1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
3.
States of Germany
–
Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
States of Germany
4.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
–
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is a federal state in northern Germany. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is the sixth largest German state by area, and the least densely populated, three of Germanys fourteen national parks are in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, in addition to several hundred nature conservation areas. Major cities include Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Stralsund, Greifswald, Wismar, the University of Rostock and the University of Greifswald are among the oldest in Europe. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was the site of the 33rd G8 summit in 2007, due to its lengthy name, the state is often abbreviated as MV or shortened to MeckPomm. In English, it is translated as Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania or literally Mecklenburg-Cispomerania. Inhabitants are called either Mecklenburger or Pomeranians, the form is never used. The full name in German is pronounced and this is because the digraph <ck> marks a preceding short vowel in High German. Mecklenburg however is within the historical Low German language area, another explanation is that the c comes from a mannerism in High German officialese of writing unnecessary letters, a so-called Letternhäufelung. Human settlement in the area of modern Mecklenburg and Vorpommern began after the Ice Age, about two thousand years ago, Germanic peoples were recorded in the area. Most of them left during the Migration Period, heading towards Spain, Italy, in the 6th century Polabian Slavs populated the area. While Mecklenburg was settled by the Obotrites, Vorpommern was settled by the Veleti, along the coast, Vikings and Slavs established trade posts like Reric, Ralswiek and Menzlin. In the 12th century, Mecklenburg and Vorpommern were conquered by Henry the Lion and incorporated into the Duchy of Saxony, all of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was settled with Germans in the Ostsiedlung process, starting in the 12th century. In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the Obotrites, subjugated its Nikloting dynasty, in the course of time, German monks, nobility, peasants and traders arrived to settle here. After the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours, Mecklenburg first became a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire in 1348. Though later partitioned and re-partitioned within the dynasty, Mecklenburg always shared a common history. The states of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz became Grand Duchies in 1815, Vorpommern, litererally Fore-Pomerania, is the smaller, western part of the former Prussian Province of Pomerania, the eastern part became part of Poland after the end of World War II. In the Middle Ages, the area was ruled by the Pomeranian dukes as part of the Duchy of Pomerania, Pomerania was under Swedish rule after the Peace of Westphalia from 1648 until 1815 as Swedish Pomerania. Pomerania became a province of Prussia in 1815 and remained so until 1945, wartime In May 1945, the armies of the Soviet Union and the Western allies met east of Schwerin
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
–
Schwerin Palace, seat of the
Landtag, is one of more than 2000
palaces and castles in the state.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
–
One of more than 1000
megalith sites in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern − the
Lancken-Granitz dolmen
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
–
Slavic ring fortress at
Cape Arkona (
Rügen Island)
5.
Districts of Germany
–
A German district is an administrative subdivision known as Landkreis, except in the states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein where it is known simply as Kreis. Most major cities in Germany are not part of a rural district, in this context, those cities are referred to as Kreisfreie Stadt or Stadtkreis. Rural districts are at a level of administration between the German states and the municipal governments. They correspond to level 3 administrative units of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, previously, the similar title Reichskreis was given to groups of states in the Holy Roman Empire. The related term Landeskommissariat was used for administrative divisions in some German territories until the 19th century. The majority of German districts are rural districts of which there are 295, cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants do not usually belong to a district, but take over district responsibilities themselves, similar to the concept of independent cities. These are known as urban districts —cities which constitute a district in their own there are currently 107 of them. As of 2011, approximately 25 million people live in these 107 urban districts, in North Rhine-Westphalia, there are some cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants which are not urban districts, for example Recklinghausen, Siegen, Paderborn, Bergisch Gladbach, Neuss and Moers. Nevertheless, these cities take over many district responsibilities themselves, although they are part of a larger rural district. Midsize towns can perform particular administrative functions of the district as well, the classification as midsize town is usually based on a towns registered population, but varies from state to state. Aachen, Hanover and Göttingen retain certain rights of an urban district, urban districts have these responsibilities and also those of the municipalities. The district council is the highest institution of a district and is responsible for all fundamental guidelines of regional self-administration. This council is elected every five years, except in Bavaria where it is elected every six years. Usually the administrative seat of a district is located in one of its largest towns. However, district council and administrative seat of rural districts are not situated within the district proper. Most of those districts are named after this central city as well. Moers is the biggest city in Germany that is neither an urban district, in parts of northern Germany, Landrat is also the name of the entire district administration, which in southern Germany is known as Kreisverwaltung or Landratsamt. In urban districts similar administrative functions are performed by a mayor, rural districts in some German states have an additional administrative commission called Kreisausschuss
Districts of Germany
–
Administrative divisions of Germany
6.
Lord Mayor
–
The lord mayor is the title of the mayor of a major city in the United Kingdom or Commonwealth realm, with special recognition bestowed by the sovereign. In Australia, Lord Mayor is a status granted by the monarch to mayors of major cities. Australian cities with lord mayors, Adelaide, Brisbane, Darwin, Hobart, Melbourne, Newcastle, Parramatta, Perth, Sydney, see list of cities in Australia. In Canada, the town with a lord mayor in the traditional sense is Niagara-on-the-Lake. Unusually, the council of Brantford, Ontario has taken upon itself to appoint an honorary Lord Mayor Walter Gretzky in addition to the elected mayor. This is the example of a council granting the cachet itself, rather than the cachet being granted by a higher authority. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland it is a ceremonial post conferred by letters patent. See List of lord mayoralties and lord provostships in the United Kingdom, most famously referring to the Lord Mayor of London, who only has jurisdiction over the City of London, as opposed to the modern title of Mayor of London governing Greater London. In Uganda, the jurisdiction with a lord mayor is Kampala. In the Republic of Ireland, the posts of Lord Mayor of Dublin and Lord Mayor of Cork still exist, in Denmark, as the translation of Danish Overborgmester, it is the title of the highest mayor of Denmarks capital city, Copenhagen. In Germany, it is used to translate German Oberbürgermeister. As in Austria, Germanys mayors serve as the executive leaders of their cities and are elected officials. In Romania and Moldova, the mayors of the capitals are named Primar General which means General Mayor, the name is ceremonial and it has no higher powers than mayors of other cities. In Hungary, the mayor of the capital Budapest is called főpolgármester which means chief mayor or grand mayor, only the capital has a főpolgármester. Between 1873 and 1945, the Lord Mayor of Budapest was representative of the Hungarian government at the municipal authority. In ancient China, jīng zhào yĭn was the given to the mayor of capital city. In Estonia, the mayor of the capital, was named Lord Mayor from 1938 to 1940, in Czech Republic, the mayor of the capital Prague and so-called statutory cities is called Primátor. In Sweden, the titles of mayor and lord mayor have no direct equivalent since the 1970s, the executive leader of Swedish municipalities is one of sometimes several Kommunalråd in the function of Chair of the Municipal Board
Lord Mayor
–
Royal proclamation granting Lord Mayoralty to Oxford.
Lord Mayor
–
John Stuttard,
Lord Mayor of London during the 2006
Lord Mayor's Show
7.
Central European Summer Time
–
It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
8.
List of postal codes in Germany
–
Postal codes in Germany, Postleitzahl, since 1 July 1993 consist of five digits. The first two digits indicate the area, the last three digits the postal district. Before reunification, both the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic used four-digit codes. Under a transitional arrangement following reunification, between 1989 and 1993 postal codes in the west were prefixed with W, e. g. W-100030 and those in the east with O, e. g. O-1xxx Berlin. City administrations and postal customers with high volumes, or Großkunden have their own postal codes. Postal regions do not necessarily follow state boundaries, so sorting by state is not practical, the postal regions and some postal codes are, The 5-digit postal codes were established on July 1,1993. All mail from, to and within this region is handled by the distribution center in Elmshorn
List of postal codes in Germany
–
German Postleitzahl map of the first two digits. The green lines mark state borders which do not correspond with postal code areas.
9.
