1.
Telephone
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A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice and this instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households, the essential elements of a telephone are a microphone to speak into and an earphone which reproduces the voice in a distant location. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a dial, which was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial. The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear, the dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the network to the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The first telephones were connected to each other from one customers office or residence to another customers location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. For greater mobility, various systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the middle 20th century. Hand-held mobile phone]s was introduced for personal service starting in 1973, by the late 1970s several mobile telephone networks operated around the world. In 1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System was launched, offering a standardized technology providing portability for users far beyond the residence or office. These analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with better security, greater capacity, better regional coverage, the public switched telephone network, with its hierarchical system of many switching centers, interconnects telephones around the world for communication with each other. With the standardized international numbering system, E.164, each line has an identifying telephone number. Although originally designed for voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional capabilities. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile communication, a traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service, commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair of insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial, the ringer, or beeper, light or other device, alerts the user to incoming calls
2.
Telephone switchboard
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The switchboard was an essential component of a manual telephone exchange, and was operated by switchboard operators who used electrical cords or switches to establish the connections. The electromechanical automatic telephone exchange, invented by Almon Strowger in 1888, in 1919, the Bell System in the United States also adopted automatic switching as its future technology, after years of reliance on manual systems. Nevertheless, many manual branch exchanges remained operational into the half of the 20th century in many enterprises. Later electronic devices and computer technology gave the access to an abundance of features. A private branch exchange in a business usually has an attendant console for the operator, or an auto-attendant, following the invention of the telephone in 1876, the first telephones were rented in pairs which were limited to conversation between the parties operating those two instruments. The use of an exchange was soon found to be even more advantageous than in telegraphy. In January 1878 the Boston Telephone Dispatch company had started hiring boys as telephone operators, thus, on September 1,1878, Boston Telephone Dispatch hired Emma Nutt as the first woman operator. Small towns typically had the switchboard installed in the home so that he or she could answer calls on a 24-hour basis. In 1894, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company installed the first battery-operated switchboard on January 9 in Lexington, Early switchboards in large cities usually were mounted floor to ceiling in order to allow the operators to reach all the lines in the exchange. The operators were boys who would use a ladder to connect to the higher jacks, late in the 1890s this measure failed to keep up with the increasing number of lines, and Milo G. Kellogg devised the Divided Multiple Switchboard for operators to work together, with a team on the A board and these operators were almost always women until the early 1970s, when men were once again hired. Cord switchboards were often referred to as cordboards by telephone company personnel, conversion to Panel switch and other automated switching systems first eliminated the B operator and then, usually years later, the A. Rural and suburban switchboards for the most part remained small and simple, in many cases, customers came to know their operator by name. As telephone exchanges converted to service, switchboards continued to serve specialized purposes. Before the advent of direct-dialed long distance calls, a subscriber would need to contact the operator in order to place a toll call. In large cities, there was often a number, such as 112. Elsewhere, the subscriber would ask the operator to ring the long-distance operator. The long distance operator would record the name and city of the person to be called, each toll center had only a limited number of trunks to distant cities, and if those circuits were busy, the operator would try alternate routings through intermediate cities
3.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
4.
Pulse dialing
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This lends the method the often used name loop disconnect dialing. In the most common variant of pulse dialing, decadic dialing, the most common version decodes the digits 1 through 9, as one to nine pulses, respectively, and the digit 0 as ten pulses. Historically, the most common device to produce such pulse trains is the dial of the telephone, lending the technology another name. The pulse repetition rate was determined based on the response time needed for electromechanical switching systems to operate reliably. Most telephone systems used the nominal rate of ten pulses per second, automatic telephone exchange systems were developed in the late 19th and early 20th century. For identification, telephone subscribers were assigned a number unique to each circuit. Various methods evolved to signal the desired destination telephone number for a telephone call directly dialed by the subscriber, an automatic switch-hook was designed by Hilborne Roosevelt. But the use of keys with separate conductors to the exchange was not practical. Strowger also filed the first patent for a dial in 1891. The first dials worked by direct, forward action, the pulses were sent as the user rotated the dial to the finger stop starting at a different position for each digit transmitted. Operating the dial error-free required smooth rotary motion of the wheel by the user. This mechanism was soon refined to include a spring and a centrifugal governor to control the recoil speed. The user selected a digit to be dialed by inserting a finger into the corresponding hole, when released from this position, the dial pulsing contacts were opened and closed repeatedly, thus interrupting the loop current in a pattern on the return to the home position. The exchange switch decoded the pattern for each digit thus transmitted by stepping relays or by accumulation in digit registers. When electromechanical switching system were still in use, the current pulses generated by the dial on the local loop operated electrical relays in the switches at the central office. The mechanical nature of these relays and the capacitance, affecting pulse shape, generally limited the speed of operation. Exceptions to this are, Sweden, with one click for 0, two clicks for 1, and so on, and New Zealand with ten clicks for 0, nine clicks for 1, etc. Oslo, the city of Norway, used the New Zealand system
5.
