 support staff,35 affiliated research staff, the current head of department is Professor Andy Hopper. The new laboratory was housed in the North Wing of the former Anatomy School, upon its foundation, it was intended to provide a computing service for general use, and to be a centre for the development of computational techniques in the University. The Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science was the world’s first postgraduate course in computing, starting in 1953. It inspired the world’s first business computer, LEO and it was replaced by EDSAC2, the first microcoded and bitsliced computer, in 1958. In 1961, David Hartley developed Autocode, one of the first high-level programming languages, also in that year, proposals for Titan, based on the Ferranti Atlas machine, were developed. Titan became fully operational in 1964 and EDSAC2 was retired the following year, in 1967, a full multi-user time-shared service for up to 64 users was inaugurated on Titan. In 2002, the Computer Laboratory launched the Cambridge Computer Lab Ring, the Computer Laboratory built and operated the world’s first fully operational practical stored program computer and offered the world’s first postgraduate taught course in computer science in 1953. It currently offers a 3-year undergraduate course and a 1-year masters course, members of the Computer Laboratory have been involved in the creation of many successful UK IT companies such as Acorn, ARM, nCipher and XenSource. A number of companies have been founded by staff and graduates and their names were featured in the new laboratory entrance in 2012. Some cited examples of companies are ARM, Autonomy, Aveva, CSR. One common factor they share is that key staff or founder members are drenched in university training, the Cambridge Computer Lab Ring was praised for its tireless work by Andy Hopper in 2012, at its tenth anniversary dinner. Ian Pratt Simon Crosby David L Tennenhouse Michael Burrows Andy Harter Andy Hopper
10.
Ferranti
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Ferranti or Ferranti International plc was a UK electrical engineering and equipment firm that operated for over a century from 1885 until it went bankrupt in 1993. Known primarily for defence electronics, the company was once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, the firm was known for work in the area of power grid systems and defence electronics. In addition, in 1951 Ferranti began selling the first commercially available computer, sebastian Ziani de Ferranti established his first business Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882. The company developed the Ferranti-Thompson Alternator, Ferranti focused on alternating current power distribution early on, and was one of the few UK experts. To avoid confusion, he is referred to as Dr Ferranti to distinguish him from the Ferranti company itself. In 1885 Dr Ferranti established a new business, with Francis Ince and Charles Sparks as partners, despite being a proponent of AC Ferranti became an important supplier to many electric utility firms and power-distribution companies for both AC and DC meters. In 1887, the London Electric Supply Corporation hired Dr Ferranti for the design of their station at Deptford. He designed the building, the plant and the distribution system and on its completion in October 1890. It supplied high-voltage AC power at 10,000 volts, which was transformed to a voltage for consumer use where required. Success followed and Ferranti started producing equipment for sale. Soon the company was looking for more manufacturing space. Land prices in the London area were too high, so the moved to Hollinwood in Oldham in 1896. Over-optimistic market projections in the boom of 1896–1903, declining revenues and liquidity problems, the business was restructured in 1905, Dr Ferrantis shareholding being reduced to less than 10%. For the next years the company was run by receiver managers. He spent much of this working in partnership with the likes of J P Coats of Paisley on cotton spinning machinery. Through the early part of the power was supplied by small companies. Each plant supplied a different standard, which made the production of domestic electrical equipment inefficient. In 1910 Dr Ferranti made a speech to the IEE addressing this issue
11.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
12.
Roger Needham
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Roger Michael Needham, CBE, FRS, FREng was a British computer scientist. He attended Doncaster Grammar School for Boys in Doncaster, Needham began his undergraduate studies at the University of Cambridge in 1953, graduating with a B. A. in 1956 in mathematics and philosophy. His Ph. D. thesis was on applications of computers to the automatic classification. He worked on a variety of key computing projects in security, operating systems, computer architecture, among his theoretical contributions is the development of the Burrows-Abadi-Needham logic for authentication, generally known as the BAN logic. His Needham-Schroeder security protocol forms the basis of the Kerberos authentication and he also codesigned the TEA and XTEA encryption algorithms. He pioneered the technique of protecting passwords using a hash function. Needham then set up Microsofts UK-based Research Laboratory in 1997 and he was also one of the founding Fellows of University College, Cambridge, which became Wolfson College. Needham was elected to the Royal Society in 1985, became a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1993 and he was made a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1994. Needham held honorary degrees from University of Twente, Loughborough University. Needham married Karen Spärck Jones in 1958, Needham died of cancer in March 2003 at his home in Willingham, Cambridgeshire. The British Computer Society, in 2004, established an annual Roger Needham Award in Needhams honour, a £5000 prize is presented to an individual for making a distinguished research contribution in computer science by a UK-based researcher within ten years of their PhD. The award is funded by Microsoft Research, the winner of the prize has an opportunity to give a public lecture. A list of previous recipients follows and this annual prize awards €2,000 to a PhD student from a European University whose thesis is regarded to be an exceptional, innovative contribution to knowledge in the Computer Systems area
13.
