1.
Winchmore Hill
–
Winchmore Hill is a district in the Borough of Enfield, north London, in the N21 postal district. Winchmore Hill is 8.9 miles north north-east of Charing Cross, once a small hamlet in the parish of Edmonton, Winchmore Hill now borders Palmers Green, Southgate, Edmonton, and Grange Park. Prior to the Roman invasion, Hertfordshire, Essex and Middlesex were occupied by the Catuvellauni tribe and it is believed that this tribe built a hill fort on the mound now occupied by Bush Hill Park Golf Club. The earliest recorded mention of Winchmore Hill is in a deed dated A. D.1319 in which it is spelt Wynsemerhull, in Old English, merhull translates according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place Names as boundary hill. It might be speculated that the title could mean Wynsiges boundary hill. By 1395 the name had altered to Wynsmerhull and by 1565 the village was known as Wynsmorehyll. There are many buildings of note in Winchmore Hill. The first religious building recorded is the Quaker Meeting House,1688, among those buried here are Luke Howard, the father of modern meteorology, Alice Hum, founder of Palmers Green High School for Girls, and members of the Hoare and Barclay banking families. Samuel Hoare played a prominent role in the campaign against the slave trade, St Pauls Church was built as a Waterloo church on land donated from the Grovelands estate. The church ceiling was said to be the largest unsupported expanse of plasterwork in Europe until its renovation in the 1960s introduced concealed supports, the original wooden clapboard St Pauls School building can be seen a little further down Church Hill. The remains of the second, brick-and-stone school building are evident in the walls of the car park. The current 1960s building is on Ringwood Way, off Station Road, other historical buildings may be seen on Wades Hill, leading north from The Green. On the right, just beyond the shops, are some wooden clapboard cottages and this is in the style of the Georgian town houses of Londons West End, but stands alone. It once had a house to its right, which was demolished by its owners. The oldest pub in the district was probably the Green Dragon – on Green Lanes and it is reputed to have opened in 1726 on the junction of Green Lanes and Green Dragon Lane. The Victoria County History reveals that by 1752 The Green Dragon was established, at that time, highwaymen were hanged near to where they were caught, and it is said that one was caught and executed on a gallows erected by the Green Dragons front entrance. The original Green Dragon was pulled down in 1892 and the new one was extensively remodelled in 1935 and it was closed as a public house in 2015 although the building remains. The Woodman pub near the end of Broadwalk is reported to have built in 1727
2.
Middlesex
–
Middlesex is a historic county in south-east England. It is now entirely within the wider urbanised area of London and its area is now also mostly within the ceremonial county of Greater London, with small sections in other neighbouring ceremonial counties. It was established in the Anglo-Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons, the largely low-lying county, dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south, was the second smallest county by area in 1831. The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert control over Middlesex. Westminster Abbey dominated most of the financial, judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county. As London grew into Middlesex, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county, in the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county, including the East End and West End of London. From 1855 the southeast was administered, with sections of Kent and Surrey, the City of London, and Middlesex, became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff, lost in 1199. In the interwar years suburban London expanded further, with improvement and expansion of public transport, after the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with high population growth continuing in the outer parts. Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket, Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns. The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the origin of its inhabitants. The word is formed from the Anglo-Saxon, i. e. Old English, middel, in an 8th-century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan. The Saxons derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known, the seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon, there were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county. Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Hounslow, Ossulstone and Spelthorne. The City of London has been self-governing since the century and became a county in its own right. Middlesex also included Westminster, which also had a degree of autonomy. Of the six hundreds, Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London, during the 17th century it was divided into four divisions, which, along with the Liberty of Westminster, largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred. The divisions were named Finsbury, Holborn, Kensington and Tower, the county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century
3.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
Marlborough College
–
Marlborough College is an independent boarding and day school in Marlborough, Wiltshire, England. Founded in 1843 for the sons of Church of England clergy, for the academic year 2015/16, Marlborough charges £9,610 per term for day pupils, making it the most expensive HMC day school in the UK. Fees for full boarders are up to £11,310 per term – the 28th most expensive HMC boarding school, the Good Schools Guide described Marlborough as a famous, designer label, co-ed boarding school still riding high. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, a sister school in Johore, Malaysia opened in 2012. Founded in 1843 for the education of the sons of Church of England clergy, currently there are just over 800 pupils, approximately one third of whom are female. New pupils are admitted at the ages of 13+ and 16, Marlborough was, in 1968, the first major British independent school to allow girls into the sixth form, setting a trend that many other schools followed subsequently. The school became fully co-educational in 1989, the school has also been pioneering in other fields, making a major contribution to the School Mathematics Project and initiating the teaching of Business Studies at A level. Fagging was officially abolished in the 1920s, and Marlborough was one of the first public schools to do so, however, unofficial fagging did persist beyond this change for some time. In 1963 a group of boys, led by the future political biographer Ben Pimlott, wrote a book, Marlborough, the writer and television critic T. C. Worsley wrote about predatory masters at the school in his acclaimed autobiography Flannelled Fool. She wrote to John Vickers, the OFT director-general, saying and they are schools that have quite openly continued to follow a long-established practice because they were unaware that the law had changed. The college is built beside the Mound and this was used as the motte of a castle. No remains of the castle can be seen today, radiocarbon dating of core samples in the early 2010s indicated that the Mound dates from 2400 BC. This is close to the established for Silbury Hill. The main focus of the college is the Court and this is surrounded by buildings in a number of different styles. At the south end is the back of an early 18th-century mansion, next to it are the old stables, now converted into boarding houses. The west side consists of the 1959 red brick dining hall, the rest of the Court is surrounded by buildings in styles ranging from the Jacobethan to classical Georgian and Victorian prison. The latter, B house, was designed by the Victorian architect Edward Blore, whose works include the facade of Buckingham Palace
5.
Trinity College, Oxford
–
Trinity College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The college was founded in 1555 by Sir Thomas Pope, on land occupied by Durham College. Despite its large size, the college is small in terms of student numbers at approximately 400. As of July 2013, Trinity had an endowment of £104.2 million. Trinity has produced three British prime ministers, placing it joint-second with Balliol College in terms of students who have held the office. The site where Trinity College now stands was occupied by Durham College. This college had been founded after land was bought in 1291, Durham College was built around a single quadrangle, now known as the Durham Quadrangle. The site was surrendered to the crown in March 1545, being granted to private owners in 1553 and they were then acquired by civil servant Thomas Pope on 20 February 1555, who used them to found Trinity College 16 days later. Durham College was originally dedicated to the Virgin Mary, St Cuthbert, and the Trinity, Pope was a Catholic who had no surviving children, and he hoped that by founding a college he would be remembered in the prayers of its students. His remains are still encased beside the chapel altar, the original foundation provided for a president,12 fellows, and 12 scholars, and for up to 20 undergraduates. The fellows were required to take Holy Orders and to remain unmarried, the College remained a largely all-male institution until 1979, when it admitted its first women undergraduates. It is now fully co-educational and co-residential, Trinity was one of the locations used for filming of the original miniseries Brideshead Revisited, its grounds were also, in part, the basis for Fleet College in Charles Finchs The Last Enchantments. Sir Ivor Roberts, formerly HM Ambassador to Italy, succeeded The Hon. Michael Beloff QC as President on 26 September 2006. Peter Brown, Tutor in Classics, assumed the position of Pro-President during the interregnum, for many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Trinity and those of its immediate neighbour to the west, Balliol College. It has manifested itself on the field and the river, in the form of songs sung over the dividing walls. In college folklore, the rivalry back to the late 17th century. The traditional words run, Gordouli Face like a ham, Bobby Johnson says so And he should know, although these words are now rarely heard, the singing of songs over the wall is still known as a Gordouli. The traditional Gordouli is said to have been sung by Balliol, the rivalry was given an extra edge in the early 20th century by the contrast between the radical tendencies of many Balliol students and Trinitys traditional conservatism and social exclusivity
6.
Activism
–
Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
7.
Guinness World Records
–
The book itself holds a world record, as the best-selling copyrighted book of all time. As of the 2017 edition, it is now in its 63rd year of publication, the international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe. That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europes fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad and he realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beavers idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, the twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away, after the founding of The Guinness Book of Records at 107 Fleet Street, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies, since then, Guinness World Records has become a household name and the global leader in world records. Because the book became a hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years, Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot, Guinness Superlatives Limited was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades, and, under their management, the group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002, with offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US. Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors, many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness database, as well as new records. The majority of records are no longer listed in the book or on the website. For those unable to wait the 4–6 weeks for a reply, the Guinness Book of Records is the worlds most sold copyrighted book, earning it an entry within its own pages
8.