List of dialling codes in Germany
–
Country Code, +49International Call Prefix, 00Trunk Prefix,0 Area codes in Germany have two to five digits, not counting the leading trunk access code 0. The leading 0 must be dialed when calling from within Germany, when calling via fixed networks within the same area, the area code is not required. In general, shorter area codes are assigned to larger cities, private telephone numbers are usually inversely long, those in larger cities have seven or eight digits, while those in smaller towns may have as few as three or four digits. 1 are special numbers such as phones, shared cost service. The former codes 0130 for free phone numbers and 0190 for premium-rate numbers are now moved to 0800 and 0900 to meet international standards,0700 is used for personal national phone numbers. Prefix 01 is used for numbers, and is not tied to a geographic area. After reunification, East Germany was merged into the existing German numbering plan, neugersdorf 03587035872 Neusalza-Spremberg 035873 Herrnhut 035874 Bernstadt a. d.037296 Stollberg/Erzgeb. 037297 Thum 037298 Oelsnitz 03731 Freiberg 03732037320 Mulda/Sa,037433 Gutenfürst 037434 Bobenneukirchen 037435 Reuth 037436 Weischlitz 037437 Bad Elster 037438 Bad Brambach 037439 Jocketa 03744 Auerbach/Vogtl. 03745 Falkenstein 03746037462 Rothenkirchen 037463 Bergen, Vogtlandkreis 037464 Schöneck/Vogtl,037465 Tannenbergsthal 037467 Klingenthal 037468 Treuen 0375 Zwickau 037603760037600 Neumark 037601 Mülsen St.04443 Dinklage 04444 Goldenstedt 04445 Visbek Kr. Vechta 04446 Bakum Kr. 08553 Spiegelau 08554 Schönberg 08555 Perlesreut 08556 Haidmühle 08557 Mauth 08558 Hohenau 085608561 Pfarrkirchen Niederbay,08562 Triftern 08563 Bad Birnbach Rottal 08564 Johanniskirchen 08565 Dietersburg-Baumgarten 085708571 Simbach am Inn 08572 Tann Niederbay. 08573 Ering 08574 Wittibreut 085808581 Waldkirchen Niederbay,08582 Röhrnbach 08583 Neureichenau 08584 Breitenberg 08585 Grainet 08586 Hauzenberg 085908591 Obernzell 08592 Wegscheid Niederbay. 09549 Lisberg 095509551 Burgwindheim 09552 Burghaslach 09553 Ebrach Oberfr,09704 Euerdorf 09708 Bad Bocklet 0971 Bad Kissingen 097209720 Üchtelhausen 09721 Schweinfurt 09722 Werneck 09723 Röthlein 09724 Stadtlauringen 09725 Poppenhausen Unterfr. 09726 Euerbach 09727 Schonungen-Marktsteinach 09728 Wülfershausen Unterfr,097609761 Bad Königshofen 09762 Saal a. d. Saale 09763 Sulzdorf a. d. d. Heide 09823 Leutershausen 09824 Dietenhofen 09825 Herrieden 09826 Weidenbach Mittelfr,09828 Rügland 09829 Flachslanden 098309831 Gunzenhausen 09832 Wassertrüdingen 09833 Heidenheim Mittelfr. 098609861 Rothenburg ob der Tauber 09865 Adelshofen 09867 Geslau 09868 Schillingsfürst 09869 Wettringen Mittelfr,098709871 Windsbach 09872 Heilsbronn 09873 Abenberg-Wassermungenau 09874 Neuendettelsau 09875 Wolframs-Eschenbach 09876 Rohr Mittelfr
List of dialling codes in Germany
–
Area code zones in Germany
10.
Vehicle registration plate
–
A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
Vehicle registration plate
–
Some
jurisdictions license non-traditional vehicles, such as
golf carts, particularly on on-road vehicles, such as this one in
Put-in-Bay, Ohio.
Vehicle registration plate
–
Burkina passenger plate
Vehicle registration plate
–
Burkina Faso Gendarmerie plate
Vehicle registration plate
–
Botswana plate
11.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
City
–
1908 map of
Piraeus, the port of
Athens, showing the grid plan of the city
City
–
Ancient
Ur of
Sumer in present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in
Iraq, one of the world's earliest cities
City
–
Mohenjo-daro, a
World Heritage site that was part of the
Indus Valley Civilization
City
–
A map dating 1669 showing the location of
Multan, Pakistan
12.
Warnow
–
The Warnow is a river in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany. It flows into the Baltic Sea near the town of Rostock, the source of the Warnow is in Grebbin, a small village 10 kilometres north of Parchim, at the western end of the Mecklenburg Lake District. It flows north through Sternberg, Bützow and Schwaan before reaching Rostock, in 2003, Germanys first modern toll road, the Warnow Tunnel was opened, connecting the port of Rostock on the east bank with the west bank of the river. The origins of the name are uncertain, recent work suggests a non-Indo-European element arn, giving rise to the Slavic form Warnow through the prosthesis of /v-/. The Warnabi, a medieval Slavic tribe, probably derived their name from the Warnow, the ancient geographer Claudius Ptolemäus mentioned a river around 150 CE whose location would correspond to the Warnow, which he called the Χαλοῦσος. The river also appears in a few medieval sources under names along the lines of Goderak, Guðakrsá in Knýtlinga saga chapter 119, meanwhile, Arnold of Lübecks Chronica Slavorum mentions that Berno, Apostle of the Obotrites pro Gutdracco Godehardum episcopum venerari constituit. This Gutdracco is otherwise unknown, and there is suspicion that the name of this god arose as a folk-etymologisation of the name of the river
Warnow
–
River Warnow in a valley
Warnow
–
Warnow
13.
Baltic Sea
–
The Baltic Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, the Baltic countries, and the North European Plain. It includes the Gulf of Bothnia, the Bay of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, the sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 10°E to 30°E longitude. The Baltic Sea is connected by waterways to the White Sea via the White Sea Canal. Traffic history Historically, the Kingdom of Denmark collected Sound Dues from ships at the border between the ocean and the land-locked Baltic Sea and they were collected in the Øresund at Kronborg castle near Helsingør, in the Great Belt at Nyborg. In the Little Belt, the site of intake was moved to Fredericia, the narrowest part of Little Belt is the Middelfart Sund near Middelfart. Oceanography Geographers widely agree that the physical border of the Baltic is a line drawn through the southern Danish islands, Drogden-Sill. The Drogden Sill is situated north of Køge Bugt and connects Dragør in the south of Copenhagen to Malmö, it is used by the Øresund Bridge, including the Drogden Tunnel. By this definition, the Danish Straits are part of the entrance, but the Bay of Mecklenburg, another usual border is the line between Falsterbo, Sweden and Stevns Klint, Denmark, as this is the southern border of Øresund. Its also the border between the shallow southern Øresund and notably deeper water, hydrography and biology Drogden Sill sets a limit to Øresund and Darss Sill, and a limit to the Belt Sea. The shallow sills are obstacles to the flow of salt water from the Kattegat into the basins around Bornholm. The Kattegat and the southwestern Baltic Sea are well oxygenated and have a rich biology, the remainder of the Sea is brackish, poor in oxygen and in species. While Tacitus called it Mare Suebicum after the Germanic people called the Suebi, the origin of the latter name is speculative. Adam of Bremen himself compared the sea with a belt, stating that it is so named because it stretches through the land as a belt and he might also have been influenced by the name of a legendary island mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder. Pliny mentions an island named Baltia with reference to accounts of Pytheas and it is possible that Pliny refers to an island named Basilia in On the Ocean by Pytheas. Baltia also might be derived from belt and mean near belt of sea, meanwhile, others have suggested that the name of the island originates from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhel meaning white, fair. This root and its meaning were retained in both Lithuanian and Latvian. On this basis, a related hypothesis holds that the name originated from this Indo-European root via a Baltic language such as Lithuanian, yet another explanation is that the name originally meant enclosed sea, bay as opposed to open sea. Some Swedish historians believe the name derives from the god Balder of Nordic mythology, in the Middle Ages the sea was known by variety of names
Baltic Sea
–
Cape Arkona on the island of
Rügen in Germany, was a sacred site of the
Slavs before Christianization.
Baltic Sea
–
Map of the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
–
The naval
Battle of the Sound took place on 8 November 1658 during the
Dano-Swedish War.
Baltic Sea
–
The burning
Cap Arcona shortly after the attacks, 3 May 1945. Only 350 of the 4,500 prisoners who had been aboard the Cap Arcona survived.
14.
University of Rostock
–
The University of Rostock is a public university located in Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Founded in 1419, it is the third-oldest university in Germany and it is the oldest and largest university in continental northern Europe and the Baltic Sea area, and 8th oldest in Central Europe. It was the 5th university established in the Holy Roman Empire, the university has been associated with five Nobel laureates. Famous alumni include Nobel laureates, Albrecht Kossel, Karl von Frisch and it is a member of the European University Association. The language of instruction is usually German, but English for postgraduate studies and it was founded in 1419 by confirmation of Pope Martin V and thus is the oldest university in Northern Europe. In Germany, there are five universities that were founded before, while only Heidelberg and Leipzig operated continuously since then, Heidelberg, Cologne, Erfurt, Würzburg. That makes Rostock University the third oldest German university in continuous operation, throughout the 15th century, the University of Rostock had about 400 to 500 students each year, a large number at that time. Rostock was among the largest universities in Germany at the time and many of its students came from the Low Countries. In the course of political struggles and pressure from the church, from 1487 to 1488 teaching took place in Lübeck. A few years later the city of Rostock, its university also became Protestant in 1542, humanism and Lutheranism were defining characteristics of the university. After the Thirty Years War, the University of Rostock played only a regional role, when the ownership of the university moved from the city to the state in 1827, however, things changed for the better. The end of the 19th century saw generous building activity in Rostocks alma mater, on the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the university, Albert Einstein and Max Planck received honorary doctorates on 12 November 1919. This made the University of Rostock the worlds first institute of learning to award this honour to Einstein. Interestingly enough, the doctorate was not revoked during the Nazi rule in Germany, the reason for this remains unknown. David Katz, Hans Moral and others lost their posts in 1933, the end of the Second World War in 1945 brought many changes. The university, now finding itself in the Soviet Zone of Germany, was re-opened on 24 February 1946, the Faculty of Law was closed in 1951, aFaculty of Agriculturewas introduced in 1950 and in 1951 saw the opening of a Department of Shipbuilding. The University of Rostock was the first traditional university in Germany to open a technical faculty, in 1952, the Faculty of Aviation was opened, but eventually relocated to Dresden. In 1976 the university was renamed Wilhelm-Pieck-Universität after Wilhelm Pieck, the first president of the German Democratic Republic, the renaming was annulled after the German reunification
University of Rostock
–
University of Rostock's main building
University of Rostock
–
Seal of the University of Rostock
University of Rostock
–
Institute of Zoology (Zoologisches Institut)
University of Rostock
–
Institute of Anatomy (Anatomisches Institut)
15.