Telephone call
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A telephone call is a connection over a telephone network between the called party and the calling party. The first telephone call was made on March 10,1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, Bell demonstrated his ability to talk with electricity by transmitting a call to his assistant, Thomas Watson. The first words transmitted were Mr Watson, come here and this event has been called Bells greatest success, as it demonstrated the first successful use of the telephone. Although it was his greatest success, he refused to have one in his own home because it was something he invented by mistake, the call may use land line, mobile phone, satellite phone or any combination thereof. When a telephone call has more than one called party it is referred to as a conference call, when two or more users of the network are sharing the same physical line, it is called a party line or Rural phone line. If the callers wireline phone is connected directly to the party, when the caller takes their telephone off-hook. This is called a hot line or ringdown, otherwise, the calling party is usually given a tone to indicate they should begin dialing the desired number. In some cases, if the party cannot dial calls directly. Calls may be placed through a public network provided by a telephone company or a private network called a PBX. In most cases a private network is connected to the network in order to allow PBX users to dial the outside world. Most telephone calls through the PSTN are set up using ISUP signalling messages or one of its variants between telephone exchanges to establish the end to end connection, calls through PBX networks are set up using QSIG, DPNSS or variants. Some types of calls are not charged, such as local calls dialed directly by a subscriber in Canada. In most other areas, all calls are charged a fee for the connection. Fees depend on the provider of the service, the type of service being used, in most circumstances, the calling party pays this fee. However, in circumstances such as a reverse charge or collect call. In some circumstances, the caller pays a flat charge for the telephone connection. The caller then rotary dials or presses buttons for the number needed to complete the call. The second phone makes a noise to alert its owner
6.
Telephone exchange
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A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
7.
Governor (device)
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A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine, such as an engine. Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills since the 17th century, early steam engines employed a purely reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed. It was not until the Scottish engineer James Watt introduced the steam engine, for driving factory machinery. Between the years 1775 and 1800, Watt, in partnership with industrialist Matthew Boulton, the theoretical basis for the operation of governors was described by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868 in his seminal paper On Governors. Building on Watt’s design was American engineer Willard Gibbs who in 1872 theoretically analyzed Watt’s conical pendulum governor from an energy balance perspective. Gibbs theorized that, analogous to the equilibrium of the simple Watt governor, the first is the heat energy supplied to the intermediate substance, and the second is the work energy performed by the intermediate substance. In this case, the substance is steam. These sorts of theoretical investigations culminated in the 1876 publication of the Gibbs famous work On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, Governors can be used to limit the top speed for vehicles, and for some classes of vehicle such devices are a legal requirement. They can more generally be used to limit the speed of the internal combustion engine or protect the engine from damage due to excessive rotational speed. Today, BMW, Audi, Volkswagen and Mercedes-Benz limit their cars to 250 kilometres per hour. Certain Quattro GmbH and AMG cars, and the Mercedes/McLaren SLR is an exception, the BMW Rolls-Royces are limited to 240 kilometres per hour. Jaguars, although British, also have a limiter, as do the Swedish Saab and this was done to reduce the political desire to introduce a legal speed limit. Ferrari, Lamborghini, Maserati, Porsche, Aston Martin and Bentley also do not limit their cars, the Chrysler 300C SRT8 is limited to 270 km/h. Most Japanese domestic market vehicles are limited to only 180 kilometres per hour or 190 kilometres per hour, the top speed is a strong sales argument, though speeds above about 300 kilometres per hour are not likely reachable on public roads. Many performance cars are limited to a speed of 250 kilometres per hour to limit insurance costs of the vehicle, mopeds in the United Kingdom have had to have a 30 mph speed limiter since 1977. Most other European countries have similar rules, public service vehicles often have a legislated top speed. Scheduled coach services in the United kingdom are limited to 65 mph, urban public buses often have speed governors which are typically set to between 65 kilometres per hour and 100 kilometres per hour. All heavy vehicles in Europe and New Zealand have law/by-law governors that limits their speeds to 90 kilometres per hour or 100 kilometres per hour, fire engines and other emergency vehicles are exempt from this requirement
8.
Pulse (signal processing)
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A rapid change in some characteristic of a signal, e. g. phase or frequency, from a baseline value to a higher or lower value, followed by a rapid return to the baseline value. Pulse shapes can arise out of a process called pulse-shaping, optimum pulse shape depends on the application. These can be found in pulse waves, square waves, boxcar functions, in digital signals the up and down transitions between high and low levels are called the rising edge and the falling edge. In digital systems the detection of these sides or action taken in response is termed edge-triggered, a digital timing diagram is an example of a well-ordered collection of rectangular pulses. A Nyquist pulse is one which meets the Nyquist ISI criterion and is important in data transmission, an example of a pulse which meets this condition is the sinc function. The sinc pulse is of significance in signal-processing theory but cannot be produced by a real generator for reasons of causality. The pulses were more than 99 percent perfect and were produced using a simple laser, a Gaussian pulse is shaped as a Gaussian function and is produced by a Gaussian filter. It has the properties of maximum steepness of transition with no overshoot and minimum group delay
9.