Norris McWhirter
–
Norris Dewar McWhirter, CBE was a British writer, political activist, co-founder of The Freedom Association, and a television presenter. He and his brother, Ross, were known internationally for the founding of Guinness World Records. After Rosss assassination by the Provisional Irish Republican Army, Norris carried on alone as editor, Norris and Ross were the twin sons of William McWhirter, the editor of the Sunday Pictorial, and Margaret Williamson. In 1929, as William was working on the founding of the Northcliffe Newspapers chain of provincial newspapers, like their elder brother, Kennedy, Norris and Ross were educated at Marlborough College and Trinity College, Oxford. Norris chose to complete his law degree in two rather than the usual three. Between 1943 and 1946, Norris served as a sub-lieutenant with the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve on escort duty in Atlantic, McWhirter was an all-round athlete and represented Scotland at running during the 1950s. He and his brother became sports journalists in 1950, at the same time, he became a founding member of the Association of Track and Field Statisticians. McWhirter came to attention while working for the BBC as a sports commentator. On 6 May 1954, he kept the time when Roger Bannister ran the first sub four-minute mile, after the race, he began his announcement, As a result of Event Four, the one mile, the winner was R. G. One of the athletes covered was runner Christopher Chataway, the employee at Guinness who recommended them to Sir Hugh Beaver. In August 1955, the first slim green volume –198 pages long – was at the bookstalls, in 1954, the McWhirter brothers sued Daily Mail sports writer J. L. Manning for his critical piece about non-journalist sports writers. The McWhirters were awarded £300 in damages, McWhirter was also part of the BBC commentary team for their Olympic Games coverage between 1960 and 1976. Following Rosss murder, he co-founded the right-wing political organisation the National Association for Freedom in 1975, Ross was a critic of British government policy in Northern Ireland, and called for a tougher response by the Army against Irish republicans. Ross was shot dead by the IRA in 1975 at his home in Middlesex after offering a reward for leading to the apprehension of those carrying out a bombing campaign in London at the time. Norris was a member of the Secretariat of the anti-communist European Freedom Campaign and this groups co-ordinating committee consisted almost exclusively of representatives from countries behind the Iron Curtain. Both brothers were regulars on the BBC show Record Breakers and they were noted for their photographic memory, enabling them to provide detailed answers to any questions from the audience about entries in the Guinness Book of Records. After Rosss death, Norris continued to appear on the show, McWhirter was made a CBE in 1980. In 1957, Norris married Carole Eckert, who died in 1987, they had a son, in 1990, he married his secretary, Tessa von Weichardt, née Pocock
9.
Provisional Irish Republican Army
–
It was the biggest and most active republican paramilitary group during the Troubles. It saw itself as the successor to the original IRA and called simply the Irish Republican Army. It was also referred to as such by others. The Provisional IRA emerged in December 1969, following a split in the republican movement, the IRA initially focused on defence, but it began an offensive campaign in 1971. The IRAs primary goal was to force the British to negotiate a withdrawal from Northern Ireland and it used guerrilla tactics against the British Army and RUC in both rural and urban areas. It also carried out a campaign in Northern Ireland and England against what it saw as political. The IRA called a ceasefire in July 1997, after Sinn Féin was re-admitted into the Northern Ireland peace talks. It supported the 1998 Good Friday Agreement and in 2005 it disarmed under international supervision, the campaign was supported by arms and funding from Libya and from some Irish American groups. As a result, the IRA launched a new strategy known as the Long War and this saw them conduct a war of attrition against the British and increased emphasis on political activity, via the political party Sinn Féin. The success of the 1981 Irish hunger strike in mobilising support and winning elections led to the Armalite and ballot box strategy, with more time, the British demand was quickly dropped after the May 1997 general election in the UK. The IRA ceasefire was reinstated in July 1997 and Sinn Féin was admitted into all-party talks. The IRAs armed campaign, primarily in Northern Ireland but also in England and mainland Europe, the dead included around 1,100 members of the British security forces, and about 640 civilians. The IRA itself lost 275–300 members and an estimated 10,000 imprisoned at times over the 30-year period. The organisation remains classified as a proscribed terrorist group in the UK, two small groups split from the Provisional IRA, the Continuity IRA in 1986, and the Real IRA in 1997. Both reject the Good Friday Agreement and continue to engage in paramilitary activity and this new IRA group is estimated by Police Service of Northern Ireland intelligence sources to have between 250 and 300 active militants and many more supporting associates. The Provisional IRA was organised hierarchically, at the top of the organisation was the IRA Army Council, headed by the IRA Chief of Staff. All levels of the organisation were entitled to send delegates to IRA General Army Conventions, the GAC was the IRAs supreme decision-making authority. Since 1969, there have only three, in 1970,1986, and 2005, owing to the difficulty in organising such a large gathering of an illegal organisation in secret
10.
Daily Mirror
–
The Daily Mirror is a British national daily tabloid newspaper founded in 1903. It is owned by parent company Trinity Mirror, from 1985 to 1987, and from 1997 to 2002, the title on its masthead was simply The Mirror. It had a daily print circulation of 716,923 in December 2016. Its Sunday sister paper is the Sunday Mirror, originally pitched to the middle class reader, it was transformed into a working-class newspaper after 1934, in order to reach a large, lowbrow audience. The Mirror has had a number of owners and it was founded by Alfred Harmsworth, who sold it to his brother Harold Harmsworth in 1913. In 1963 a restructuring of the interests of the Harmsworth family led to the Mirror becoming a part of International Publishing Corporation. The Mirror was owned by Robert Maxwell between 1984 and 1991, the paper went through a protracted period of crisis after his death before merging with the regional newspaper group Trinity in 1999 to form Trinity Mirror. The paper has supported the Labour Party since the 1945 general election. The Daily Mirror was launched on 2 November 1903 by Alfred Harmsworth as a newspaper for women, hence the name, he said, I intend it to be really a mirror of feminine life as well on its grave as on its lighter sides. To be entertaining without being frivolous, and serious without being dull and it was not an immediate success and in 1904 Harmsworth decided to turn it into a pictorial newspaper with a broader focus. Harmsworth appointed Hamilton Fyfe as editor and all of the female journalists were fired. The masthead was changed to The Daily Illustrated Mirror, which ran from 26 January to 27 April 1904, when it reverted to The Daily Mirror. The first issue of the paper did not have advertisements on the front page as previously. Two days later, the price was dropped to one halfpenny and to the masthead was added, circulation grew to 466,000 making it the second-largest morning newspaper. Alfred Harmsworth sold the newspaper to his brother Harold Harmsworth in 1913, in 1917, the price was increased to one penny. Circulation continued to grow, in 1919, some issues more than a million copies a day. Lord Rothermere was a friend of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, the Mirror was the first British paper to adopt the appearance of the New York tabloids. By 1939, the publication was selling 1.4 million copies a day, in 1937, Hugh McClelland introduced his wild Western comic strip Beelzebub Jones in the Daily Mirror
11.
Glasgow
–
Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
12.
N postcode area
–
The N postcode area, also known as the London N postcode area, is the part of the London post town covering part of North London, England. It includes areas in the London boroughs of Hackney, Islington, Camden, Barnet, Haringey, the N postcode area does not cover all of the north of Greater London however. The postcode area originated in 1857 as the N district of London, in 1917 it was subdivided into 22 numbered districts. The Northern head district was designated as N1 and the rest of the numbering followed the order of the other districts main names. Most districts include local areas known by their own specific names, the official post town for all N postcodes is LONDON, district names do not form an essential part of postal addresses. To accommodate redevelopment in Kings Cross Central, a new district N1C was created in 2010, the N area also includes two non-geographic postcode districts, N1P for PO boxes in N1 or N1C, and N81 for ballot mailings to Electoral Reform Services in N8. The postcode area is bounded by the River Lea to the east. In the west the boundary cuts through Hampstead Heath and follows the North Circular Road, the northern boundary cuts through several open spaces and follows the A110 road for a short distance. Postcode Address File List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom London postal district Royal Mails Postcode Address File A quick introduction to Royal Mails Postcode Address File
13.