Robert Watson (computer scientist)
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Robert Nicholas Maxwell Watson is a FreeBSD developer, and founder of the TrustedBSD Project. He is currently employed as a University Lecturer in Systems, Security, Watson graduated in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University and has attained a PhD from University of Cambridge. As well as Cambridge, he has worked at the National Institutes of Health, Carnegie Mellon University, Trusted Information Systems, Network Associates, McAfee and he obtained a PhD in computer security from the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, supervised by Ross Anderson and sponsored by Google. Watsons work has supported by DARPA, Apple Computer, the Navy. His main research interests are network security and operating system security and his main open source software contributions include his work in developing the multi-threaded and multi-processor FreeBSD network stack, the TrustedBSD project, and OpenBSM. His writing has featured in forums such as ACMs Queue Magazine, the USENIX Annual Technical Conference, BSDCon. He was also a FreeBSD Core Team member from 2000–2012, Watson is coauthor of the standard textbook The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD Operating System by Marshall Kirk McKusick
14.
Security engineering
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These constraints and restrictions are often asserted as a security policy. In one form or another, security engineering has existed as a field of study for several centuries. For example, the fields of locksmithing and security printing have been around for many years, due to recent catastrophic events, most notably 9/11, Security Engineering has quickly become a rapidly growing field. In fact, in a recent report completed in 2006, it was estimated that the security industry was valued at US$150 billion. Security engineering involves aspects of science, psychology and economics, as well as physics, chemistry, mathematics, architecture. Some of the used, such as fault tree analysis, are derived from safety engineering. Other techniques such as cryptography were previously restricted to military applications, one of the pioneers of security engineering as a formal field of study is Ross Anderson. The two possible positions on security matters are,1. Default deny - Everything, not explicitly permitted, is forbidden Improves security at a cost in functionality and this is a good approach if you have lots of security threats. Default permit - Everything, not explicitly forbidden, is permitted Allows greater functionality by sacrificing security and this is only a good approach in an environment where security threats are non-existent or negligible. See computer insecurity for an example of the failure of this approach in the real world, Information security protecting data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, destruction, modification, or disruption to access. Computer security and Malice Engineering Technical surveillance counter-measures Economics of security the economic aspects of economics of privacy, technological advances, principally in the field of computers, have now allowed the creation of far more complex systems, with new and complex security problems. Secure systems have to resist not only technical attacks, but also coercion, fraud, understanding of a typical threat and the usual risks to people and property. Understanding the incentives created both by the threat and the countermeasures, understanding risk and threat analysis methodology and the benefits of an empirical study of the physical security of a facility. Understanding how to apply the methodology to buildings, critical infrastructure, ports, public transport, overview of common physical and technological methods of protection and understanding their roles in deterrence, detection and mitigation. Determining and prioritizing security needs and aligning them with the perceived threats, whatever the target, there are multiple ways of preventing penetration by unwanted or unauthorised persons. Methods include placing Jersey barriers, stairs or other sturdy obstacles outside tall or politically sensitive buildings to prevent car, US Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security Security Engineering Sal, Google Financial Services Industry, Health Care Industry, Energy Sector Ross Anderson. Security Engineering - A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems, why Information Security is Hard - An Economic Perspective Bruce Schneier
15.
High School of Glasgow
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The High School of Glasgow is an independent, co-educational day school in Glasgow, Scotland. It remained part of the Church as the grammar school until coming under local authority control in 1872, and closed in 1976. The School maintains a relationship with the Cathedral, where it holds an annual Service of Commemoration and it counts two British Prime Ministers, two Lords President and the founder of the University of Aberdeen among its alumni. It is a school, meaning prospective pupils must sit an entrance test to gain admission. The Rector of the school is John ONeill, the original school was founded as the Choir School of Glasgow Cathedral in around 1124, and later became known as Glasgow Grammar School. It was housed in Greyfriars Wynd until 1782, when it moved to new accommodation in George Street. The name was changed in 1834 to The High School of Glasgow, in 1878, the school moved into the former premises of the Glasgow Academy on Elmbank Street, when the latter moved to its new home in Kelvinbridge in the West End of the city. The Glasgow High School for Girls was founded in 1894 and housed variously in Garnethill, in 1976, the regional council closed the Boys High School, while the Girls High School began admitting boys and was renamed as Cleveden Secondary School. The new, purpose-built Senior School is in Old Anniesland, owned by the Glasgow High School Club, there have been multiple extensions to these buildings, including the two-storey science block. The Junior School occupies the site of the former Drewsteignton School, the Headmistress of the Junior School is Heather Fuller Pupils at the School are divided into the following Houses, Bannerman, for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. The School operates a competition, and pupils may earn points for their house through excellence in areas such as sports, music. The current holder of the house championship is Bannerman House. The Junior School Houses take their names from British lifeboats, Broughtyferry, Campbelltown, Lizard, the Glasgow High School Club is the former pupil club of the High School and its predecessor schools, the High School for Boys, the Girls High School and Drewsteignton School. The Club is a company, run by a committee and a President. The President is Ronnie Gourley, and the Past President is Alisair Wood, the Honorary President is The Lord Macfarlane of Bearsden, and the Rector of the School, John ONeil, is an ex officio member. The Club owns Old Anniesland, the site on which the School now stands, the Club runs all the facilities at Old Anniesland, including the Jimmie Ireland Stand but excluding the school. Use of the Clubs facilities is restricted to members, the Club runs a number of sports teams, although the former Glasgow High Kelvinside rugby club merged in 1997 with rivals Glasgow Academicals FC to form Glasgow Hawks. The friendly rivalry with the Glasgow Accies, based at neighbouring New Anniesland, inspired the name of the Anniesland Trophy, an annual golf competition between the Clubs
16.