Almon Brown Strowger
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Almon Brown Strowger was an American inventor who gave his name to the Strowger switch, an electromechanical telephone exchange technology that his invention and patent inspired. Strowger was born in Penfield, New York, near Rochester, little information is available about his early life, but it is known that he was the grandson of the second settler and first miller in Penfield. He taught school in Penfield for a time, and served in the 8th New York Volunteer Cavalry during the American Civil War and it is believed that he fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run near Manassas, Virginia. After the Civil War, it appears he first became a school teacher before he became an undertaker. He is variously attributed as living in El Dorado, Kansas, or Topeka, Kansas, and finally Kansas City, Missouri. It is not clear where his idea of a telephone exchange was originally conceived. Anecdotally, Strowgers undertaking business was losing clients to a competitor whose telephone-operator wife was redirecting everyone who called for Strowger, motivated to remove the intermediary operator, he invented the first automatic telephone exchange in 1889 and received its patent in 1891. It is reported that he constructed a model of his invention from a round collar box. He married Susan A. from Massachusetts in 1897 as his second wife, Strowger sold his patents to his associates in 1896 for $1,800 and sold his share in the Automatic Electric Company for $10,000 in 1898. His patents subsequently sold to Bell Systems for $2.5 million in 1916, the companys engineers continued development of Strowgers designs and submitted several patents in the names of its employees. It also underwent several name changes, Strowger himself seems to have not taken part in this further development. He subsequently moved to St. Petersburg, Florida and appears to have returned to being an undertaker, bussey Funeral Home records report an unidentified body being moved for Mr. Strowger in December 1899. The same funeral home subsequently buried Strowger himself, Strowger was a man of some wealth at his death and was reported as owning at least a city block of property. He died, aged 62, of an aneurysm after suffering from anemia, at St. Petersburg, Pinellas County and his grave is marked with the traditional white headstone with an inscription that reads, Lieut. He was survived by his widow Susan A. Strowger and she had claimed that her husband had only received $10,000 for his invention, when he should have received $1,000,000. A bronze plaque, to commemorate his invention, was placed on his grave in 1945 by telephone company officials, Strowger was admitted to the hall of fame of the U. S. Apart from his invention, his name has also given to a locomotive. In 2003, the Verizon Foundation awarded $4500 to Pinellas Heritage, Inc. the funds were used to develop a website to impart the history of the cemetery where Strowger is buried, and to restore two Civil War memorials
10.
Bell System
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On December 31,1983, the system was broken up into independent companies by a U. S. Justice Department mandate. Ma Bell is also used to refer to the female voices behind recordings for the Bell System, Mary Moore, Jane Barbe. In 1877, the American Bell Telephone Company, named after Alexander Graham Bell, opened the first telephone exchange in New Haven, within a few years local exchange companies were established in every major city in the United States. In 1899, American Telephone & Telegraph acquired the assets of its parent, originally American Bell had created AT&T to provide long-distance calls between New York and Chicago and beyond. AT&T became the parent of American Bell, and thus the head of the Bell System, because regulatory and tax rules were leaner in New York than in Boston, after 1934, AT&T was regulated by the Federal Communication Commission. Receiving a U. S. patent for the invention of the telephone on March 7,1876, Alexander Graham Bell formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail returned as President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment with the federal government. S. The Bell trademark pictured here was used from 1921 through 1939 by both the AT&T corporation and the regional operating corporations to co-brand themselves under a single Bell System trademark, the regional operating corporations name was placed where name of associated company appears in this template version of the trademark. Bell system telephones and related equipment were made by Western Electric, member telephone companies paid a fixed fraction of their revenues as a license fee to Bell Labs. As a result of this monopoly, by 1940 the Bell System effectively owned most telephone service in the United States, from local. This allowed Bell to prohibit their customers from connecting phones not made or sold by Bell to the system without paying fees, Northern Electric was spun off in 1956 by Western Electric, but AT&T did not spin off Bell Canada until 1975. The Bell Systems Caribbean regional operating companies were sold to the ITT Corporation, before 1956, the Bell Systems reach was truly gargantuan. The 1984 Bell System divestiture brought an end to the branded as the Bell System. The suit was settled on January 8,1982, superseding the former restrictions that AT&T and the DOJ had agreed upon in 1956. Currently, the word mark Bell, the logo, and other related trademarks, are held by each of the remaining Bell companies, namely AT&T, Verizon, CenturyLink, and Cincinnati Bell
11.
Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling
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DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States, and became known under the trademark Touch-Tone for use in push-button telephones supplied to telephone customers, starting in 1963. DTMF is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23 and it is also known in the UK as MF4. The Touch-Tone system using a telephone keypad gradually replaced the use of dial and has become the industry standard for landline. Other multi-frequency systems are used for internal signaling within the telephone network, prior to the development of DTMF, telephone numbers were dialed by users with a loop-disconnect signaling, more commonly known as pulse dialing in the U. S. The exchange equipment responds to the dial pulses either directly by operating relays, the physical distance for which this type of dialing was possible was restricted by electrical distortions and was only possible on direct metallic links between end points of a line. Placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance or provision of special subscriber trunk dialing equipment, operators used an earlier type of multi-frequency signaling. Multi-frequency signaling is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone sounds, various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness, the DTMF system uses a set of eight audio frequencies transmitted in pairs to represent 16 signals, represented by the ten digits, the letters A to D, and the symbols # and *. AT&T described the product as a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the transmission path. DTMF was known throughout the Bell System by the trademark Touch-Tone, the term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5,1960 and was introduced to the public on November 18,1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public. It was a trademark by AT&T from September 4,1962 to March 13,1984. It is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23, in the UK, it is also known as MF4. Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature tone dialing or DTMF, previously, terrestrial television stations used DTMF tones to control remote transmitters. The engineers had envisioned telephones being used to access computers, and they consulted with companies to determine the requirements. This led to the addition of the sign and asterisk or star keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection. Public payphones that accept credit cards use these codes to send the information from the magnetic strip. The AUTOVON telephone system of the United States Armed Forces used these signals to assert certain privilege, precedence is still a feature of military telephone networks, but using number combinations. For example, entering 93 before a number is a priority call, present-day uses of the A, B, C and D signals on telephone networks are few, and are exclusive to network control
12.
Push-button telephone
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The push-button telephone is a telephone that uses buttons or keys for dialing a telephone number to place a call to another telephone subscriber. 5 Crossbar switching system in Pennsylvania, but the technology proved unreliable and it was not until long after the invention of the transistor when push-button technology matured. Over the next few decades touch-tone service replaced traditional pulse dialing technology, although DTMF was the driving technology implemented in push-button telephones, some telephone manufacturers used push-button keypads to generate pulse dial signaling. The concept of the use of push-buttons in telephony originated around 1887 with a called the micro-telephone push-button. This use even predated the invention of the dial by Almon Brown Strowger in 1891. The Bell System in the United States relied on manual switched service until 1919, as direct distance dialing expanded to a growing number of communities, local numbers were extended to standardized seven-digit named exchanges. A toll call to another area code was eleven digits, including the leading 1, in the 1950s, AT&T conducted extensive studies of product engineering and efficiency and concluded that push-button dialing was preferable to rotary dialing. In 1962, Touch-Tone telephones, including other Bell innovations such as pagers, were on display for the public to try out at the Bell Systems pavilion at the Seattle Worlds Fair. Ref. YouTube video entitled Vintage Roadtrips -1962 Seattle Worlds Fair, on 22 April 1963 President John F. This phone, the Western Electric 1500, had only ten buttons, in 1968 it was replaced by the twelve-button model 2500, adding the asterisk or star and pound or hash keys. Although push-button touch-tone telephones made their debut to the public in 1963. In the 1970s the majority of telephone subscribers still had rotary phones, adoption of the push-button phone was steady, but it took a long time for them to appear in some areas. At first it was primarily businesses that adopted push-button phones, some exchanges no longer support pulse-dialing or charge their few remaining pulse-dial users the higher tone-dial monthly rate as rotary telephones become increasingly rare. The international standard for telephone signaling utilizes dual-tone multi-frequency signaling, more known as touch-tone dialing. It replaced the older and slower pulse dial system, the push-button format is also used for all cell phones, but with out-of-band signaling of the dialed number. The touch-tone system uses audible tones for each of the digits zero through nine, later this was expanded by two keys labeled with an asterisk and the pound or hash sign to represent the 11th and 12th DTMF signals. These signals accommodate various additional services and customer-controlled calling features, when announced, the DTMF technology was not immediately available on all switching systems. Rural party line service was based on mechanical switching equipment which could not be upgraded
13.
Century 21 Exposition
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The Century 21 Exposition was a worlds fair held April 21,1962, to October 21,1962, in Seattle, Washington. Nearly 10 million people attended the fair, unlike some other worlds fairs of its era, Century 21 made a profit. As planned, the left behind a fairground and numerous public buildings and public works, some credit it with revitalizing Seattles economic. The fair saw the construction of the Space Needle and Alweg monorail, as well as sports venues and performing arts buildings. The site, slightly expanded since the fair, is now called Seattle Center, another notable Seattle Center building, the Museum of Pop Culture, was built nearly 40 years later and designed to fit in with the fairground atmosphere. The fair was conceived in 1955 to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1909 Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition. As a result, the themes of space, science, in June 1960, the International Bureau of Expositions certified Century 21 as a worlds fair. Project manager Ewen Dingwall went to Moscow to request Soviet participation, the Baltic states were not invited, nor was the Peoples Republic of China, Vietnam, nor North Korea. As it happened, the Cold War had an effect on the fair. President John F. Kennedy was supposed to attend the ceremony of the fair on October 21,1962. He bowed out, pleading a heavy cold, it became public that he was dealing with the Cuban Missile Crisis. In contrast,12 years later—even in far more conservative Spokane, once the fair idea was conceived, several sites were considered. Two sites south of the city proper were considered—Midway, near Des Moines, the site finally selected for the Century 21 Exposition had originally been contemplated for a civic center. The idea of using it for the fair came later and brought in federal money for the United States Science Pavilion. Some of the land had donated to the city by James Osborne in 1881 and by David. The Warren Avenue School, an elementary school with several programs for physically handicapped students, was torn down, its programs dispersed. Near the school, some of the citys oldest houses, apartments, the old Fire Station No.4 was also sacrificed. As early as the 1909 Bogue plan, this part of Lower Queen Anne had been considered for a civic center
14.