Sub-lieutenant
–
Sub-lieutenant is a junior military officer rank. In many navies, a sub-lieutenant is a commissioned or subordinate officer. In the Royal Navy the rank of sub-lieutenant is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant in the British Army, in some armies, sub-lieutenant is the lowest officer rank. However, in Brazil, it is the highest non-commissioned rank, the NATO rank code for the British Royal Navy rank is OF-1. In the British Royal Navy, a passed midshipman awaiting promotion often elected to become a masters mate, normally an experienced petty officer who assisted the sailing master. Though formally the rating did not lead to promotion to lieutenant, a midshipman who became a masters mate got an increase in pay from £1 13s 6d to £3 16s per month, but initially reduced his chances at a commission. Over time, however, service as a masters mate became a part of the path to a commission. By the first years of the 19th century, the masters was dropped for passed midshipmen. In 1824 two further grades were introduced, consisting of masters assistants and second-class volunteers. These corresponded to midshipmen and first-class volunteers respectively in the executive line, from this point, passed midshipmen had the rating masters mate, abbreviated as mate, and prospective masters had the rating masters assistant. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigators branch, in 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant. In 1861 mate was abolished in favour of sub-lieutenant, in 1955, the Royal Navy created the rank of acting sub-lieutenant. Unlike their substantive counterparts, acting sub-lieutenants are subordinate officers, as they hold their ranks by order, upon passing Fleet Board, acting sub-lieutenants were confirmed as sub-lieutenants and issued commissions backdated to the date when they were appointed acting sub-lieutenants. The rank of Acting Sub-lieutenant remains in the Royal Navy only within the University Royal Naval Unit where Training Officers enter at this rank. Before its abolition, the rank of acting sub-lieutenant in the Royal Navy corresponded with, but was junior to and this can be seen in print versions of STANAG2116 edition 5. Indeed, when someone is addressed as Acting sub-lieutenant, it can be seen as a way of patronising an individual in a derogatory manner due to the emphasis of their acting rank, the Royal New Zealand Navy follows the US precedent in titling its lowest commissioned officer ensign. In the Royal Thai Army, Army Reserve Force Students who complete grade 5, in the modern Royal Navy, all officer cadets now commission as midshipmen, regardless of whether they are a graduate, upper yardsmen, or a school leaver. They are subsequently promoted to sub-lieutenant one year after entering Britannia Royal Naval College, in France, a sub-lieutenant is the junior commissioned officer in the army or the air force
14.
Royal Naval Reserve
–
The Royal Naval Reserve is the volunteer reserve force of the Royal Navy in the United Kingdom. The present RNR was formed by merging the original Royal Naval Reserve, created in 1859, the Royal Naval Reserve has seen action in World War I, World War II, the Iraq War and Afghanistan. This led to a Royal Commission on Manning the Navy in 1858 and this established the RNR as a reserve of professional seamen from the British Merchant Navy and fishing fleets, who could be called upon during times of war to serve in the regular Royal Navy. The RNR was originally a reserve of only, but in 1862 this was extended to include the recruitment. From its creation, RNR officers wore on their uniforms a unique, after initial shore training, officers embarked in larger ships of the Royal Navys fleet for one year, to familiarise themselves with gunnery and naval practice. In 1910, the RNR was formed to recruit and train fishermen for wartime service in minesweepers, prior to the First World War, one hundred RNR officers were transferred to permanent careers in the regular navy—forever after referred to as the hungry hundred. In their professional careers, many RNR officers went on to command the largest passenger liners of the day and some also held positions in the shipping industry. On mobilisation in 1914, the RNR consisted of 30,000 officers, Officers of the permanent RNR on general service quickly took up seagoing appointments in the fleet, many in command, in destroyers, submarines, auxiliary cruisers and Q-ships. Others served in units of the battle fleet including a large number with the West Indies Squadron who became casualties at the Battle of Coronel. One such casualty was armed naval drifter HMT Frons Olivae, which hit a mine off Ramsgate on 12 October 1915 in an explosion killed at least five other seamen. One casualty, a Newfoundlander serving with the Royal Naval Reserve, was buried in the Hamilton Road Cemetery, Deal. Merchant service officers and men serving in armed merchant cruisers, hospital ships, fleet auxiliaries, although considerably smaller than both the RN and the RNVR, the RNR had an exceptional war record, members being awarded twelve Victoria Crosses. Again, RNR officers found themselves in command of destroyers, frigates, sloops, landing craft and submarines, or as specialist navigation officers in cruisers, in convoy work, the convoy commodore or escort commander was often an RNR officer. As in the First World War, the RNR acquitted itself well, during the Second World War, no more ratings were accepted into the RNVR, which then became the main route for wartime officer entry. The service was called the Wavy Navy, after the 3/8-inch wavy sleeve rings that RNVR officers wore to differentiate them from RN/RNR officers. From 30 November 2007, mainly due to increasing involvement of the RNR in RN operations and deployments, similarly, RNR ratings no longer wear RNR shoulder flashes. From 1938 until 1957, the RNVR provided aircrew personnel in the form of their own Air Branch, in 1947, their contribution was cut to anti-submarine and fighter squadrons only. By 1957, it was considered by the UK government that the required to operate modern equipment was beyond that expected of reservists
15.
Minesweeper
–
A minesweeper is a small naval warship designed to engage in minesweeping. Using various mechanisms intended to counter the threat posed by naval mines, although naval warfare has a long history, the earliest known usage of the naval mine dates to the Ming dynasty. Dedicated minesweepers, however, only appear in the record several centuries later, to the Crimean War. In the Crimean War, minesweepers consisted of British rowboats trailing grapnels to snag the mines, despite the use of mines in the American Civil War, there are no records of effective minesweeping being used. Officials in the Union Army attempted to create the first minesweeper but were plagued by flawed designs, minesweeping technology picked up in the Russo-Japanese War, using aging torpedo boats as minesweepers. In Britain, naval leaders recognized before the outbreak of World War I that the development of sea mines was a threat to the nations shipping, sir Arthur Wilson noted the real threat of the time was blockade aided by mines and not invasion. A Trawler Section of the Royal Navy Reserve became the predecessor of the mine sweeping forces with specially designed ships and these reserve Trawler Section fishermen and their trawlers were activated, supplied with mine gear, rifles, uniforms and pay as the first minesweepers. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop, by the end of the War, naval mine technology had grown beyond the ability of minesweepers to detect and remove. Minesweeping made significant advancements during World War II, combatant nations quickly adapted ships to the task of minesweeping, including Australias 35 civilian ships that became Auxiliary Minesweepers. Both Allied and Axis countries made heavy use of minesweepers throughout the war, historian Gordon Williamson wrote that Germanys minesweepers alone formed a massive proportion of its total strength, and are very much the unsung heroes of the Kriegsmarine. Naval mines remained a threat even after the war ended, after the Second World War, allied countries worked on new classes of minesweepers ranging from 120-ton designs for clearing estuaries to 735-ton oceangoing vessels. The United States Navy even used specialized Mechanized Landing Craft to sweep shallow harbors in, as of June 2012, the U. S. Navy had four minesweepers deployed to the Persian Gulf to address regional instabilities. Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or electrical devices, known as sweeps, mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchoring cables of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper, and use a body to maintain the sweep at the desired depth. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulate a particular ship signature, the most common such sweeps are magnetic and acoustic generators. There are two modes of operating an influence sweep, MSM and TSM, MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the ship that is about to transit through the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge of the mines, however, mines directed at other ships might remain
16.