Computer engineering
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Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in engineering, software design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, Computer engineers are also suited for robotics research, which relies heavily on using digital systems to control and monitor electrical systems like motors, communications, and sensors. Other institutions may require engineering students to one or two years of General Engineering before declaring computer engineering as their primary focus. The first computer engineering program in the United States was established at Case Western Reserve University in 1972. As of 2015, there were 238 ABET-accredited computer engineering programs in the US, in Europe, accreditation of computer engineering schools is done by a variety of agencies part of the EQANIE network. Both computer engineering and electronic engineering programs include analog and digital circuit design in their curriculum, as with most engineering disciplines, having a sound knowledge of mathematics and science is necessary for computer engineers. There are two major specialties in computer engineering, software and hardware, Computer software engineers develop, design, and test software. They construct, and maintain computer programs, as well as set up such as intranets for companies. Software engineers can design or code new applications to meet the needs of a business or individual. Some software engineers work independently as freelancers and sell their software products/applications to an enterprise or individual, most computer hardware engineers research, develop, design, and test various computer equipment. This can range from circuit boards and microprocessors to routers, some update existing computer equipment to be more efficient and work with newer software. Most computer hardware engineers work in laboratories and high-tech manufacturing firms. Some also work for the federal government, according to BLS, 95% of computer hardware engineers work in metropolitan areas. Approximately 33% of their work more than 40 hours a week. The median salary for employed qualified computer hardware engineers was $100,920 per year or $48.52 per hour, Computer hardware engineers held 83,300 jobs in 2012 in the USA. There are many specialty areas in the field of computer engineering, examples include work on wireless communications, multi-antenna systems, optical transmission, and digital watermarking. Those focusing on communications and wireless networks, work advancements in telecommunications systems and networks, modulation and error-control coding, high-speed network design, interference suppression and modulation, design and analysis of fault-tolerant system, and storage and transmission schemes are all a part of this specialty
17.
Avionics
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Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of systems. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term avionics is a portmanteau of the aviation and electronics. The term avionics was coined by the journalist Philip J. Klass as a portmanteau of aviation electronics, many modern avionics have their origins in World War II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are today were started to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Famously, radar was developed in the UK, Germany, modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F‑15E and the now retired F‑14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics, most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. The civilian market has seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs, the major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their method of transportation. The majority of power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems, however, larger. One source of international standards for equipment are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee. Communications connect the deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by systems and aircraft intercoms. The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz, each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe,25 kHz elsewhere. VHF is also used for line of communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft. Amplitude modulation is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode, aircraft communication can also take place using HF or satellite communication
18.
Eli Biham
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Eli Biham is an Israeli cryptographer and cryptanalyst, currently a professor at the Technion Israeli Institute of Technology Computer Science department. Starting from October 2008, Biham is the dean of the Technion Computer Science department, Biham received his Ph. D. for inventing differential cryptanalysis, while working under Adi Shamir. It had, it turned out, been invented at least twice before, a team at IBM discovered it during their work on DES, and was requested/required to keep their discovery secret by the NSA, who evidently knew about it as well. Among his many contributions to one can count, differential cryptanalysis - publicly invented during his Ph. D. studies under Adi Shamir Attacking all triple modes of operation. Impossible differential cryptanalysis - joint work with Adi Shamir and Alex Biryukov Breaking the ANSI X9.52 CBCM mode Breaking the GSM security mechanisms Co-invention of related-key attacks, sHAvite-3, a hash function which was one of the 14 semifinalists in the NIST hash function competition
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