Telephone keypad
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A telephone keypad is the keypad installed on a push-button telephone or similar telecommunication device for the primary purpose of dialing a telephone number. The contemporary keypad is laid out in an array of twelve push buttons arranged as four rows. For military applications, a fourth, right-most column of keys was added for priority signaling in the Autovon system in the 1960s. These keys were added to provide signals for anticipated data entry purposes in business applications, the layout of the digit keys is different from that commonly appearing on calculators and numeric keypads. This layout was chosen after extensive human factors testing at Bell Labs, at the time, mechanical calculators were not widespread, and few people had experience with them. Indeed, calculators were only just starting to settle on a common layout, two other calculators have keysets resembling. In any case, Bell Labs testing found that the layout with 1,2. The key labeled ✻ was officially named the star key, the original design used a symbol with six points, but an asterisk with five points commonly appears in printing. # is officially called the sign key, but other names such as pound key, hash key, hex key, octothorpe, gate. The Greek symbols alpha and omega had been planned originally and these can be used for special functions. For example, in the UK, users can order a 7,30 am alarm call from a British Telecom telephone exchange by dialing, most of the keys also bear letters according to the following system, These letters have been used for multiple purposes. Originally, they referred to the letters of telephone exchange names. The UK telephone numbering system used a similar two-letter code after the zero to form the first part of the subscriber trunk dialling code for a region. For example, Aylesbury was assigned 0AY6, which translated into 0296, the letters have also been used, mainly in the United States, as a technique for remembering telephone numbers easily. For example, an interior decorator might license the telephone number 1-800-724-6837, sometimes businesses advertise a number with a mnemonic word having more letters than there are digits in the phone number. Usually, this means that the caller just stops dialing at 7 digits after the code or that the extra digits are ignored by the central office. On modern mobile phones and smart phones, the letters on the keys are needed for entering text for text messaging, entering names in the book, mobile apps, mobile browser. To compensate for the keys, mobile phones use systems like multi-tap
15.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
16.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
17.
Chicago Tunnel Company
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The Chicago Tunnel Company built a 2 ft narrow gauge railway freight tunnel network under the downtown of the city of Chicago. This was regulated by the Interstate Commerce Commission as an interurban despite the fact that it operated entirely under central Chicago, did not carry passengers and it inspired the construction of the London Post Office Railway. Initial plans for the called for filling them with phone cables. When the city refused to permit manholes through which cable could be unreeled into the tunnels, in early 1905, the system was taken over by the Illinois Tunnel Company. By this time,26 miles of a projected 60 miles of tunnel had been completed, the actual construction work was subcontracted to the Illinois Telephone Construction Company, under the management of George W. Jackson. By 1904, the first round of financing for tunnel system construction had largely been spent, with this financing, the Chicago Subway Company, incorporated in New Jersey, became a new holding company for the tunnel system. The Chicago Warehouse and Terminal Company was an affiliate, formed in 1904 to construct and operate facilities for interchanging freight with railroads. The tunnel company refused to recognize the union and began firing union members, despite the intervention of Congressman William Lorimer, all 260 employees went on strike on May 9. The company hired strikebreakers and refused to rehire any of the strikers, the Tunnel Company ran into a problem with a part of its planned expansion. In November 1906, the Chicago Board of Local Improvements announced it was considering widening Halsted Street between Chicago Avenue and 22nd Street, by 1909, the cost of construction had bankrupted the Illinois Tunnel Company. By this time, it was estimated that $30,000,000 had been spent on building and operating the tunnel. In 1913, the Chicago Tunnel Company agreed to sell its operations to American Telephone and Telegraph Company. By 1920, all telephone cables had been removed from the tunnels, by 1914, about 60 miles of tunnel had been constructed, typically 7 feet 6 inches high and 6 feet wide, with 2 ft gauge track. 19 elevators connected the tunnel with customers, and five elevators served universal public stations where freight could be dropped off or picked up by the public. The railroad operated 132 electric locomotives, typically 30 to 50 horsepower each, in 1914, the tunnel company handled 609,320 short tons of freight,275,218 short tons of which were merchandise. The remainder was presumably coal, ash and excavation debris, from 1912 into the 1930s, the tunnel company was managed by Sherman Weld Tracy. It was never profitable, but it avoided receivership, with most of the stock held by J. Ogden Armour, E. H. Harriman. Excavation debris from the new tunnels was hauled away by the Chicago Tunnel Company as the subway replaced the freight tunnels along their route
18.