Fleet Street
–
Fleet Street is a major street in the City of London. It runs west to east from Temple Bar at the boundary with the City of Westminster to Ludgate Circus at the site of the London Wall, having been an important through route since Roman times, businesses were established along the road during the Middle Ages. Senior clergy lived in Fleet Street during this period there are several churches including Temple Church. Much of the industry moved out in the 1980s after News International set up cheaper manufacturing premises in Wapping, the term Fleet Street remains a metonym for the British national press, and pubs on the street once frequented by journalists remain popular. The street is mentioned in works by Charles Dickens and is where the legendary fictitious murderous barber Sweeney Todd lived. Fleet Street is named after the River Fleet, which runs from Hampstead to the River Thames at the edge of the City of London. It is one of the oldest roads outside the city and was established by the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, it was known as Fleet Bridge Street, the street runs east from Temple Bar, the boundary between the Cities of London and Westminster, as a continuation of the Strand from Trafalgar Square. It crosses Chancery Lane and Fetter Lane to reach Ludgate Circus by the London Wall, the road ahead is Ludgate Hill. The street numbering runs consecutively from west to east south-side and then east to west north-side and it links the Roman and medieval boundaries of the City after the latter was extended. The nearest London Underground stations are Temple, Chancery Lane, and Blackfriars tube/mainline station, London Bus routes 4,11,15,23,26,76 and 172 run along the full length of Fleet Street, while route 341 runs between Temple Bar and Fetter Lane. Fleet Street was established as a thoroughfare in Roman London and there is evidence that a route led west from Ludgate by 200 AD. Local excavations revealed remains of a Roman amphitheatre near Ludgate on what was Fleet Prison, the Saxons did not occupy the Roman city but established Lundenwic further west around what is now Aldwych and the Strand. Many prelates lived around the street during the Middle Ages, including the Bishops of Salisbury and St Davids, tanning of animal hides became established on Fleet Street owing to the nearby river, though this increased pollution leading to a ban on dumping rubbish by the mid-14th century. Many taverns and brothels were established along Fleet Street and have been documented as early as the 14th century, records show that Geoffrey Chaucer was fined two shillings for attacking a friar in Fleet Street, though modern historians believe this is apocryphal. An important landmark in Fleet Street during the late Middle Ages was a conduit that was the water supply for the area. When Anne Boleyn was crowned Queen following her marriage to Henry VIII in 1533, by the 16th century, Fleet Street, along with much of the City, was chronically overcrowded, and a Royal proclamation in 1580 banned any further building on the street. This had little effect, and construction continued, particularly timber, Prince Henrys Room over the Inner Temple gate dates from 1610 and is named after Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I, who did not survive to succeed his father
17.
Christopher Chataway
–
Sir Christopher John Chataway, often known as Chris Chataway, was a British middle- and long-distance runner, television news broadcaster, and Conservative politician. Born in Chelsea, London, Chataway spent his childhood in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Chataway had a short but distinguished athletics career. Chataway managed to finish the race in fifth place, on leaving university he took an executive job with Guinness. When Roger Bannister ran the first sub-four minute mile on 6 May 1954 at Oxford Universitys Iffley Road Track, Chataway, the contest was televised via the Eurovision network and made Chataway a sporting celebrity, that December he won the first BBC Sports Personality of the Year award. After competing in the 1956 Olympics, Chataway retired from athletics, though he continued to race for Thames Hare. Soon after leaving Oxford with a degree in politics, philosophy and economics and he thought a suitable job in the rapidly expanding world of television might help. He refused offers in sports TV and with panel and quiz shows and he and Robin Day were its first two newscasters. By this time he was considering another career, this time in politics. He had been elected as a Conservative to the London County Council in 1958 in Lewisham North. Lewisham North was a marginal seat won by Labour in a by-election in 1957. His maiden speech expressed the hope that the England cricket team would refuse to play a tour in apartheid South Africa, a highly unusual opinion for a Conservative. In Parliament, Chataway took up the issue of refugees, especially in Africa and he served as a Parliamentary Private Secretary before being appointed as a junior Education Minister in July 1962. In the 1964 election, his majority was slashed to 343, Chataway, with relevant ministerial experience, was persuaded to take over. He was elected an Alderman and appointed Leader of the Education Committee, Chataway was keen to return to Parliament, and the opportunity came in a byelection in Chichester in May 1969. He then resigned as ILEA Leader, in this post he took charge of introducing commercial radio for the first time, ending the BBC monopoly. After a reshuffle in April 1972 he was Minister for Industrial Development, when the Conservatives were defeated in the February 1974 election, Chataway announced his retirement from politics and he did not seek re-election at the October 1974 election. He then went into business becoming a Managing Director of Orion Bank, a consortium bank later acquired by one of its shareholders and he stayed with Orion, later as Vice Chairman, for 15 years. He was also the first Chairman of Groundwork, the environmental charity and his principal outside interest was ActionAid, a small overseas development charity, of which he became Hon Treasurer in 1974 and later Chairman
18.
Guinness
–
Guinness is an Irish dry stout that originated in the brewery of Arthur Guinness at St. Jamess Gate brewery in the capital city of Dublin, Ireland. Guinness, produced by the Diageo beverages company, is one of the most successful beer brands worldwide and it is brewed in almost 50 countries and is available in over 120. Annual sales total of Guinness in 2011 was 850 million litres, Guinness features a burnt flavour that is derived from roasted, unmalted barley, although this is a relatively modern development, not becoming part of the grist until the mid-20th century. For many years, a portion of aged brew was blended with freshly brewed beer to give a sharp lactic flavour, although Guinnesss palate still features a characteristic tang, the company has refused to confirm whether this type of blending still occurs. The draught beers thick, creamy head comes from mixing the beer with nitrogen and it is popular with the Irish, both in Ireland and abroad. In spite of declining consumption since 2001, it is still the best-selling alcoholic drink in Ireland where Guinness & Co, Brewery makes almost €2 billion worth of the beverage annually. The company was started in 1759 in Dublin, but had to move its headquarters to London at the beginning of the Anglo-Irish Trade War in 1932, in 1997, Guinness plc merged with Grand Metropolitan to form the multinational alcoholic drinks producer Diageo. Arthur Guinness started brewing ales in 1759 at the St. Jamess Gate Brewery, on 31 December 1759, he signed a 9,000 year lease at £45 per annum for the unused brewery. Ten years later, on 19 May 1769, Guinness first exported his ale, there have been claims that Arthur Price, a Welshman, took the original recipe with him to Ireland where he hired a servant, Richard Guinness, whose son later opened the brewery. Stout originally referred to a strength, but eventually shifted meaning toward body. Arthur Guinness started selling the dark beer porter in 1778, the first Guinness beers to use the term were Single Stout and Double Stout in the 1840s. Throughout the bulk of its history, Guinness produced only three variations of a beer type, porter or single stout, double or extra. Porter was also referred to as plain, as mentioned in the refrain of Flann OBriens poem The Workmans Friend. Already one of the top-three British and Irish brewers, Guinnesss sales soared from 350,000 barrels in 1868 to 779,000 barrels in 1876, in October 1886 Guinness became a public company, and was averaging sales of 1,138,000 barrels a year. This was despite the refusal to either advertise or offer its beer at a discount. The breweries pioneered several quality control efforts, by 1900 the brewery was operating unparalleled welfare schemes for its 5,000 employees. By 1907 the welfare schemes were costing the brewery £40,000 a year, the improvements were suggested and supervised by Sir John Lumsden. By 1914, Guinness was producing 2,652,000 barrels of beer a year, which was more than double that of its nearest competitor Bass, in the 1930s, Guinness became the seventh largest company in the world
19.
BBC
–
The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
20.
William Webb Ellis
–
Reverend William Webb Ellis was an English Anglican clergyman and the alleged inventor of rugby football whilst a pupil at Rugby School. According to legend, Webb Ellis picked up the ball and ran with it during a football match in 1823. Although the story has become entrenched in the sports folklore, it is not supported by substantive evidence. The William Webb Ellis Cup is presented to the winners of the Rugby World Cup and his paternal grandfather was from Pontyclun in South Wales, a descendant of the Ellis family of Kiddal Hall, just off the A64 near Potterton, West Riding of Yorkshire. He attended the school from 1816 to 1825 and was recorded as being a scholar and cricketer. The incident in which Webb Ellis supposedly caught the ball in his arms during a football match, after leaving Rugby in 1826, he went to Brasenose College, Oxford, aged 20. He played cricket for his college, and for Oxford University against Cambridge University in a match in 1827. He graduated with a BA in 1829 and received his MA in 1831 and he entered the Church and became chaplain of St Georges Chapel, Albemarle Street, London, and then rector of St. Clement Danes in the Strand. He became well known as a low church evangelical clergyman, in 1855, he became rector of Magdalen Laver in Essex. A picture of him appeared in the Illustrated London News in 1854 and he never married and died in the south of France in 1872, leaving an estate of £9,000, mostly to various charities. His grave in le cimetière du vieux château at Menton in Alpes Maritimes was rediscovered by Ross McWhirter in 1958 and has since been renovated by the French Rugby Federation. The sole source of the story of Webb Ellis picking up the ball originates with one Matthew Bloxam, a local antiquarian and former pupil of Rugby. On 22 December 1880, in another letter to the Meteor, Bloxam elaborates on the story, A boy of the name Ellis – William Webb Ellis – a town boy, whilst playing Bigside at football in that half-year, caught the ball in his arms. Bloxams first account differed from his second one four years later, in his first letter, in 1876, Bloxham claimed that Webb Ellis committed the act in 1824, a time by which Webb Ellis had left Rugby. In his second letter, in 1880, Bloxham put the year as 1823, the sub-committee conducting the investigation was unable to procure any first hand evidence of the occurrence. Among those giving evidence, Thomas Harris and his brother John, Thomas Harris, who requested that he not quote as an authority, testified that Webb Ellis had been known as someone to take an unfair advantage at football. John Harris, who would have been aged 10 years at the time of the alleged incident, additionally, he stated that he had not heard the story of Webb Elliss creation of the game. Thomas Hughes was asked to comment on the game as played when he attended the school, football, the first hundred years, the untold story
21.