Rostock Heath
–
Rostock Heath is a wood and heathland region northeast of the German city of Rostock. It has an area of about 6000 hectares and, since 1252, has been owned by the Hanseatic city of Rostock. As a result of its ownership of the Rostock Heath, Rostock is today one of the five largest communal woodland owners in Germany, in the district of Rostock is the sub-district of Rostocker Heide with its head office in the village of Gelbensande. The wood and heathland region northeast of the city of Rostock is the Northeast Heath of Mecklenburg and this includes the Rostock Heath as well as the Gelbensande Forest, the forest of Alte Heide and part of the Ribnitz Forest. The wooded region is the remnant of an ancient forest that stretched from the Netherlands to Pomerania. Rostock Heath covers an area from the Baltic Sea coast between Warnemünde and Wiederort, west of Graal-Müritz, Rostock Heath is divided into the forest divisions of Schnatermann, Hinrichshagen, Torfbrücke, Wiethagen and Meyers Hausstelle. A network of ditches and streams, with branches, overlays the region. Streams include the Rohrbach, Feuerstellenbach, der Stromgraben, Radelbach etc, the railway line from Rövershagen to Graal-Müritz runs through the heath in a north-south direction, parallel in places to the road joining the two villages. The Rostock City Forestry Office is responsible for managing Rostock Heath as a nature conservation authority. In 1252 a fire raged in Rostock, in the middle of the heath, Wallenstein, the well-known commander in the Thirty Years War, is supposed to have pitched camp before advancing to Stralsund. During the Second World War, a facility of the Rostock aircraft firm. Following the heavy air raids of 1942 production was dispersed into the surrounding countryside, as part of that, the Rostock-Schwarzenpfost subcamp of Ravensbrück concentration camp was built in Oberhagen. Up to 1,500 prisoners, who walked to Oberhagen daily or were transported from Rostock by train, had to work here in the Heinkel factories, on 30 April 1945 the camp was cleared and the prisoners marched towards Warnemünde. After the war the facilities were dismantled and taken to the Soviet Union as war reparations, in GDR times there was initially a firing range on the Rostock Heath, not far from Wiethagens, and another was laid out on the coast near Hinrichshagen. Later air defence missiles with their associated barracks, bunkers and ammunition depots were added, in 1989,2,600 hectares of the Rostock Heath were being used by the armed forces. After 1990 the military installations were removed and, in 2000, the sites were renaturalised under EU-sponsored measures. Since 2000 the forest has been managed by FSC-certified authorities following a decision by Rostocks citizenship, 53% of the forested areas of the Rostock Heath are coniferous trees, of the deciduous trees the predominant species are beech, oak and birch. 827 hectares of the Rostock Heath are moorland, reedbeds and meadowland, there you will find small reedbeds with spikerushes, home to many insects, marsh marigolds and orchids, kingfisher, crane and white-tailed eagle, old yews, holly and chequer trees
Rostock Heath
–
1912 map of Rostock Heath
Rostock Heath
–
Wiethagen Forester's Lodge (Forsthaus), head office of the Rostock City Forestry Office
Rostock Heath
–
Meyers Hausstelle, a farmstead in the Rostock Heath
Rostock Heath
–
Overgrown firing range of Wiethagen
16.
Regiopolis
–
A regiopolis is a city outside the core of a metropolitan area, that serves as an independent driving force for development within a larger region. The concept is used to develop midsized urban regions within regional, national and global contexts, for its surrounding region, the terms regiopolis region and regiopolitan area can be used and may be shortened to regio. The term regiopolis is a combination of the words region and polis. It was developed by professors Iris Reuther and Jürgen Aring in Germany in 2006, to use and further develop their common potential, various cooperations between the regiopolis, its surrounding region, business partners and the closest metropolitan areas are fostered. In contrast to a metropolis a regiopolis is a characterization of smaller scaled centers with a high importance for their hinterland. Thus they are situated outside of metropolitan areas. These characteristics have mainly been developed within the German framework, it is aimed to develop further within a European context. The first German city region working with the concept is Rostock. They aim to build up a national and a European network of regiopolis, comparable to the network of European Metropolitan Regions, in March 2013, the Regiopolis Rostock organized the workshop for “potential Regiopolises and other city-regions cooperation” in Berlin. In April 2013, the regio, polis has been organized for the first time. It displays the plurality of arts and cultural events in the Regiopolis of Rostock, a taskforce for the future development of the Rostock Regiopolis was established in 2013. In 2014, the Regiopolis Rostock celebrated the regio, polis festival again, in 2015, the cities of Bielefeld and Paderborn started to adopt the concept
Regiopolis
–
Rostock city harbour during
Hanse Sail
Regiopolis
–
The red circles indicate the possible regiopolises in Germany.
Regiopolis
–
Location of the Rostock Regiopolis
17.
Polabian Slavs
–
Polabian Slavs is a collective term applied to a number of Lechite tribes who lived along the Elbe river in what is today Eastern Germany. The approximate territory stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north, the Saale and the Limes Saxoniae in the west, the Ore Mountains and the Western Sudetes in the south and they have also been known as Elbe Slavs or Wends. Their name derives from the Slavic po, meaning by/next to/along, the Polabian Slavs started settling in the territory of modern Germany in the 6th century. They were largely conquered by Saxons and Danes since the 9th century, the tribes were gradually Germanized and assimilated in the following centuries, the Sorbs are the only descendants of the Polabian Slavs to have retained their identity and culture. The Polabian language is now extinct, however, both Sorbian languages are spoken by approximately 60,000 inhabitants of the region and the languages are regarded by the government of Germany as official languages of the region. The Bavarian Geographer anonymous medieval document compiled in Regensburg in 830 contains a list of the tribes in Central-Eastern Europe to the east of the Elbe. Among other tribes it lists the Uuilci - with 95 civitates, the Nortabtrezi -53 civitates, the Milzane -30 civitates, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia classifies the Polabian Slavs in three main tribes, the Obotrites, the Veleti, and the Lusatian Sorbs. The main tribes of the Obotritic confederation were the Obotrites proper, the Wagrians, the Warnabi, other tribes associated with the confederation include the Linones near Lenzen, the Travnjane near the Trave, and the Drevani in the Hanoverian Wendland and the northern Altmark. The Redarier were the most important of the Veleti tribes, the Rani of Rügen, not to be confused with the older Germanic Rugians, are sometimes considered to be part of the Veleti. South of the Rani were the Ucri along the Ucker and the Morici along the Müritz, smaller tribes included the Došane along the Dosse, the Zamzizi in the Ruppin Land, and the Rěčanen on the upper Havel. Along the lower Havel and near the confluence of the Elbe and the Havel lived the Nelětici, the Liezizi, the Zemzizi, the Smeldingi, the middle Havel region and the Havelland were settled by the Hevelli, a tribe loosely connected to the Veleti. East of the Hevelli lived the Sprevane of the lower Dahme, small tribes on the middle Elbe included the Moriciani, the Zerwisti, the Serimunt, and the Nicici. South of the Hevelli lived the ancestors of the modern Sorbs, the Lusici of Lower Lusatia, near these tribes were the Selpoli and the Besunzanen. The Colodici, Siusler, and Glomaci lived along the upper Elbe, while the Chutici, Nisanen, Plisni, Gera, Puonzowa, Tucharin, Weta, on the middle Oder lived the Leubuzzi, who were associated with medieval Poland. Small groups of West Slavs also lived on the Main and the Regnitz near Bamberg, a Polabian prince was known as a knes. His power was greater in Slavic society than those of Danish or Swedish kings in their kingdoms. He was the leader of his tribe and was foremost among its nobles, holding much of the forested hinterland. However, his authority extended only to the territory controlled by his governor, or voivot
Polabian Slavs
–
Map of
Central Europe from 919 to 1125, by
William R. Shepherd. The territory of the Polabian Slavs is outlined in purple near the top, with the
Obotrite and
Veleti groups in white and the
Sorb groups colored purple.
Polabian Slavs
–
Rekonstruction of Slavic
gord in Meklenburg - Groß Raden
Polabian Slavs
–
Reconstruction of Slavic gord in
Lusatia - Raddusch,
Vetschau
Polabian Slavs
–
Primary source about history of Polabian Slavs -
Chronica Slavorum of
Helmold from the 12th century translated to
Polish language by Jan Papłoński in 1862.
18.
Denmark
–
Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth
Denmark
–
The gilded side of the
Trundholm sun chariot dating from the Nordic Bronze Age.
Denmark
–
Flag
Denmark
–
The
Ladby ship, the largest ship burial found in Denmark.
Denmark
–
Larger of the two Jelling stones, raised by
Harald Bluetooth.
19.