Automatic Electric
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Automatic Electric Company was the largest of the manufacturing units of the Automatic Electric Group. It was an equipment supplier for independent telephone companies in North America. With its line of telephone exchanges, it was also a long-term supplier of switching equipment to the Bell System. In 1889, Almon Strowger, of Kansas City, Missouri, was inspired by the idea of manufacturing automatic telephone exchanges that would not require switchboard operators and he founded the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company in 1891, which held the first patents for the automatic telephone exchange. Subsequently, in 1901, Strowger helped form the Automatic Electric Company to which he leased his patents exclusively, Automatic switches proliferated in independent telephone companies in the 1910s and 1920s, well before the Bell System started deployment of Panel switch technology in the 1920s. In 1919 the Bell System was impacted considerably by organized operator strikes, as a result, Automatic Electric became a long-term supplier of step-by-step switching equipment to the Bell System. General Telephone and Electronics acquired Automatic Electric through a merger with Theodore Gary & Company in 1955, lenkurt, a manufacturer of carrier equipment, was purchased by GT&E in 1959, and held separately from Automatic Electric. In 1989, the assets of the company were placed into a joint venture between AT&T and GTE called AG Communication Systems. At the same time, GTE Communications systems spun off their business to a joint venture called Fujitsu GTE, later to be renamed as Fujitsu Business Communication systems. AG Communication Systems ceased separate existence in 2004, and became incorporated into Lucent. Alcatel-Lucent also owns many of the assets of the Western Electric Company, Automatic Electrics former rival, among other equipment, Automatic Electric manufactured automatic stepping switches which enabled Strowgers vision. These switches allowed customers to connect their own calls without operator assistance, the GTD-5 EAX, GTE Automatic Electrics digital class 4/5 central office telephone switch, was first deployed on June 26,1982. The original facilities of the Automatic Electric Company were located in a complex erected at the intersection of Morgan Street. Automatic Electric was later located in Northlake, Illinois, and maintained research and development facilities in Melrose Park and Elmhurst, AE acquired a manufacturing facility in Genoa, Illinois, from Leich Electric, and, in 1978, opened a research and development branch in Phoenix, Arizona. In the mid-1960s, a plant was built in Huntsville. Public coin-operated telephones and the Styleline series of telephones were manufactured there. A smaller rental telephone refurbishment operation was moved to the Huntsville plant in the 1970s. The plant was closed in the mid-1980s as domestic labour and production rose sharply against overseas competitors
19.
Telegraphy
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
20.
La Porte, Indiana
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La Porte is a city in LaPorte County, Indiana, United States, of which it is the county seat. Its population was 22,053 at the 2010 census, LaPorte is located in northwest Indiana, east of Gary, and west of South Bend and was first settled in 1832. The current mayor of La Porte, Blair Milo, is one of the youngest mayors in the citys history, the settlement of La Porte was established in July 1832. Abraham P. Andrew, one of the purchasers of the site, the first settler arrived in October, building a permanent cabin just north of what would become the Courthouse square. In 1833 a Federal Land Office was established in La Porte, people would come to this office from newly established surrounding counties to buy land from the government, including Solon Robinson, founder of Crown Point. The office was moved to Winamac in 1839, by 1835 the settlement had grown to the extent that it was decided that La Porte should become incorporated as a town. A newspaper was established in 1836 and La Porte Medical School was founded in 1842, a former graduate of the school William Worrall Mayo established the famed Mayo Clinic in Minnesota in 1889. By 1852 La Porte had become a settlement of considerable size for its time and vicinity. In that same year it was granted a city charter by the Indiana General Assembly, La Porte continued to grow, attracting numerous diverse industries, the largest of which became the Advance-Rumely company. Advance-Rumely was responsible for developing the Oil-Pull tractor engine, considered to have played a role in the agricultural development of the Great Plains. By 1869, Advance-Rumely was the largest employer in La Porte, during the 1850s numerous maple trees were planted along Indiana and Michigan avenues in La Porte by local resident Sebastian Lay. Subsequently, La Porte became known as the Maple City, today, Indiana and Michigan avenues comprise a historic district in the city, containing many homes and other structures of architectural and historical interest. Between 1892 and 1894, the third and current LaPorte county courthouse was erected at a cost of $300,000, the structure is built of red sandstone from Lake Superior, shipped via boat to Michigan City and then by rail to La Porte. The courthouse is considered to be one of La Portes best known structures, in 2007 the building had its exterior extensively restored at a cost of $2.9 million. La Porte is also known for the area of which Belle Gunness serial murders took place. Belle moved to the United States in 1881 in search of wealth, Belle had posted many notices in lovelorn columns in hopes to attracted wealthy men. She would attract men to her farmland, and mysteriously they would all disappear. Not only did she murder the men she attracted, but also her adopted daughter
21.