Menton
–
Menton is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region in southeastern France. Situated on the French Riviera, along the Franco-Italian border, it is nicknamed perle de la France. The Menton area has been inhabited since the era, and is the site of the original Grimaldi Man find of early modern humans, as well as remains of Neanderthals. In Roman times, the Via Julia Augusta, a road connecting Placentia with Arelates passed through Menton, running along the Rue Longue in the old town. The first major settlement occurred during the 11th century CE, when the Count of Ventimiglia constructed the Château de Puypin on the Pépin hill, north, Menton was thus incorporated into the Republic of Genoa. The first mention of Menton dates from 21 July 1262, in the treaty between Charles of Anjou and Genoa. Its position on the border between the Angevin-ruled Provence and the Republic of Genoa, which at the time claimed Monaco as its western limit, acquired in 1346 by Charles Grimaldi, Lord of Monaco, Menton was ruled by the Princes of Monaco until the French Revolution. Annexed during the Revolution, Menton remained part of France through the First Empire and it belonged to the district of Sanremo in the department of Alpes-Maritimes, which at the time included Monaco and Sanremo. In 1814, Menton was included in a reconstituted principality of Monaco which, after Napoleons Hundred Days in 1815, the Princes of Monaco were obliged to do homage to the King for Menton, although not for Monaco itself. In 1848, Menton, along with its neighbour Roquebrune, seceded from Monaco, due at least in part to a tax imposed on lemon exports. The county of Nice was thus annexed to France that June, and Napoleon III paid 4 million francs in compensation to the prince of Monaco, by the end of the 19th century, tourism was an important factor in Mentons growth. The town was popular with English and Russian aristocrats who built many of the hotels, villas. Many of these hotels and palaces were pressed into service as hospitals during World War I to allow injured troops to recuperate in a pleasant climate, Menton was the only sizable settlement captured by Italy during its invasion of France in June 1940. Following the armistice of June 22,1940, two-thirds of the territory of the commune was annexed by Italy as terra irredenta, the annexation lasted until 8 September 1943. Although officially returned to Vichy France, Menton was in fact occupied by Nazi Germany until its liberation by American and Canadian troops of the First Special Service Force on 8 September 1944. Menton, nicknamed the Pearl of France, is located on the Mediterranean Sea at the Franco-Italian border, the fishing industry was devastated in the 1980s and 1990s when a combination of overfishing and hypoxia in the bay. At the time, the devastation was attributed to the dubiously nicknamed killer algae Caulerpa taxifolia spread throughout the coastal sea floor. Menton has got a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, frosts are extremely rare but occasionally occur every few year
22.
Alpes Maritimes
–
Alpes-Maritimes is a department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region in the extreme southeast corner of France. The inhabitants of the department are called Maralpins, but are referred to as Azuréens. The Alpes-Maritimes department is surrounded by the departments of Var in the southwest, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in the north-west, Italy, and it surrounds the Principality of Monaco on the west, north, and east. The highest point of the department is the Cime du Gélas on the Franco-Italian border which dominates the Vallée des Merveilles further east, in fact the summit of Monte Argentera is certainly higher at 3297 m above sea level but it is located in Italian territory. There is also Mount Mounier which dominates the south of the vast Dôme de Barrot which is formed of a mass of more than 900 m thick red mudstones deeply indented by the gorges of Daluis and Cians. Except in winter, four passes allow passage to the north of the Mercantour/Argentera mountain range whose imposing 62 km long barrier covered in snow which is visible from the coast. From the west the Route des Grandes Alpes enters the Cayolle Pass first on the way to the Alps, then the route follows the Col de la Bonette - the highest pass in Europe at 2715 m - to connect to the valley of the Tinée then the Ubaye. Further east, the Lombard pass above Isola 2000 allows access to the shrine of Saint-Anne de Vinadio in Italy, finally, at its eastern end, the Col de Tende links with Cuneo in Italy. The rivers in order are, It is the climate that made the Côte dAzur famous. The coastal area has a Mediterranean climate, towards the interior, especially in the north, a mountain climate. One of the attractions of the department is its level of sunshine,300 days per year, despite this the department is also the most stormy of France with an average of 70 to 110 thunderstorm days per year. Alpes-Maritimes is divided into 2 arrondissements, the Grasse and the Nice,27 cantons and 163 communes, in 2002 there were 14 intercommunalities. At its greatest extent in AD297, the province reached north to Digne, a first French département of Alpes-Maritimes existed in the same area from 1793 to 1814. Its boundaries differed from those of the department, however. In 1793 Alpes-Maritimes included Monaco and San Remo, but not Grasse which was part of the départment of Var. Sanremo, cantons, Sanremo, Bordighera, Dolceacqua, Pigna, Taggia, Triora, Puget-Théniers, cantons, Puget-Théniers, Beuil, Gilette, Guillaumes, Roquesteron, Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée and Villars-sur-Var. Its population in 1812 was 131,266, and its area was 322,674 hectares, the department was reconstituted in 1860 when the county of Nice was annexed by France. It included the county of Nice as well as the independent towns of Menton and Roquebrune
23.
French Rugby Federation
–
The French Rugby Federation is the governing body for rugby union in France. It is responsible for the French national team and the Ligue nationale de rugby that administers the countrys professional leagues and it was formed in 1919 and is affiliated to World Rugby, the sports governing body. It included the teams of Italy, French national team, Catalonia, Czechoslovakia, Romania. Following German occupation, FFR officials closely associated with the Vichy government lobbied to have certain un-French sports banned, between the end of 1940 and the middle of 1942, one semi-professional and at least six French Amateur Sport Federations were banned and destroyed by the Vichy regime. These actions were independently verified by the French government in 2002, in 1978 the Federation became a member of the IRFB, which later became the International Rugby Board and is now World Rugby. France national rugby union team Ligue Nationale de Rugby List of rugby clubs in France Official site
24.
Conservative Party (UK)
–
The Conservative Party, officially the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a political party in the United Kingdom. It is currently the party, having won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election. The partys leader, Theresa May, is serving as Prime Minister. It is the largest party in government with 8,702 councillors. The Conservative Party is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, the other being its modern rival. The Conservative Partys platform involves support for market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defence, deregulation. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives main rivals, Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the twentieth century, including Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher. Thatchers tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation, the Conservative Partys domination of British politics throughout the twentieth century has led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world. The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament, with twenty MEPs, the party is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe Europarty and the International Democrat Union. The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and the second-largest in the Welsh Assembly, the party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The Conservative Party traces its origins to a faction, rooted in the 18th century Whig Party and they were known as Independent Whigs, Friends of Mr Pitt, or Pittites. After Pitts death the term Tory came into use and this was an allusion to the Tories, a political grouping that had existed from 1678, but which had no organisational continuity with the Pittite party. From about 1812 on the name Tory was commonly used for the newer party, the term Conservative was suggested as a title for the party by a magazine article by J. Wilson Croker in the Quarterly Review in 1830. The name immediately caught on and was adopted under the aegis of Sir Robert Peel around 1834. Peel is acknowledged as the founder of the Conservative Party, which he created with the announcement of the Tamworth Manifesto, the term Conservative Party rather than Tory was the dominant usage by 1845. In 1912, the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative Party, in Ireland, the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922. The Conservatives served with the Liberals in an all-party coalition government during World War I, keohane finds that the Conservatives were bitterly divided before 1914, especially on the issue of Irish Unionism and the experience of three consecutive election losses
25.