Valdemar I of Denmark
–
Valdemar I of Denmark, also known as Valdemar the Great, was King of Denmark from 1146 until his death in 1182. He was the son of Canute Lavard, a chivalrous and popular Danish prince, in 1146, when Valdemar was fifteen years old, King Erik III Lamb abdicated and a civil war erupted. The pretenders to the throne were, Sweyn III Grathe, son of Eric II Emune, Canute V, son of Magnus the Strong who was the son of King Niels, who was the brother of Erik I. Valdemar himself held Jutland, at least Schleswig, as his possession, the civil war lasted the better part of ten years. In 1157, the three agreed to part the country in three among themselves, Sweyn hosted a great banquet for Canute, Absalon, and Valdemar during which he planned to dispose of all of them. Canute was killed, but Absalon and Valdemar escaped, Sweyn quickly launched an invasion, only to be defeated by Valdemar in the Battle of Grathe Heath. He was killed during flight, supposedly by a group of peasants who stumbled upon him as he was fleeing from the battlefield, Valdemar, having outlived all his rival pretenders, became the sole King of Denmark. In 1158 Absalon was elected Bishop of Roskilde, and Valdemar made him his chief friend and he reorganized and rebuilt war-torn Denmark. At Absalons instigation he declared war upon the Wends who were raiding the Danish coasts and they inhabited Pomerania and the island of Rügen in the Baltic Sea. In 1168 the Wendish capital, Arkona, was taken, Valdemars reign saw the rise of Denmark, which reached its zenith under his second son Valdemar II. Ingeborg, married King Philip II of France, helena, married William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Richeza, married King Eric X of Sweden, walburgis, married Bogusław I, Duke of Pomerania. His widow Sophia married then Louis III, Landgrave of Thuringia, illegitimate with Tove, Christopher, Valdemars eldest son, Duke of Jutland ca. 1170–1173 Media related to Valdemar I of Denmark at Wikimedia Commons Valdemar I of Denmark at Find a Grave http, //www. kingsofdenmark. dk/king19. htm
Valdemar I of Denmark
–
Statue of Valdemar the Great in the town square of
Ringsted.
20.
St. Petrikirche, Rostock
–
St. Peters Church, in German Petrikirche, is the oldest of three town churches found in the Hanseatic city of Rostock, in northern Germany. The other two are St. Marys Church and St. Nicholas, a fourth, St. Jakobi, was heavily damaged during the Second World War and subsequently demolished. St. Peters Church was built in the middle of the 14th century, the first reference to a church on this site is in 1252, which is thought to be the predecessor of the current building. The triple-nave basilica is in Brick Gothic, a style typical of the Hanseatic port cities of northern Germany. The pre-existing church had a tower 127m high which was destroyed by a thunderbolt in 1543, in 1578 the tower was rebuilt as a polygonal spire after it had been, once again, damaged by storm. With a height of 117m the tower served as a landmark in the local area. In the following centuries the church decayed and in 1902 the Basilica was renovated, forty years later, however, heavy bombing during World War II again damaged the church and led to the collapse of the polygonal spire. Following the war, the building was gradually rebuilt, today the church, roofed by a flat timber ceiling, reaches a height of 24m and in 1994 a glass window in the choir was built to a height of 17m. Public donations funded the building of a polygonal spire and this allowed St. Peters to once again become a visible landmark in the surrounding area. Additionally, a 45m observation platform provides views of the city of Rostock. The church is a three-nave Basilica with a high cross-vaulted ceiling in the west tower, on the north and south façade 4 times over are ever-alternating round arched arcades each with a large rectangular window. The choir section is polygonal, at the north and south end is one small fiale with a pointed tip, the design of the dividing inner-wall exhibits the round-arched arcade design typical of Roman-Gothic style. Prior to World War II damage, the gallery was open. However, it was only roughly rebuilt when reconstruction began, the light coming in from the large rectangular windows, flows over the gallery. The cross-ribbed vaulted ceiling that covers the end of the nave is preserved. However, the nave was too badly damaged to reconstruct the original. Also, the central nave couldn’t be restored, so instead a flat-timbered ceiling was put in place, the baroque decoration in the interior of the church was destroyed by fire during the World War II bombing of Rostock on the night of 26th and 27 April 1942. The stained glass windows of the choir are decorated with scenes from the life of St. Peter and were designed in the early 60s by local artist Lothar Mannewitz
St. Petrikirche, Rostock
–
St. Petri in 2006
St. Petrikirche, Rostock
–
View over the eastern part of Rostock's old town towards St. Petri
St. Petrikirche, Rostock
–
Interior
21.
Henry Borwin I, Lord of Mecklenburg
–
Henry Borwin I, Lord of Mecklenburg, was the ruling Lord of Mecklenburg from 1178 until his death. Sometimes a Latinized version of his name is used, the form Buruwe is also found, as are Henricus Buruwi, Heinricus Buriwoi, Henry Borwin I was a son of Pribislaw and his wife Woizlava of Pomerania. Pribislav was an Obotrite prince and was the first Lord of Mecklenburg and he died on 30 December 1178 of the wound he received during a tournament at the court of Henry the Lion in Lüneburg, and Henry Borwin I succeeded him as Lord of Mecklenburg. Shortly before Pribislavs death, Henry Borwin I married Matilda, a daughter of Henry the Lion, for several years, Henry Borwin I fought a war with his cousin Nicholas I. His father-in-law was unable to assist him during this war and this lack of outside assistance attracted the attention of King Canute VI of Denmark, who used the situation to expand his position on the Baltic Sea coast. The Danes took Henry Borwin I prisoner and he had to cede Rostock to Denmark and accept Canute VI as his liege lord. In 1200, Canute returned Rostock to him as a fief, in 1202, he fought on the Danish side in the Battle of Stellau. The Danes won, and Henry Borwin was rewarded with two more fiefs, Gadebusch and Ratzeburg, in 1218 and 1219, he assisted in the Danish conquest of Estonia, and from 1225 to 1227, he assisted them in a war against Schauenburg. Henry Borwin I revived the cities of Rostock and Wismar and founded the abbeys of Dobbertin, Tempzin and his first wife was Matilda, a daughter of Henry the Lion. With her, he had two sons, Nicholas II, Lord of Mecklenburg Henry Borwin II, Lord of Mecklenburg His second wife was Adelaide, with her, he had a daughter, Elisabeth, abbess of Wienhausen Abbey from 1241 Ludwig Fromm, Heinrich Borwin I. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,3, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, p.183 Genealogy of the House of Mecklenburg
Henry Borwin I, Lord of Mecklenburg
–
Seal of Henry Borwin I
22.
Henry Borwin II, Lord of Mecklenburg
–
Henry Borwin II, Lord of Mecklenburg was a member of the House of Mecklenburg, was a Prince of Mecklenburg from 1219 to 1226 and Lord of Rostock. Borwin Henry II was a son of Henry Borwin I and Matilda of Blieskastel and he was the grandson of the Slavic prince Pribislav, the founder of the House of Mecklenburg. After he died in 1226 in Güstrow, his four sons ruled Mecklenburg jointly until 1234 and they then divided Mecklenburg into the principalities of Werle, Parchim-Richenberg, Rostock and Mecklenburg. Henry Borwin married in 1200 Christina of Sweden, the daughter of King Sverker II of Sweden
Henry Borwin II, Lord of Mecklenburg
–
Statue of Henry Borwin II in
Güstrow
23.
Hanseatic League
–
The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and their market towns. Growing from a few North German towns in the late 1100s and it stretched from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland during the Late Middle Ages and early modern period. Hanse, later spelled as Hansa, was the Middle Low German word for a convoy, the League was created to protect the guilds economic interests and diplomatic privileges in their affiliated cities and countries, as well as along the trade routes the merchants visited. The Hanseatic cities had their own system and furnished their own armies for mutual protection. The hegemony of Lübeck peaked during the 15th century, Lübeck became a base for merchants from Saxony and Westphalia trading eastward and northward. This area was a source of timber, wax, amber, resins, the towns raised their own armies, with each guild required to provide levies when needed. The Hanseatic cities came to the aid of one another, and commercial ships often had to be used to carry soldiers, Visby functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hansa. Sailing east, Visby merchants established a trading post at Novgorod called Gutagard in 1080, Merchants from northern Germany also stayed in the early period of the Gotlander settlement. Later they established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as Peterhof, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges that made their position more secure. Hansa societies worked to remove restrictions to trade for their members, before the official foundation of the League in 1356, the word Hanse did not occur in the Baltic language. The earliest remaining documentary mention, although without a name, of a specific German commercial federation is from London 1157. That year, the merchants of the Hansa in Cologne convinced Henry II, King of England, to them from all tolls in London. The allied cities gained control over most of the trade, especially the Scania Market. In 1266, Henry III of England granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, much of the drive for this co-operation came from the fragmented nature of existing territorial government, which failed to provide security for trade. Over the next 50 years the Hansa itself emerged with formal agreements for confederation and co-operation covering the west and east trade routes. The principal city and linchpin remained Lübeck, with the first general Diet of the Hansa held there in 1356, other such alliances formed throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Yet the League never became a closely managed formal organisation, over the period, a network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities. The league succeeded in establishing additional Kontors in Bruges, Bergen and these trading posts became significant enclaves
Hanseatic League
–
Northern Europe in 1400, showing the extent of the Hansa.
Hanseatic League
–
The Hanseatic League was a powerful economic and defensive alliance that left a great cultural and architectural heritage. It is especially renowned for its
Brick Gothic monuments, such as St. Nikolai and the city hall of
Stralsund shown here. Together with
Wismar, the old town is a
World Heritage Site by
UNESCO.
Hanseatic League
–
Foundation of the alliance between Lübeck and Hamburg
Hanseatic League
–
Town Hall of Reval (now
Tallinn, Estonia).
24.
Mecklenburg
–
Mecklenburg is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar, the name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named Mikilenburg, located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic language it was known as Veligrad which also means big castle and it was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg and for a time divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty. Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain and use features of Low German vocabulary or phonology. The adjective for the region is Mecklenburgian, inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians, Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the forms a morass, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea, under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing purposes, Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins, by no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples. The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the steers head, with an attached hide. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i. e. a steerss head as a hat, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy. From the 7th through the 12th centuries, the area of Mecklenburg was taken over by Western Slavic peoples, most notably the Obotrites, the 11th century founder of the Mecklenburgian dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites. In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the region, subjugated its local lords, from 12th to 14th century, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area, importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence, an example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called Zuarin in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word grad. Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours, during the reformation the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty, in 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh
Mecklenburg
–
Rostock
Mecklenburg
–
Coat of arms of Mecklenburg, featuring the typical bull
Mecklenburg
–
Schwerin
Mecklenburg
–
Neubrandenburg
25.