Anacostia
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Anacostia /ænəˈkɒstiə/ is a historic neighborhood in Washington, D. C. Its downtown is located at the intersection of Good Hope Road and Martin Luther King and it is located east of the Anacostia River, after which the neighborhood is named. Like the other quadrants of Washington, D. C, Southeast encompasses a large number of named neighborhoods, of which Anacostia and Capitol Hill are the most well known. Anacostia includes all of the Anacostia Historic District that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, often the name Anacostia is incorrectly used to refer to the entire portion of the city that is southeast of the Anacostia River. The name Anacostia comes from the name of a Nacochtank Native Americans settlement along the Anacostia River. Captain John Smith explored the area in 1608, traveling up the Eastern Branch—later the Anacostia River—mistaking it for the body of the Potomac River. Before the arrival of whites, the Nacostine villages in this area were a center of trade visited by Native Americans such as the Iroquois of New York. Even after the founding of Maryland, Leonard Calvert, in a letter to a merchant in London, around the year 1668, native peoples previously living south of Anacostia were forced northward by war. Anacostine Island, which first appeared on a 1670 map drawn by Augustine Herman, was settled by the Anacostans around this time. The core of what is now the Anacostia historic district was incorporated in 1854 as Uniontown and was one of the first suburbs in the District of Columbia. The initial subdivision of 1854 carried restrictive covenants prohibiting the sale, abolitionist Frederick Douglass, often called the sage of Anacostia, bought Cedar Hill, the estate belonging to the developer of Uniontown, in 1877 and lived there until he died in 1895. The home is maintained as a historical site in Anacostia. During the Civil War, Anacostia was protected by a series of forts upon the hills southwest of the city, following the conclusion of the war, the forts were dismantled and the land returned to its original owners. Anacostia, always part of the District of Columbia, became a part of the city of Washington when the city and District became coterminous in 1878. In 1932, during the Great Depression, unemployed World War I veterans from all across the country marched on Washington to demand payment of a bonus promised to them. The event became known as the Bonus Army Conflict, most of the Bonus Army camped on Anacostia Flats, a swampy, muddy area along the Anacostia River later reclaimed as Anacostia Park/Fairlawn Park. Fearing civil unrest, the President ordered the military to disperse the campers from Washington, the Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur dispersed them, but exceeded the orders of President Herbert Hoover by crossing the bridge to Anacostia and torching the veterans encampment. MacArthur believed that the Bonus Army was composed of and led by Communists, george Patton and Dwight Eisenhower served under MacArthur during these events
22.
Payphone
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An equipment usage fee may be charged as additional units, minutes or tariff fee to the collect/third-party, debit, credit, telephone or prepaid calling card when used at payphones. Payphones are often found in public places, by agreement with the landlord, either the phone company pays rent for the location and keeps the revenue, or the landlord pays rent for the phone and shares the revenue. Payphones in countries with unstable currencies have used token coins, available for sale at a local retailer, in some cases these have been upgraded to use magnetic cards or credit card readers. Most payphones in Canada are owned and operated by large telecom providers such as Bell, Telus, in the last 20 years customer-owned coin-operated telephones have also appeared in the market, but their numbers are smaller due to emergence of mobile phones. The cost of most local payphone calls is 50 cents CAD, Pay phones in Alberta were 35 cents for a time, but in most jurisdictions the price simply doubled. Newer phones allow users to use calling cards and credit cards, for coin-paid long distance, COCOTs are less expensive for short calls than incumbent providers. Dialing 0 for operator and 911 calls are still free, as of 2013, there were about 70,000 payphones across the country. The payphone model 23, introduced at Deutsche Bundespost Telekom in 1992, is a software controlled payphone for analog connections. It is equipped with coin, and integrated test program setting, the Payphone 23 consists of two basic units, the equipment part including all the necessary for the operation modules and the secured below the growing payphone cassettes with the coin box. The majority of payphones on the street and in buildings in Japan are installed and maintained by Nippon Telegraph, in the Soviet period different types of payphones were produced. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the reform of 1991 this form of payment has become irrelevant. Some payphones have undergone modifications, coin acceptors were altered to accept coins or replace the card reader, for example, in St Petersburg payment for pay phone can be made with metro tokens. In some regions, calls from public phones are free of charge, in the UK payphones have been deregulated. The great majority of them are operated by British Telecom but there are other providers. Manchester, London, Cardiff and Glasgow at the turn of the 21st century have a concentration of non-BT payphones. Since BT has been removing payphones which are unprofitable, have few or no calls made in a financial year, kiosk adoption BT allows local communities to adopt the iconic Red K6 Kiosks due to strong opposition to their removal from the communities that the kiosks reside in. This will mean the removal of the phone, leaving the empty kiosk in-situ, cost From 1 June 2010, BT payphones have £0.60 minimum charge which is for first 30 minutes of any direct dialled national geographic call. Previously the minimum charge was £0.40 for the first 20 minutes of any direct dialled national geographic call, then before November 2006 the minimum charge was £0.30, before 2004 it was £0.20 and before 2000 it was £0.10
23.