Edmonton (UK Parliament constituency)
–
Edmonton is a constituency in Greater London, created in 1918 and represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2015 by Kate Osamor of the Labour Party and the Co-operative Party. Population and housing were significantly less before the middle of the 19th century which saw a population rise. The seat was won by successive Labour party candidates since 1935 until narrowly gained by a Conservative in their win in the 1983 General Election. The latters majority increased in 1987 then reduced to a majority in 1992. After 1997 a trend of increased Labour majorities developed – Osamors majority of 2015,37. 3%, likewise, with the exception of a Conservative-leaning ward, Bush Hill Park, Edmontons other wards usually elect Labour Party councillors since 1997. 1918-1950, The Urban District of Edmonton, 1950-1974, The Municipal Borough of Edmonton. 1974-1983, The London Borough of Enfield wards of Angel Road, Bush Hill South, Church Street, Craig Park, Jubilee, New Park, Pymmes, St Alphege, St Peters, and Silver Street. 1983-2010, The London Borough of Enfield wards of Angel Road, Craig Park, Huxley, Jubilee, Latymer, Raglan, St Alphege, St Marks, St Peters, Village, and Weir Hall. 2010–present, The London Borough of Enfield wards of Bush Hill Park, Edmonton Green, Haselbury, Jubilee, Lower Edmonton, Ponders End, following its review of parliamentary representation in North London, the Boundary Commission for England made some changes to Edmonton. Ponders End ward was transferred from the constituency of Enfield North to Edmonton, part of Southbury ward was transferred to Enfield North. Parts of Grange ward, Palmers Green ward, and Bowes ward were transferred from Edmonton to Enfield, part of Bush Hill Park ward and a tiny part of Upper Edmonton ward were transferred from Enfield, Southgate to Edmonton. Endorsed by Coalition Government List of Parliamentary constituencies in Greater London Notes References Iain Dale, the Times House of Commons 1929,1931,1935. The Times House of Commons 1945, the Times House of Commons 1950. The Times House of Commons 1955, leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs – Constituencies beginning with E
26.
The Freedom Association
–
TFA was founded in 1975 as the National Association for Freedom and gained public prominence through its anti-trade union campaigns. Its popularity grew after campaigning against perceived abuses to individual freedom including big business, big government, organised labour, by the end of the 1970s the organisation had around 20,000 members including the wife of the late Labour politician Herbert Morrison. The Associations honorary President is Christopher Gill, the current Chief Executive of The Freedom Association is Simon Richards. The Freedom Association was founded in 1975 as the National Association for Freedom by the Viscount De LIsle, Norris McWhirter, Ross McWhirter, Ross McWhirter had drawn up a fifteen-point Charter of Rights and Liberties before being assassinated by the Provisional IRA in November 1975. NAFF was renamed The Freedom Association in the winter of 1978, Andrew Gamble reported shortly after that the renaming was undertaken in order to avoid confusion with the National Front. The Freedom Association describes itself as a non-partisan, centre-right, libertarian, in their study of the use of litigation by pressure groups, Carol Harlow and Richard Rawlings call TFA an avowedly conservative group. Marina Hyde, writing in The Guardian, has called the organisation a charmless libertarian pressure group, the group has no formal party political affiliations but historically many members of TFA have also been associated with the Conservative Party. In May 1978, this led to former Conservative minister William van Straubenzee accusing TFA of extremist infiltration of his party, TFA has been described as the conservative wing of the Conservative Party. Since 2007, TFA has been running fringe events at the Conservative Party conference with speakers such as Daniel Hannan and John Redwood, the Freedom Associations council includes Sir Mark Worthington OBE, and Christopher Gill RD. The Chief Executive is Simon Richards, assisted by Rory Broomfield, Director, in the 1970s, the founders regarded the power of the UK trade union movement as excessive and out of control. The best known of these actions was Operation Pony Express during the Grunwick dispute, following the election of the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher, the Association suffered a slow decline in membership. In the 1980s, TFA campaigned in support of the right of England cricketers to tour in apartheid-era South Africa, the organisation later received funding from the South African government. In 1988, the association threatened to seek an injunction against the BBC to prevent the broadcaster from broadcasting the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute from Wembley Stadium. A group of Conservative MPs and TFA objected to the possibility that the broadcast would include a message from Mandela or other anti-apartheid propaganda. The threat was eventually dropped, in the hope that the BBC not broadcast any attempt to use the concert for promoting the African National Congress or similar anti-apartheid bodies, the day after Mandelas death, TFA featured him on their website as their Freedom Hero of The Week. In 2010 the group campaigned against the introduction of national identity cards. Previously, in the 1980s, some prominent supporters of TFA, in April 2006 TFA launched Better Off Out - a campaign for the UK to leave the EU. This has attracted the support of one Labour, one UKIP and twelve Tory MPs, plus a number of MEPs, Peers, academics, journalists and it was officially launched in Parliament by Philip Davies, despite criticism from Conservative party leader David Cameron
27.
Irish community in Britain
–
Irish migration to Great Britain has occurred from the earliest recorded history to the present. There has been a movement of people between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain due to their proximity. This tide has ebbed and flowed in response to politics, economics, today, Ireland is divided between the independent Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Today, millions of residents of Great Britain are either from Ireland or have Irish ancestry and it is estimated that as many as six million people living in the UK have at least one Irish grandparent. The Irish diaspora refers to Irish people and their descendants who live outside Ireland and this article refers to those who reside in Great Britain, the largest island and principal territory of the United Kingdom. During the Dark Ages, significant Irish settlement of western Britain took place and this is based mostly on medieval writings from the 9th and 10th centuries. However, recently some archeologists have argued against this view, saying there is no archeological or placename evidence for a migration or a takeover by a small group of elites. Due to the growth of Dál Riata, in size and influence, Scotland became almost wholly Gaelic-speaking until Northumbrian English began to replace Gaelic in the Lowlands. Gaelic remained the dominant languages of the Highlands into the 19th century, modwenna and others were significant in the following century. Some English monarchs, such as Oswiu of Northumbria, Aldfrith and Harold Godwinson were either raised in or sought refuge in Ireland, alfred the Great may have spent some of his childhood in Ireland. In the year 902 Vikings who had forced out of Ireland were given permission by the English to settle in Wirral. An Irish historical record known as The Three Fragments refers to a group of settlers living among these Vikings as Irishmen. Historically, Irish immigrants to the United Kingdom in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were considered over-represented amongst those appearing in court, some notable people born in Ireland who settled in Great Britain between the 16th and 19th centuries, Richard Burke, 4th Earl of Clanricarde, died 1635. Richard Brinsley Sheridan George Monro, 1700–57, arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Thomas Moore, died 1852. It is estimated more than one million people died. A further wave of emigration to England also took place between the 1930s, and 1960s by Irish escaping poor economic conditions following the establishment of the Irish Free State. This was furthered by the labour shortage in Britain during the mid-20th century. Irelands population fell from more than 8 million to just 6.5 million between 1841 and 1851, a century later it had dropped to 4.3 million
28.
John Gouriet
–
Major John Prendergast Gouriet was a British Army officer, company director and political activist. Gouriet was the son of a Wing Commander in the Royal Air Force from Watchet in Somerset. Gouriet was educated at Charterhouse School in Girdlestoneites House, an independent school in Godalming in Surrey, Gouriet did well at Sandhurst and was commissioned as an officer in the Army in the 15th/19th The Kings Royal Hussars with seniority from December 1955. He joined his regiment in Malaya on active service, in the Army Gouriet became the second in command of a company of the Somaliland Scouts from 1959 until the Scouts were disbanded in late 1960. He finished his Army career as Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster-General at the Ministry of Defence, responsible for Q Operations and Plans and that night he resolved to take up the cudgels himself. During the Conservative Party conference of 1975, Gouriet and McWhirter placed a copy of a broadsheet called Majority on every seat. The two had begun work on setting up their new organisation when they heard of an incident which gave them an opportunity to campaign. A P&O ferry crew had been sacked on arriving at Southampton and had responded by impounding all the cars on their ship, which had not been unloaded. After a hearing reportedly lasting eight minutes, Nundy was granted an injunction by the High Court against both P & O and the leader of the strike, requiring the release of his car. Gouriet later noted that it turned out that Nundys car was at the back of the ship, Gouriet then tried unsuccessfully to persuade the Home Secretary to put up a reward of £50,000 for information leading to the conviction of IRA members. When refused, Ross McWhirter decided to do so himself, this led to his assassination by the IRA Balcombe Street gang. Opposition to communism was one of the Associations key points and for his work Gouriet was awarded the Polish Gold Cross of Merit by the Polish government-in-exile in London. He was the sole British Guard of Honour at the unveiling of the memorial to the Katyn massacre in Gunnersbury, west London, in September 1976. In early 1977 the Union of Post Office Workers decided to all telephone calls, mail and telegrams to and from South Africa. Gouriet, for the National Association For Freedom, applied for an injunction to prevent the boycott under the Post Office Act 1953 which made it illegal to impede the mail. When Silkin appeared in Court, he insisted that the Court of Appeal had no power to examine his reasons for refusing Gouriet consent and this court defeat was highly embarrassing and Silkin was jeered with shouts of resign when he came to Parliament to explain. Silkin successfully appealed to the House of Lords, instead, the National Association for Freedom undertook an operation to liberate the post with the co-operation of the company and the police. At 1am on Saturday 9 July, Gouriet organised 25 volunteers who loaded about 100,000 processed films from Grunwick on to two articulated lorries, and drove them to a north of London
29.