Cog (ship)
–
A cog is a type of ship that first appeared in the 10th century, and was widely used from around the 12th century on. Cogs were generally built of oak, which was an abundant timber in the Baltic region of Prussia and this vessel was fitted with a single mast and a square-rigged single sail. These vessels were mostly associated with seagoing trade in medieval Europe, especially the Hanseatic League and they ranged from about 15 meters to 25 meters in length with a beam of 5 to 8 meters, and the largest cog ships could carry up to about 200 tons. Cogs were a type of ship, characterized by a flush-laid flat bottom at midships. They had full lapstrake planking covering the sides, generally starting from the bilge strakes, the keel, or keelplank, was only slightly thicker than the adjacent garboards and had no rabbet. Both stem and stern posts were straight and rather long, the lower plank hoods terminated in rabbets in the hooks and posts, but upper hoods were nailed to the exterior faces of the posts. Caulking was generally tarred moss that was inserted into curved grooves, covered with wooden laths, finally, the cog-built structure could not be completed without a stern-mounted hanging central rudder, which was a unique northern development. Cogs used to have open hulls and could be rowed short distances, in the 13th century they received decks. Cogs are first mentioned in 948 AD, in Muiden near Amsterdam, current archaeological evidence points to the Frisian coast or Western Jutland as the possible birthplace of this type of vessel. For centuries, Limfjord in northern Jutland offered fairly protected passage between the North Sea and the Baltic, due to unusual geographical conditions and strong currents, the passage was constantly filling with sand and was completely blocked by the 12th century. Bigger ships that could not be pulled across the bars had to sail around the Jutland peninsula. This resulted in modifications to old ship structures, which can be observed by analyzing evolution of the earliest cog finds of Kollerup, Skagen. The need for spacious and relatively inexpensive ships led to the development of the first workhorse of the Hanseatic League, the new and improved cog was no longer a simple Frisian coaster but a sturdy seagoing trader, which could cross even the most dangerous passages. Fore and stern castles would be added for defense against pirates, or to use of these vessels as warships. Eventually, around the 14th century, the cog reached its structural limits, the replacement, the hulk, already existed but awaited reconditioning. Although there is no evidence that hulks descended from the cogs, it is clear that a lot of ideas were adapted from one to the other. The transition from cogs to hulks was not linear, according to some interpretations, both vessels coexisted for many centuries but followed diverse lines of evolution. The most famous cog still in existence today is the Bremen cog and it dates from the 1380s, and was found in 1962, until then cogs had only been known from medieval documents and seals
Cog (ship)
–
Relatively proportioned cog in the Seal of
Stralsund
Cog (ship)
–
Reconstructed excavated cog from 1380 at
Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum
Cog (ship)
–
Model of a cog
Cog (ship)
–
Reconstruction of the cog "Roland von Bremen"
26.
Duchy of Mecklenburg
–
Mecklenburg is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar, the name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named Mikilenburg, located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic language it was known as Veligrad which also means big castle and it was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg and for a time divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty. Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain and use features of Low German vocabulary or phonology. The adjective for the region is Mecklenburgian, inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians, Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the forms a morass, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea, under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing purposes, Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins, by no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples. The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the steers head, with an attached hide. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i. e. a steerss head as a hat, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy. From the 7th through the 12th centuries, the area of Mecklenburg was taken over by Western Slavic peoples, most notably the Obotrites, the 11th century founder of the Mecklenburgian dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites. In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the region, subjugated its local lords, from 12th to 14th century, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area, importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence, an example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called Zuarin in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word grad. Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours, during the reformation the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty, in 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh
Duchy of Mecklenburg
–
Rostock
Duchy of Mecklenburg
–
Coat of arms of Mecklenburg, featuring the typical bull
Duchy of Mecklenburg
–
Schwerin
Duchy of Mecklenburg
–
Neubrandenburg
27.
Poverty
–
Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity
Poverty
–
An example of urban poverty in this
slum in
Jakarta,
Indonesia
Poverty
–
Children of the
Depression -era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937
Poverty
–
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the previous day.
Sweden, 1868.
Poverty
–
A
Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility.
28.
Excise
–
An excise or excise tax is an inland tax on the sale, or production for sale, of specific goods or a tax on a good produced for sale, or sold, within a country or licenses for specific activities. Excises are distinguished from customs duties, which are taxes on importation, excises are inland taxes, whereas customs duties are border taxes. An excise is considered a tax, meaning that the producer or seller who pays the tax to the government is expected to try to recover or shift the tax by raising the price paid by the buyer. Excises are typically imposed in addition to another indirect tax such as a tax or value added tax. Typical examples of excise duties are taxes on gasoline and other fuels, the etymology of the word excise is derived from the Dutch accijns, which is presumed to come from the Latin accensare, meaning simply to tax. Regulatory and legal definitions of excise vary by country, for example, In India, an excise is described as an indirect tax levied and collected on the goods manufactured in India. Include alcohol, tobacco and petroleum and alternative fuels, in Australia, the meaning of excise is not merely academic, but has been the subject of numerous court cases. Samuel Johnson was less flattering in his 1755 dictionary, EXCISE, a hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by those to whom excise is paid. Monies raised through excise may be earmarked for redress of specific social costs commonly associated with the product or service being taxed, tobacco tax revenues, for example, might be spent on government anti-smoking campaigns. Excise duties or taxes often serve political as well as financial ends, public safety and health, public morals, environmental protection, and national defense are all rationales for the imposition of an excise. Punitive Many US states impose taxes on illegal drugs and these are the three main targets of excise taxation in most countries around the world. They are everyday items of mass usage which bring significant revenue for governments, the first two are considered to be legal drugs, which are a cause of many illnesses, which are used by large swathes of the population, both being widely recognized as addictive. Some U. S. states tax transactions involving illegal drugs, gambling licences are subject to excise in many countries today. Profits of bookmakers are subject to General Betting Duty in the United Kingdom, Excise has been known to be applied to substances which would in todays world seem rather unusual, such as salt, paper, and coffee. In fact, salt was taxed as early as the second century, such would the justification of salt tax, paper excise, and even advertisement duty have been. The window tax was introduced after controversy arose around the introduction of income tax, which was considered to be a breach of privacy. The rationale behind this was that the grandeur of a persons house, one way people got around this problem was to brick up their windows. In the case of people this was a big social problem
Excise
–
1871 U.S. Revenue stamp for 1/6 barrel of beer Brewers would receive the stamps in sheets, cut them into individual stamps, cancel them, and paste them over the bung of the beer barrel so when the barrel was tapped it would destroy the stamp.
29.
John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg
–
John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg, in older literature known as John or Johann, was the reigning Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow from 1547 to 1556 and of Mecklenburg-Schwerin from 1556 to 1576. In 1549 John Albert I saw to it that the parliament of Mecklenburg carried through the Reformation for the entire Duchy, John Albert was the eldest son of the Duke Albrecht VII of Mecklenburg-Güstrow and his wife Anne of Brandenburg. Until the age of 13, he was educated by the papist vicar Johann Sperling, in 1539, his father sent him to the court of his uncle, the protestant Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, where he was educated together with the Electors son John George. From 1541 to 1544, they attended the newly founded University of Frankfurt an der Oder together, John Albert was a devout supporter of Protestantism when he returned to Mecklenburg. Nevertheless, he fought on the side in the Schmalkaldic War. When is father died in 1547, John Albert and his brothers Ulrich III, as a staunch supporter of the Protestantism John Albert I, unlike his father, engaged himself to introduce the Reformation in his territory. In 1549, John Albert I presided over a meeting of the Estates in Sternberg and this can be seen as the official introduction of Lutheranism as the state religion in Mecklenburg. In February 1550, he concluded an alliance with Margrave John of Brandenburg-Küstrin and Duke Albert of Prussia. On 22 May 1551, John Albert concluded the secret Treaty of Torgau with the other Protestant princes in northern Germany and this treaty formed the legal framework for the Princes rebellion of 1552 against Emperor Charles V, in which John Albert I participated. His uncle Henry V, who ruled Mecklenburg-Schwerin, died in 1552 without a male heir, when John Alberts brother Ulrich then claimed the inheritance, the Emperor objected. Ulrich forced John Albert to consent to the Treaty of Wismar of 11 March 1555, the dispute was finally resolved in 1556 by the Edict of Ruppin by Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg. This edict made John Albert I regent of the part of Mecklenburg, while Ulrich received the eastern part. Ulrich chose Güstrow as his residence, Duke John Albert was considered a modern Renaissance prince and a patron of the arts and sciences, with an open mind for the scientific discoveries of his time. He committed himself to the Reformation and modernized the state and he possessed an extensive library, which eventually came into the possession of the University of Rostock. He was interested in scientific instruments and in astronomy and cartography and he employed Tilemann Stella as his court librarian and cartographer. They jointly visited the court in Vienna, where they studied architecture and modern fortification techniques. Among his major achievement are the creation of high schools, in Güstrow in 1552, in Schwerin in 1553. On 24 February 1555 he married Anna Sophia of Prussia, the daughter of Duke Albert of Prussia, Wismar,1885 L. Schultz, Johann Albrecht I
John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg
–
John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg
John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg
–
Reformation and Court Order' of 1568 by John Albert I
John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg
–
Princess Anna Sophia of Brandenburg
30.
Imperial immediacy
–
As confirmed by the Peace of Westphalia, the possession of imperial immediacy came with a particular form of territorial authority known as territorial superiority. In todays terms, it would be understood as a form of sovereignty. They formed the Imperial Estates, together with roughly 100 immediate counts,40 Imperial prelates and 50 Imperial Cities who only enjoyed a collective vote. Additional advantages might include the rights to collect taxes and tolls, to hold a market, to mint coins, to bear arms, the last of these might include the so-called Blutgericht through which capital punishment could be administered. These rights varied according to the patents granted by the emperor. Immediate rights might be lost if the Emperor and/or the Imperial Diet could not defend them against external aggression, as occurred in the French Revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 required the emperor to renounce all claims to the portions of the Holy Roman Empire west of the Rhine. The practical application of the rights of immediacy was complex, this makes the history of the Holy Roman Empire particularly difficult to understand, even such contemporaries as Goethe and Fichte called the Empire a monstrosity. Prussian historian Heinrich von Treitschke described it in the 19th century as having become a mess of rotted imperial forms. Pointing out that people like Goethe meant monster as a compliment in modern understanding, free Imperial City German mediatization Imperial Abbey Imperial Estate Imperial Village List of states of the Holy Roman Empire Braun, B. Reichsunmittelbarkeit in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 2005-05-03
Imperial immediacy
–
Document signed by the Abbot of Marchtal, immediate and exempt
Imperial immediacy
–
The Prince-Bishop of Liège, member of the Imperial estates, enjoyed Imperial immediacy and therefore could negotiate and sign international treaties on his own, as long as they were not directed against the Emperor and the Empire.
31.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
–
A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
–
Flag
Sweden
–
A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century
32.
First French Empire
–
The First French Empire, Note 1 was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. Its name was a misnomer, as France already had colonies overseas and was short lived compared to the Colonial Empire, a series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars, extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. The plot included Bonapartes brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, on 9 November 1799 and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, the Battle of Marengo inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleons Moscow campaign. Napoleon planned only to keep the Duchy of Milan for France, setting aside Austria, the Peace of Amiens, which cost him control of Egypt, was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa, Parma, Tuscany and Naples, then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the pope. Napoleon would have ruling elites from a fusion of the new bourgeoisie, on 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with exception of Carnot, in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif, a general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Consul for life, pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the Recess of 1803, which brought Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden to Frances side. The memories of imperial Rome were for a time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. The Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, did little other than create a more unified Germany to threaten France. On the other hand, Napoleons creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the occupation of Ancona, to create satellite states, Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many nations, in addition to the vassal titles, Napoleons closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France. Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power, Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal and this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. In this War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon destroyed the armies of Frederick William at Jena-Auerstedt, the Eylau and the Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Greats formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit. The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that held power of much of the rest of Europe, the two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes
First French Empire
–
The Battle of Austerlitz
First French Empire
–
Flag
First French Empire
–
The
Arc de Triomphe, ordered by
Napoleon in honour of his
Grande Armée, is one of the several landmarks whose construction was started in Paris during the First French Empire.
First French Empire
–
Napoleon reviews the
Imperial Guard before the
Battle of Jena, 1806
33.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
Napoleon
–
The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by
Jacques-Louis David, 1812
Napoleon
–
Imperial coat of arms
Napoleon
–
Napoleon's father
Carlo Buonaparte was
Corsica 's representative to the court of
Louis XVI of France.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, Lieutenant-Colonel of a battalion of Corsican
Republican volunteers
34.
Battle of Jena
–
The decisive defeat suffered by the Prussian Army subjugated the Kingdom of Prussia to the French Empire until the Sixth Coalition was formed in 1812. Both armies were split into separate parts, the Prussian Army was in a very poor state. Brunswick was 71 years old while his commanders were in their 60s. The Prussian army was still using tactics and training of Frederick The Great and its greatest weakness was its staff organization. Most of the divisions were organized and did not communicate well with each other. The Prussians had three forces,90,000 under Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick 38,000 under Friedrich Ludwig, the Grand Armée loved their Emperor and their generals. The army was very experienced and was very well led, with a mix of older, more experienced Marshals. The battles began when elements of Napoleons main force encountered Hohenlohes troops near Jena, initially only 48,000 strong, the Emperor took advantage of his carefully planned and flexible dispositions to rapidly build up a crushing superiority. The Prussians were slow to grasp the situation, and slower still to react, before Ruchels 15,000 men could arrive from Weimar, Hohenlohes force was routed. Nevertheless, it was a battle, and Napoleon mistakenly believed that he had faced the main body of the Prussian army. Further north at Auerstedt, both Davout and Bernadotte received orders to come to Napoleons aid, Davout attempted to comply via Ekartsberg, Bernadotte, via Dornburg. Davouts route south, however, was blocked by the Prussian main force of 55,000 men, including the Prussian King, although outnumbered two to one, Davouts superbly trained and disciplined III Corps endured repeated attacks before eventually taking the offensive and putting the Prussians to flight. Though in sight of the battle, Bernadotte took no steps to come to Davouts aid, prussias main weakness in 1806 was a very weak high command structure that included command positions being held by multiple officers. One such example is the position of Chief of Staff, held by three different officers, General Phull, Colonel Gerhard von Scharnhorst and Colonel Rudolf Massenbach. This confusing system led to delays and complexities that resulted in over a delay before the final order of battle was prepared. The Prussian army was divided into three armies drawn from across Prussia, another obstacle facing the Prussians was the creation of a unified plan of battle. Five main plans emerged for discussion, however, protracted planning and deliberating shifted the initiative to the French, thus, the Prussian plans became mere reactions to Napoleons movements. Although Prussia had begun its mobilization almost a month before France, Napoleon conceived a plan to force Prussia into a decisive battle, like Austerlitz, and pre-empt the Prussian offensive
Battle of Jena
–
Napoleon reviewing the Imperial Guard, by
Horace Vernet.
Battle of Jena
–
Battles of Jena and Auerstedt
Battle of Jena
–
The battle of Jena
Battle of Jena
–
Detailed map of the Battle of Jena
35.
Cavalry charge
–
A charge is a maneuver in battle in which combatants advance towards their enemy at their best speed in an attempt to engage in close combat. The charge is the dominant shock attack and has been the key tactic, modern charges usually involve small groups against individual positions instead of large groups of combatants charging another group or a fortified line. It may be assumed that the charge was practised in prehistoric warfare, the tactics of the classical Greek phalanx included an ordered approach march, with a final charge to contact. Initially successful, it was countered by effective discipline and the development of defensive bayonet tactics, the development of the bayonet in the late 17th century led to the bayonet charge becoming the main infantry charge tactic through the 19th century and into the 20th. As early as the 19th century, tactical scholars were already noting that most bayonet charges did not result in close combat, instead, one side usually fled before actual bayonet fighting ensued. The act of fixing bayonets has been held to be connected to morale. The shock value of an attack has been especially exploited in cavalry tactics. However, when cavalry charges succeeded, it was due to the defending formation breaking up and scattering. It must be noted, though, that while it was not recommended for a charge to continue against unbroken infantry. The cavalry charge was a significant tactic in the Middle Ages and these developments began in the 7th century but were not combined to full effect until the 11th century. The Battle of Dyrrhachium was an instance of the familiar medieval cavalry charge. By the time of the First Crusade in the 1090s, the charge was being employed widely by European armies. It became increasingly common for knights to dismount and fight as heavy infantry. The use of cavalry for flanking manoeuvres became more useful, although interpretations of the knightly ideal often led to reckless. Cavalry could still charge dense heavy infantry formations head-on if the cavalrymen had a combination of certain traits, however, the majority of cavalry personnel lacked at least one of these traits, particularly discipline, formations, and horses trained for head-on charges. In the twentieth century, the charge was seldom used, though it enjoyed sporadic. In what was called the last true cavalry charge, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States attacked Villista forces in the Battle of Guerrero on 29 March 1916. The battle was a victory for the Americans, occurring in desert terrain, at the Mexican town of Vicente Guerrero, Chihuahua
Cavalry charge
–
Romanticized painting of
O'Higgins ' charge at the
Battle of Rancagua during the
Chilean War of Independence
Cavalry charge
–
Infantry charge with the bayonet during the
Greco-Turkish War of 1897
Cavalry charge
–
Charge of the Light Brigade, Painting by
Richard Caton Woodville
Cavalry charge
–
Richard Caton Woodville,
Poniatowski 's Last Charge at
Leipzig
36.
Kingdom of Prussia
–
It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
Kingdom of Prussia
–
Prussian territorial acquisitions in the 18th century
Kingdom of Prussia
–
Flag
Kingdom of Prussia
–
Prussia (orange) and its territories lost after the
War of the Fourth Coalition (other colours).
Kingdom of Prussia
–
Prussian King's Crown (
Hohenzollern Castle Collection)
37.
19th century
–
The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
19th century
–
Antoine-Jean Gros, Surrender of Madrid, 1808. Napoleon enters Spain's capital during the
Peninsular War, 1810
19th century
–
Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century
19th century
–
The
Industrial Revolution forever modified the economy worldwide.
19th century
–
Map of the world from 1897. The
British Empire (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.
38.