Balcombe Street siege
–
The Balcombe Street siege was an incident involving members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Metropolitan Police Service of London lasting from 6 to 12 December 1975. The siege ended with the surrender of the four IRA paramilitaries, the events were televised and watched by millions. In 1974 and 1975, London was subjected to a 14-month campaign of gun, some 40 bombs exploded in London, killing 35 people and injuring many more. Quinn had recently shot dead police constable Stephen Tibble in London after fleeing from police officers, the flat he was seen fleeing from was discovered to be a bomb factory used by the unit. They had thrown a bomb through the restaurant window a few weeks before on 12 November 1975, killing one person and injuring 15 others. The Metropolitan Police Bomb Squad had detected a pattern of behaviour in the ASU, in a scheme devised by a young detective sergeant, the Met flooded the streets of London with unarmed plain-clothes officers on the lookout for the ASU. The four IRA men were spotted as they slowed to a halt outside Scotts, inspector John Purnell and Sergeant Phil McVeigh, on duty as part of the dragnet operation, picked up the radio call from the team in Mount Street as the stolen Cortina approached their position. With no means of transport available, the two unarmed officers flagged down a taxi cab and tailed the men for several miles through London. Purnell and McVeigh, unarmed, continued the pursuit on foot despite handgun fire from the gang, other officers joined the chase, with the four IRA men running into a block of council flats in Balcombe Street, adjacent to Marylebone station, triggering the six-day stand-off. Purnell was subsequently awarded the George Medal for his bravery, several other police officers were also decorated. The four men ended up in a flat at 22b Balcombe Street in Marylebone, the men declared that they were members of the IRA and demanded a plane to fly both them and their hostages to the Republic of Ireland. Scotland Yard refused, creating a standoff between the men and the police. Peter Imbert, later Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, was the chief police negotiator, the other members of the gang were named Mick and Paddy, thereby avoiding revealing to the negotiators precisely how many of them were in the living room of the flat. The resolution of the siege was a result of the psychological pressure exerted on the gang by Imbert. The officers also used carefully crafted misinformation, through the BBC radio news—the police knew the gang had a radio—to further destabilise the gang into surrender, a news broadcast stated that the British Special Air Service were going to be sent in to storm the building and release the hostages. This seemed to deter the gang and they gave themselves up to the police. The four were found guilty at their Old Bailey trial in 1977 of seven murders, conspiring to cause explosions, o’Connell, Butler and Duggan each received twelve life sentences, and Doherty eleven. Each of the men was given a whole life tariff
30.
Bush Hill Park
–
Bush Hill Park is a locality within the London Borough of Enfield. Much of the district is a suburban estate designated a conservation area in 1986. For political purposes the locality falls within the Edmonton parliamentary constituency, Bush Hill Park was farmland that was part of an estate centred on Bush Hill Park House, a country house. The estate changed hands several times in the 18th century before coming under the ownership of William Mellish, by this time the estate covered 438 acres – one of the largest in the parish. The estate was broken up in 1875 with the North London Estates Company NLEC, Bush Hill Park House was sold separately and demolished in 1929. Initially, the estate was slow to develop, however, with the building of Bush Hill Park station in 1880 the first phase of houses were built between 1880–1886. The houses were divided into a development in Village Road and other substantial homes were completed in Wellington Road, Queen Annes Place. Most of these houses were designed by architect, R Tayler Smith for the NLEC. By 1887, following a housing boom a ten-year decline began with NLEC going bankrupt in 1887, demand for housing picked up due to the expansion of the Royal Small Arms Factory during the Boer War and the present form of the estate was completed by 1914. Between 1914–1960 development was restricted to infilling existing plots, after 1960 larger properties were demolished and replaced by blocks of flats. In 1987, much of the estate was designated as a conservation area, on 27 November 1975, Ross McWhirter was murdered by two Provisional IRA terrorists at his home in Village Road in Bush Hill Park. Bush Hill Park is one of seven wards which form the Edmonton parliamentary constituency, the MP for Edmonton is Kate Osamor, Labour Co-op who polled 25,388 votes at the United Kingdom general election,2015. Bush Hill Park is a residential suburb due to its good transport links. Amenities include a school, several places of worship, a public house, doctor and dentist surgeries. Adjacent to the station is a parade of shops. The conservation area can be divided into three distinct areas, firstly, the main core of the estate to include Wellington Road, Queen Annes Place, Queen Annes Gardens, Dryden Road and Abbey Road. The second area Private Road was added to the area in 1994. Bush Hill Park railway station and its immediate environs make up the third area, two buildings of note in this area are the former bank and the Bush Hill Park Hotel
31.
.357 Magnum
–
The.357 S&W Magnum, or simply.357 Magnum, is a revolver cartridge with a. 357-inch bullet diameter. It was created by Elmer Keith, Phillip B, Wesson of firearms manufacturers Smith & Wesson and Winchester. It is based upon Smith & Wessons earlier.38 Special cartridge, the.357 Magnum cartridge was introduced in 1934, and its use has since become widespread. This cartridge started the Magnum era of handgun ammunition, the.357 Magnum cartridge is notable for its stopping power. The.357 Magnum was collaboratively developed over a period in the early to mid-1930s by a group of individuals in a response to Colts.38 Super Automatic. Tests at the revealed that those vests defeated any handgun cartridge traveling at less than about 1,000 feet per second. Colts.38 Super Automatic just edged over that velocity and was able to penetrate car doors and vests that bootleggers and gangsters were employing as cover. Though.38 and.357 would seem to be different diameter chamberings, they are in fact identical, the.38 Special nomenclature relates to the previous use of heeled bullets, which were the same diameter as the case. Thus, the only difference in the two cartridges is a slight difference in length, solely for safety purposes. Much credit for the. 357s early development is given to hunter and experimenter Elmer Keith, the. 38-44 HV load used the. 38-Special cartridge loaded to a much higher velocity than standard. 38-Special ammunition. The. 38-44 revolvers were made by using a.44 Special size gun with the barrel bored to accept. 357-caliber bullets, since the frame, cylinder, and barrel were much stronger than the standard.38 Special components, it was capable of withstanding much higher pressures. The. 38-44 HV round, while no longer available, was in most cases the equal of the later.357 Magnum, which works at more than double the pressure of standard.38 Special. Elmer Keith also contributed the Keith-style bullet, which increased the mass of bullet located outside the cartridge, the Keith bullet also employed a large, flat meplat, thus enabling rapid energy transfer for greater wounding properties. At the same time, this design does not deform like a hollow point. These characteristics of the Keith bullet make it suitable for hunting applications as well as for target shooting. In order to reassert itself as the leading law-enforcement armament provider, Smith & Wesson developed the.357 Magnum, Wesson leading the effort within Smith & Wesson, along with considerable technical assistance from Phillip B. Sharpe, a member of the Technical Division staff of the National Rifle Association, the new round was developed from Smith & Wessons existing.38 Special round. It used a different powder load, and ultimately the case was extended by 1⁄8 inch, the case extension was more a matter of safety than of necessity
32.
Chase Farm Hospital
–
Chase Farm Hospital is a hospital in Gordon Hill, near Enfield, north London, run by the Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust as part of the British National Health Service. The oldest part of the hospital was part of a childrens home. Newer buildings on the site include the Highlands Block, built in replacement of the local Highlands Hospital which closed in 1993. In 1999 the hospital became part of the Barnet and Chase Farm NHS Hospitals Trust, the site contains the North London Forensic Service, the forensic psychiatric service covering most of north London and Radio Enfield. Some of the land is also being developed by builders as new homes, a new low-secure psychiatric unit is proposed and work is due to start in 2015 if approved by the local planning committee. A public consultation was carried out during 2007 on reorganising services between Chase Farm Hospital and Barnet Hospital, one option would have transformed Chase Farm to a community hospital with inpatient and major emergency care transferred to Barnet. The other option concentrated on planned care at Chase Farm, with maternity, the proposals were intended to maximise clinical effectiveness given limited human and financial resources, however, they also predicated a substantial investment in community health provision. The local NHS Primary Care Trusts determined at the end of this consultation to proceed with Option 2, two candidates, Catherine Wilkinson and Kieran McGregor, for the Save Chase Farm movement were elected to the local council in the local elections of May 2006. They however lost their seats in the 2010 election, the Accident and Emergency Department at Chase Farm Hospital closed on 9 December 2013 following the determination of the Barnet, Enfield and Haringey strategy. Following the dismissal of Enfield Councils judicial review request, the maternity and accident & emergency units at Chase Farm Hospital closed in mid-November, since 2014 the hospital has been part of the Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust. The Trust discovered a large backlog of patients waiting for elective treatment that year, by April 2015 the trust had reviewed 7,174 patients who have now received treatment. The review concluded that one patient “may have experienced serious harm” and 39 patients had “potentially” suffered “moderate harm”,1,541 patients were sent to private providers since July 2014, predominately for endoscopy and ear, nose and throat treatments. There are now proposals to build a new hospital, amy Winehouse John Conroy Healthcare in London List of hospitals in England Save Chase Farm
33.