Rostock Hauptbahnhof
–
Rostock Hauptbahnhof, also Rostock Central Station, is the main railway station in the German city of Rostock. It is situated well to the south of the city centre, the station was opened in 1886 by the Deutsch-Nordischer Lloyd, operating a combined railway/ferry line to Nykøbing Falster in Denmark. The Hauptbahnhof was expanded in 1913 and 1922, but was damaged in World War II. Electrification reached the station in 1985, after German reunification, the station was extensively modernised. Todays station was opened in 1886 by the Deutsch-Nordische-Lloyd Railway Company as the Lloyd-Bahnhof, the company operated the Lloyd Railway on the Neustrelitz–Rostock–Warnemünde route and the subsequent mail steamer connection to Nykøbing Falster. The parallel operation of passenger and freight traffic proved to be inefficient, with the establishment of the train ferry between Warnemünde and Gedser in 1903, long-distance express trains between Berlin and Copenhagen stopped at the station. In 1913, station the entrance hall was redeveloped with Art Nouveau elements, the platform facilities were extended in 1922 to include two platform tracks and the station subway was extended accordingly. The station was damaged by bombing in the Second World War, the importance of Rostock and the station increased as a result of the division of Germany. Passenger numbers rose sharply, especially after the establishment of new industrial enterprises, the importance of north–south long-distance connections to Dresden, Leipzig and Berlin also grew. Direct trains were established to Prague and Budapest, rostock’s traditional long-distance connections to Hamburg and Copenhagen were very limited after the division of German in 1949. Improvisation was required for the expansion of the station, while avoiding another move in its location, more platforms were built to cope with the increasing ridership. An exit was built on the station subway towards the south of the city, the station was connected to the electrified network of Deutsche Reichsbahn in 1985. There was a shift of traffic flows with the reunification of Germany, on the one hand, traffic moved from the railways to the road and, on the other hand, the importance of connections to Hamburg and Kiel grew strongly. The Rostock–Berlin connection became a regional service, due to the limited capacity of the station there were already plans in the East German period for a renovation of the station or even the building of a new central station. Freight traffic would have been separated from passenger traffic. Planning around 1980 provided for the demolition of the building that was built between the tracks to make room for island platforms. A new platform would also have built on the north side of the station. The entrance would have stayed there, but the entrance would have moved to the south side of the station
Rostock Hauptbahnhof
–
Rostock Hauptbahnhof
Rostock Hauptbahnhof
–
Northern entrance in 1920
Rostock Hauptbahnhof
–
Entrance building and station forecourt on the north side, 1964
Rostock Hauptbahnhof
–
New southern station building, built 1999-2003
39.
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft, such as an aeroplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the vehicles forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft, in which the form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft. Glider fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flying gliders of various kinds and tethered kites, powered fixed-wing aircraft that gain forward thrust from an engine include powered paragliders, powered hang gliders and some ground effect vehicles. The wings of an aircraft are not necessarily rigid, kites, hang-gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft. Most fixed-wing aircraft are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, kites were used approximately 2,800 years ago in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily available. Some authors hold that leaf kites were being flown much earlier in what is now Indonesia, by at least 549 AD paper kites were being flown, as it was recorded in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. Stories of kites were brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, although they were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries kites were being used as vehicles for scientific research. This machine may have been suspended for its flight, some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury, both experiments injured their pilots. In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. In 1884, the American John J. Montgomery made controlled flights in a glider as a part of a series of gliders built between 1883-1886, other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute. In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and his box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of aircraft engine, he did not create. Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, in 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off, the craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it. By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods, the flight was certified by the FAI. This was the first controlled flight, to be officially recognised, the Bleriot VIII design of 1908 was an early aircraft design that had the modern monoplane tractor configuration
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
A
Boeing 737 aeroplane - an example of a fixed-wing aircraft
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
A
delta -shaped
kite
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
Boys flying a kite in 1828 Germany, by
Johann Michael Voltz
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
Le Bris and his glider, Albatros II, photographed by
Nadar, 1868
40.
Heinkel
–
Heinkel Flugzeugwerke was a German aircraft manufacturing company founded by and named after Ernst Heinkel. The companys first great success was the design of the Heinkel He 70 Blitz high-speed mail plane and airliner for Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1932 and it was followed by the two-engine Heinkel He 111 Doppel-Blitz, which became a mainstay of the Luftwaffe during World War II as a bomber. Heinkels most important designers at this point were the twin Günter brothers, Siegfried and Walter, the Heinkel company is most closely associated with aircraft used by the Luftwaffe during World War II. This began with the adaptation of the He 70 and, in particular, Heinkel also provided the Luftwaffes only operational heavy bomber, the Heinkel He 177, although this was never deployed in significant numbers. Heinkel was less successful in selling fighter designs, in 1939, flown by Erich Warsitz, the Heinkel He 176 and Heinkel He 178 became the first aircraft designs to fly under liquid-fuel rocket and turbojet power respectively. Heinkel was the first to develop a jet fighter to prototype stage, the Heinkel He 280, thereafter, the Allies began intensive aerial reconnaissance intended to learn more about the German jet aircraft programme. The He 219 night fighter was the first German aircraft to have retracting tricycle gear, Heinkel was a major user of Sachsenhausen concentration camp labour, using between 6,000 and 8,000 prisoners on the He 177 bomber. Following the war, Heinkel was prohibited from manufacturing aircraft and instead built bicycles, motor scooters, the company eventually returned to aircraft in the mid-1950s, licence building F-104 Starfighters for the West German Luftwaffe. It competed with the BMW Isetta and the Messerschmitt KR200 and it had a unit body and a four-stroke single-cylinder engine. Heinkel stopped manufacturing the Kabine in 1958 but production continued under licence, first by Dundalk Engineering Company in Ireland, Heinkel introduced the Tourist motor scooter in the 1950s which was known for its reliability. A large and relatively heavy touring machine, it provided weather protection with a full fairing. Heinkel also made a lighter 150 cc scooter called the Heinkel 150, Heinkel built the Perle moped from 1954 to 1957. The Perle was a cycle with a cast alloy unit frame, rear suspension, a fully enclosed chain with part of the chain enclosure integral with the swingarm. This high level of sophistication came at a high cost, approximately twenty-seven thousand Perles were sold. Maicoletta Zündapp Bella Heinkel Motor Scooters Heinkel Scale Models Luft 46 The official Erich Warsitz Website, inclusive rare videos and audio commentaries
Heinkel
–
Ruins of the Heinkel headquarters in Rostock
Heinkel
–
Heinkel Flugzeugwerke
Heinkel
–
Production of the Heinkel He 111 in 1939
Heinkel
–
Heinkel Kabine
41.
Vienna International Airport
–
Vienna International Airport is the international airport of Vienna, the capital of Austria, located in Schwechat,18 km southeast of central Vienna and 57 km west of Bratislava. It is the countrys biggest airport and serves as the hub for Austrian Airlines and it is capable of handling wide-body aircraft up to the Airbus A380. The airport features a network of European destinations as well as long-haul flights to Asia. During 2015, the airport handled 23.4 million passengers, in 1954, the Betriebsgesellschaft was founded, and the airport replaced Aspern as Viennas principal aerodrome. There was just one runway, which in 1959 was expanded to measure 3,000 m, the erection of the new airport building starting in 1959. In 1972 another runway was built, in 1982 the airport was connected to the national motorway network. In 1986 the enlarged arrivals hall was opened, and in 1988 Pier East with 8 jetbridges, Flughafen Wien AG, one of the few publicly traded airport operators in Europe, was privatised in 1992. The state of Lower Austria and the City of Vienna each hold 20% of the shares, the shares are part of the Austrian Traded Index. In 1992, the new Terminal 1 was opened and a year later the area around the plaza in the transit area of the B, C and D gates. In 1996 Pier West with 12 jetbridges got in operation, in 2006 the 109 m tall control tower started operating. It allows a free overview of the airport area and offers a night laser show. From 2004–2007 an Office Park had been erected offering 69,000 m2 of rentable space, a VIP- and general aviation-terminal, including a separated apron, opened in 2006. To accommodate future growth, in 1998 Vienna Airport published a plan that outlined expansion projects until 2015. These projects included a new park, railway station, cargo center, general aviation center, air traffic control tower, terminal. Additionally, the called for streamlined security control. The centerpiece of the enlargement was the new terminal, dubbed Skylink during its construction, in 2002, the airports management estimated that building the new terminal will cost €401.79 million. However, costs skyrocketed and in 2009 stood at an estimated €929.5 million, on June 5,2012, the new Austrian Star Alliance Terminal was opened, which enables the airport to handle up to 30 million passengers per year. Construction started in 2004 and was suspended due to projected cost increases in 2009, the maximum planned costs totaled less than €770 million
Vienna International Airport
Vienna International Airport
–
Interior of Terminal 1
Vienna International Airport
–
Interior of Terminal 1A
Vienna International Airport
–
Interior of Terminal 3
42.
Heinkel He 178
–
The Heinkel He 178 was the worlds first aircraft to fly under turbojet power, and the first practical jet aircraft. It was a venture by the German Heinkel company in accordance with director Ernst Heinkels emphasis on developing technology for high-speed flight. It first flew on 27 August 1939, piloted by Erich Warsitz and this flight had been preceded by a short hop three days earlier. In 1936, an engineer named Hans von Ohain had taken out a patent on using the exhaust from a gas turbine as a means of propulsion. He presented his idea to Ernst Heinkel, who agreed to develop the concept. Von Ohain successfully demonstrated his first engine, the Heinkel HeS1 in 1937, the He 178 was designed around von Ohains third engine design, the HeS3, which burned diesel fuel. The result was an aircraft with a metal fuselage of conventional configuration and construction. The jet intake was in the nose, and the aircraft was fitted with tailwheel undercarriage, the main landing gear was intended to be retractable, but remained fixed in down position throughout the flight trials. The high-mounted wooden wings had the characteristic Günter brothers elliptical trailing edge, photos showing a straight wing were of the second prototype He 178 V2, which never flew under power. The aircraft made its flight on 27 August 1939, only days before Germany started World War II by invading Poland. The test pilot was Erich Warsitz, who had flown the worlds first rocket powered airplane. Heinkel had developed the engine and the testbed aircraft, the Heinkel He 178 V1. Ernst Udet and Erhard Milch, Minister of Aircraft Production and Supply watched the aircraft perform, while a technical success, speeds were limited to 598 kilometres per hour even when fitted with more powerful HeS61, 300lb thrust engines and combat endurance was only 10 minutes. Undeterred, Heinkel decided to embark on the development of a jet fighter. The sole He 178 V1 airframe was placed on display at the Berlin Aviation Museum, Ernst Heinkel was disappointed by the lack of official interest in his private-venture jet. In his autobiography, he attributes this to the failure of the leaders of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium to understand the advantages of jet propulsion, in fact, the Reich Air Ministry was already developing its own jets, a fact unknown to Heinkel. In 1939, BMW and Junkers were working on official turbojet engines for the German military and these were axial-flow turbojets, which promised much less drag than the centrifugal-flow turbojets like those being developed at Heinkel and by Frank Whittle in England. But the development of jet powered single-seaters was ordered to continue and this seems to have marked a turning point for jet aircraft, Hitler deciding that the most promising jet fighter aircraft be re-purposed as a blitz bomber
Heinkel He 178
–
He 178
Heinkel He 178
–
Memorial plaque honoring the world's first jet flight from Heinkel's "Marienehe" factory airfield, in today's
Rostock -Schmarl district
Heinkel He 178
–
The He 178 V2 (note the squared-off wingtips). This particular aircraft only flew as an unpowered glider
Heinkel He 178
–
The He 178 drawing board design
43.
German federal election, July 1932
–
Federal elections were held in Germany on 31 July 1932, following the premature dissolution of the Reichstag. They saw great gains by the Nazi Party, which for the first time became the largest party in parliament, with the Communists remaining strong, anti-republican parties together now had a majority in the Reichstag, making a government by any union of pro-republican parties impossible. Since 1929, Germany had been suffering from the Great Depression as unemployment rose from 8. 5% to nearly 30% between 1929 and 1932, while industrial production inside Germany dropped roughly 42%. In 1930, the grand coalition of the pro-republican parties – Social Democrats, Centre Party. President Hindenburg had then appointed a minority government headed by the Centre Partys Heinrich Brüning which could only govern via President Hindenburgs emergency powers, shortly afterwards, in the elections of 1930, the democratic parties lost their majority in the Reichstag, making any parliamentary government impossible. These elections also saw Hitlers Nazi Party rise to national prominence, brünings policies, implemented via presidential decree and tolerated by parliament, failed to solve the economic crisis while weakening the parliamentary system. In March 1932, presidential elections pitted the incumbent Field Marshal Hindenburg, supported by parties, against Hitler. Hitler gained roughly a third of the vote and was defeated in the second round in April by Hindenburg. The election campaign took place under violent circumstances, as Papen lifted the ban on the SA, the Nazi paramilitary. This inevitably led to clashes with the Communist paramilitary, note, The SA openly carried unsharpened Holbein style parade daggers to maintain compliance with an existing weapon law, while simultaneously using the appearance of an armed force for intimidation. The elections resulted in gains by the Nazi party, who with 230 seats for the first time became the largest party in parliament. Neither the Nazi Party nor President Hindenburg had a governing majority, neither side had a majority on its own and no coalition could be formed to create a governing majority. Hence, Papens minority government continued, leading to another election in November
German federal election, July 1932
–
All 608 seats in the
Reichstag 305 seats needed for a majority
German federal election, July 1932
German federal election, July 1932
German federal election, July 1932
44.
Nazi seizure of power
–
The Nazi seizure of power, frequently referred to by the German name Machtergreifung, was the advent to power in Germany of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party. Hitler seized power after the Reichstag Fire, to this day scholars dispute who started the fire that allowed Hitler to establish totalitarian rule over Germany. From an economic perspective, Brüning pursued a policy of austerity and public budget balancing. A proposed coalition between the Centre Party, the national conservative German National Peoples Party, and the Nazis, in the German federal election of July 1932, the Nazi Party gained the largest number of seats in the Reichstag, yet were still without a majority. However these plans failed, and behind his back on 4 January 1933, Hitler met Papen, along with State Secretary Otto Meissner and Hindenburgs son Oskar, Papen could finally persuade the reluctant president to appoint Hitler. Adolf Hitlers rise to power Reichstag fire Gleichschaltung Stachura, Peter D. ed. Introduction, Weimar National Socialism, Machtergreifung – Anmerkungen zu einem historischen Begriff]. The Coming of the Third Reich, evans, Richard J. Das Dritte Reich – Aufstieg. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, A History of Nazi Germany
Nazi seizure of power
–
Hitler at the window of the
Reich Chancellery, Jan. 30, 1933
Nazi seizure of power
–
Memorial to the Murdered Members of the Reichstag at the
Reichstag building, each slate plate corresponds to one of 96 Reichstag members murdered by the Nazis
45.
Kristallnacht
–
German authorities looked on without intervening. The name Kristallnacht comes from the shards of glass that littered the streets after the windows of Jewish-owned stores, buildings. Estimates of the number of fatalities caused by the pogrom have varied, early reporting estimated that 91 Jewish people were murdered during the attacks. Modern analysis of German scholarly sources by historians such as Richard J. Evans puts the number much higher, when deaths from post-arrest maltreatment and subsequent suicides are included, the death toll climbs into the hundreds. Additionally,30,000 Jewish men were arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps, Jewish homes, hospitals, and schools were ransacked, as the attackers demolished buildings with sledgehammers. Over 1,000 synagogues were burned and over 7,000 Jewish businesses were destroyed or damaged. The event which caused the attacks was the assassination of the Nazi German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan, in the 1920s, most German Jews were fully integrated into German society as German citizens. They served in the German army and navy and contributed to every field of German business, science, from its inception, Hitlers régime moved quickly to introduce anti-Jewish policies. Nazi propaganda singled out the 500,000 Jews in Germany, the subsequent 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their citizenship and forbade Jews to marry non-Jewish Germans. These laws resulted in the exclusion of Jews from German social and political life, the international Évian Conference on 6 July 1938 addressed the issue of Jewish and Gypsy immigration to other countries. As the number of Jews and Gypsies wanting to leave increased, by 1938, Germany had entered a new radical phase in anti-Semitic activity. In a 1997 interview, the German historian Hans Mommsen claimed that a motive for the pogrom was the desire of the Gauleiters of the NSDAP to seize Jewish property. In the fall of 1938, the pressure on Jewish property nourished the partys ambition. This, however, was one aspect of the origin of the November 1938 pogrom. The Polish government threatened to extradite all Jews who were Polish citizens, the immediate reaction by the Gestapo was to push the Polish Jews—16,000 persons—over the borderline, but this measure failed due to the stubbornness of the Polish customs officers. The loss of prestige as a result of this abortive operation called for some sort of compensation, thus, the overreaction to Herschel Grynszpans attempt against the diplomat Ernst vom Rath came into being and led to the November pogrom. The background of the pogrom was signified by a sharp cleavage of interests between the different agencies of party and state, Heydrich and Himmler were interested in fostering Jewish emigration. In August 1938 the German authorities announced that permits for foreigners were being cancelled
Kristallnacht
–
The interior of the
Fasanenstrasse Synagogue in Berlin after Kristallnacht
Kristallnacht
–
Polish Jews expelled from Germany in late October 1938
Kristallnacht
–
Herschel Grynszpan, 7 November 1938
Kristallnacht
–
Ernst vom Rath
46.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
47.
Royal Air Force
–
The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
Royal Air Force
–
A later version of the
Spitfires which played a major part in the
Battle of Britain.
Royal Air Force
–
Royal Air Force emblem
Royal Air Force
–
The
Avro Lancaster heavy bomber was extensively used during the strategic bombing of Germany.
Royal Air Force
–
The
Handley Page Victor bomber was a
strategic bomber of the RAF's
V bomber force used to carry both conventional and
nuclear bombs.
48.
German Democratic Republic
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
German Democratic Republic
–
GDR leaders: President
Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister
Otto Grotewohl, 1949
German Democratic Republic
–
Flag (1959–1990)
German Democratic Republic
–
SED First Secretary,
Walter Ulbricht, 1950
German Democratic Republic
–
Head of State:
Erich Honecker (1971–89)
49.
German reunification
–
The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies
German reunification
–
Berlin Wall at the
Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989
German reunification
–
Map showing the division of
East and
West Germany until 1990, with
West Berlin in yellow.
German reunification
–
Brandenburg Gate in
Berlin, national symbol of today's
Germany and its reunification in 1990.
German reunification
–
Police officers of the East German
Volkspolizei wait for the official opening of the
Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989.
_2006-09-21.JPG)
listen)) is the largest city in the north German state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Rostock is on the Warnow river; the district of Warnemünde 12 kilometres (7 miles) north of the city centre is directly on the Baltic Sea coast.
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
.svg){kind=small}