Good Friday Agreement
–
The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process of the 1990s. Northern Irelands present devolved system of government is based on the agreement, the agreement also created a number of institutions between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, and between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. The agreement set out a series of provisions relating to a number of areas including, The status. The relationship between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, the relationship between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. Issues relating to sovereignty, civil and cultural rights, decommissioning of weapons, justice, the agreement was approved by voters across the island of Ireland in two referendums held on 22 May 1998. In Northern Ireland, voters were asked whether they supported the multi-party agreement, in the Republic of Ireland, voters were asked whether they would allow the state to sign the agreement and allow necessary constitutional changes to facilitate it. The people of both jurisdictions needed to approve the agreement in order to effect to it. The British-Irish Agreement came into force on 2 December 1999, the Democratic Unionist Party was the only major political group in Northern Ireland to oppose the Good Friday Agreement. The former text has just four articles, it is that text that is the legal agreement. Technically, this scheduled agreement can be distinguished as the Multi-Party Agreement, the vague wording of some of the provisions, described as constructive ambiguity, helped ensure acceptance of the agreement and served to postpone debate on some of the more contentious issues. Most notably these included paramilitary decommissioning, police reform and the normalisation of Northern Ireland, both of these views were acknowledged as being legitimate. For the first time, the government of the Republic of Ireland accepted in an international agreement that Northern Ireland was part of the United Kingdom. On the other hand, the language of the agreement reflects a switch in the United Kingdoms statutory emphasis from one for the union to one for a united Ireland, the agreement thus left the issue of future sovereignty over Northern Ireland open-ended. The agreement reached was that Northern Ireland would remain part of the United Kingdom until a majority both of the people of Northern Ireland and of the Republic of Ireland wished otherwise. Should that happen, then the British and Irish governments are under an obligation to implement that choice. The two governments also agreed, irrespective of the position of Northern Ireland, in its white paper on Brexit the United Kingdom government reiterated its commitment to the Belfast Agreement. The agreement sets out a framework for the creation and number of institutions across three strands, the Northern Ireland Executive is a power-sharing executive with ministerial portfolios to be allocated between parties by the dHondt method. Strand 2 dealt with issues and institutions to be created between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland
34.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
35.
The Washington Post
–
The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C
36.
The Daily Telegraph
–
It was founded by Arthur B. Sleigh in 1855 as The Daily Telegraph and Courier, the papers motto, Was, is, and will be, appears in the editorial pages and has featured in every edition of the newspaper since April 19,1858. The paper had a circulation of 460,054 in December 2016 and its sister paper, The Sunday Telegraph, which started in 1961, had a circulation of 359,287 as of December 2016. The Daily Telegraph has the largest circulation for a newspaper in the UK. The two sister newspapers are run separately, with different editorial staff, but there is cross-usage of stories, articles published in either may be published on the Telegraph Media Groups www. telegraph. co. uk website, under the title of The Telegraph. However, critics, including an editor, accuse it of being unduly influenced by advertisers. The Daily Telegraph and Courier was founded by Colonel Arthur B, Sleigh in June 1855 to air a personal grievance against the future commander-in-chief of the British Army, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Joseph Moses Levy, the owner of The Sunday Times, agreed to print the newspaper, the paper cost 2d and was four pages long. Nevertheless, the first edition stressed the quality and independence of its articles and journalists, however, the paper was not a success, and Sleigh was unable to pay Levy the printing bill. Levy took over the newspaper, his aim being to produce a newspaper than his main competitors in London. The same principle should apply to all other events—to fashion, to new inventions, in 1876, Jules Verne published his novel Michael Strogoff, whose plot takes place during a fictional uprising and war in Siberia. In 1937, the newspaper absorbed The Morning Post, which espoused a conservative position. Originally William Ewart Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose, bought The Morning Post with the intention of publishing it alongside The Daily Telegraph, for some years the paper was retitled The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post before it reverted to just The Daily Telegraph. As an result, Gordon Lennox was monitored by MI5, in 1939, The Telegraph published Clare Hollingworths scoop that Germany was to invade Poland. In November 1940, with Fleet Street subjected to almost daily bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, The Telegraph started printing in Manchester at Kemsley House, Manchester quite often printed the entire run of The Telegraph when its Fleet Street offices were under threat. The name Kemsley House was changed to Thomson House in 1959, in 1986 printing of Northern editions of the Daily and Sunday Telegraph moved to Trafford Park and in 2008 to Newsprinters at Knowsley, Liverpool. During the Second World War, The Daily Telegraph covertly helped in the recruitment of code-breakers for Bletchley Park, the ability to solve The Telegraphs crossword in under 12 minutes was considered to be a recruitment test. The competition itself was won by F. H. W. Hawes of Dagenham who finished the crossword in less than eight minutes, both the Camrose and Burnham families remained involved in management until Conrad Black took control in 1986
37.
The Guardian
–
The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
38.
BBC News
–
BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
39.
An Phoblacht
–
An Phoblacht is a monthly 32-page newspaper published by Sinn Féin in Ireland. Editorially the paper takes a left wing, Irish republican position and is supportive of the Northern Ireland peace process. Along with covering Irish political and trade union issues the newspaper also features interviews with celebrities, musicians, artists, intellectuals. The paper sells an average of up to 15,000 copies every month and it was the first Irish paper to provide an edition online and currently has in excess of 100,000 website hits per week. In the first edition, Bulmer Hobson, one of the founders of the Dungannon Clubs, set out their aims, a year later the paper merged with a Dublin title called The Peasant. However, the title An Phoblacht was again used from 1925 with Patrick Little as editor and continued until 1937 with a history of internal splits. From 1925 into 1926 Seán Lemass wrote a number of articles advocating the engagement into politics prior to the establishment of Fianna Fáil, peadar ODonnell took over as editor in April 1926 following a split in the republican movement. The title appeared again in 1966 as the paper of a small IRA splinter group based in Cork, an Phoblacht began with a circulation of 20,000 per month. Located at 2a Lower Kevin Street in Dublin’s south inner city, it moved to the northside of the capital, to Kevin Barry House,44 Parnell Square, however this ban did not extend to the print media. Section 31 produced a climate where many career journalists engaged in self-censorship to avoid official opprobrium, however, it was the southern Irish government which harassed An Phoblacht most stridently, with regular Garda Special Branch investigations into the publications links to the IRA. Mac Thomáis was arrested and charged with IRA membership and sentenced to 15 months’ imprisonment having been guilty of the offence. The paper continued under the stewardship of Dublin journalist Deasún Breathnach until Mac Thomáis resumed duties on his release in July 1974, within two months, Mac Thomáis was again arrested and sentenced to another 15 months. Another editor, Coleman Moynihan, who had succeeded Seán Ó Brádaigh in 1972, the paper continued on with the succeeding editors being Gerry Danaher, Gerry O’Hare, and Deasún Breathnach. Accordingly, on 27 January 1979, the first 12-page issue of the publications, under the banner of An Phoblacht/Republican News. The absolute necessity of one single united paper providing a line of republican leadership. The need to overcome any partitionist thinking which results from the British-enforced division of this country, miniature versions of the paper which were about a third of the size were also printed and smuggled into prisoners in Long Kesh, Portlaoise, Armagh and other prisons. During the 1981 hunger strike sales of the newspaper reached up to 60,000 copies per-week, during this period An Phoblacht also opened another office based in west Belfast. The publication caused considerable embarrassment to the incoming direct-ruler Humphrey Atkins with Danny Morrison, a representative of the Press Association who was passed a copy of the document by AP/RN was also pursued by the British authorities and forced to flee to the United States