U.S. Route 66
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U. S. Route 66, also known as the Will Rogers Highway, the Main Street of America or the Mother Road, was one of the original highways within the U. S. Highway System. US66 was established on November 11,1926, with signs erected the following year. It was recognized in popular culture by both the hit song Route 66 and the Route 66 television show in the 1960s. US66 served as a path for those who migrated west, especially during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Portions of the road passed through Illinois, Missouri, New Mexico, and Arizona have been designated a National Scenic Byway of the name Historic Route 66. Several states have adopted significant bypassed sections of the former US66 into the road network as State Route 66. His secondary orders were to test the feasibility of the use of camels as pack animals in the southwestern desert and this road became part of US66. Parts of the original Route 66 from 1913, prior to its naming and commissioning. The paved road becomes a road, south of Cajon. Before a nationwide network of numbered highways was adopted by the states, the route that would become US66 was covered by three highways. The Lone Star Route passed through St. Louis on its way from Chicago to Cameron, Louisiana, the transcontinental National Old Trails Road led via St. Again, a shorter route was taken, here following the Postal Highway between Oklahoma City and Amarillo. Finally, the National Old Trails Road became the rest of the route to Los Angeles, the original inspiration for a roadway between Chicago and Los Angeles was planned by entrepreneurs Cyrus Avery of Tulsa, Oklahoma and John Woodruff of Springfield, Missouri. The pair lobbied the American Association of State Highway Officials for the creation of a following the 1925 plans. The numerical designation 66 was assigned to the Chicago-to-Los Angeles route on April 30,1926 in Springfield, Louis streets and on Route 266 to Halltown, Missouri. Avery was adamant that the highway have a number and had proposed number 60 to identify it. A controversy erupted over the number 60, largely from delegates from Kentucky who wanted a Virginia Beach–Los Angeles highway to be US60, arguments and counterarguments continued throughout February, including a proposal to split the proposed route through Kentucky into Route 60 North and Route 60 South. The final conclusion was to have US60 run between Virginia Beach, Virginia, and Springfield, Missouri, and the Chicago–L. A. Avery and highway engineer John Page settled on 66, which was unassigned, because he thought the number would be easy to remember as well as pleasant to say
24.
Blue Swallow Motel
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The Blue Swallow Court in Tucumcari, New Mexico, United States, is a 12-unit L-shaped motel listed on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico as a part of historic U. S. Route 66. The motel was built by carpenter W. A. Huggins in 1939, ted and Marjorie Jones came to Tucumcari in 1944, were the first long-term operators of the motel. One of the longest continuously operated motels along New Mexicos slice of Route 66, as the Blue Swallow Motel, the property was updated with neon signage proclaiming TV and 100% Refrigerated Air. When Route 66 was closed to the majority of traffic and the highway came in. But some of us stuck it out and are here on Route 66. A resident of Tucumcari since 1923, Lillian Redman would operate the Blue Swallow for four decades, continuing independently after Floyds death in 1973 and ultimately selling the motel in 1998. She then moved to a house nearby and would often visit the property and its new owners until her death, at 89 years of age. Each room includes vintage lighting and period furniture, bill and Terri Kinder purchased the Blue Swallow in 2006, selling it to Kevin and Nancy Mueller in 2011. National Register of Historic Places listings in Quay County, New Mexico List of motels Media related to Blue Swallow Motel at Wikimedia Commons
25.
Ericsson
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Ericsson is a multinational networking and telecommunications equipment and services company headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. Ericsson had 35% market share in the 2G/3G/4G mobile network infrastructure market in 2012, the company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson, as of 2016 it is headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. The company employs around 113,000 people and operates in around 180 countries, Ericsson holds over 39,000 granted patents as of May 2015, including many in wireless communications. Lars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker and he worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket. In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm. In 1878 Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment and his telephones were not technically innovative. In 1878 he made an agreement to supply telephones and switchboards to Swedens first telecommunications operating company, also in 1878, local telephone importer Numa Peterson hired Ericsson to adjust some telephones from the Bell Telephone Company. He bought a number of Siemens telephones and analyzed the technology and he was familiar with Bell and Siemens Halske telephones through his firms repair work for Telegrafverket and Swedish Railways. He improved these designs to produce a higher-quality instrument to be used by new companies such as Rikstelefon to provide cheaper service than the Bell Group. Ericsson had no patent or royalty problems because Bell had not patented their inventions in Scandinavia and his training as an instrument maker was reflected in the standard of finish and the ornate design of Ericsson telephones of this period. At the end of the year he started to manufacture telephones much like those of Siemens, Ericsson became a major supplier of telephone equipment to Scandinavia. Its factory could not keep up with demand, joinery and metal-plating were contracted out, much of its raw materials were imported, in the following decades Ericsson bought into a number of firms to ensure supplies of brass, wire, ebonite, and magnet steel. Much of the wood used for cabinets was imported from the United States. Stockholms telephone network expanded that year and the company reformed into a telephone manufacturer, when Bell bought the biggest telephone network in Stockholm, it only allowed its own telephones to be used with it. Ericssons equipment was mainly to free telephone associations in the Swedish countryside. The prices of Bell equipment and services led Henrik Tore Cedergren to form an independent telephone company called Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag in 1883, as Bell would not deliver equipment to competitors, he formed a pact with Ericsson to supply the equipment for his new telephone network. In 1918 the companies were merged into Allmänna Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson, in 1884, a multiple-switchboard manual telephone exchange was mostly copied from a design by C. E. Scribner at Western Electric. This was legal because the device was not patented in Sweden, a single switchboard could handle up to 10,000 lines
26.
Telephone line
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A telephone line or telephone circuit is a single-user circuit on a telephone communication system. Telephone lines are used to deliver landline telephone service and Digital subscriber line phone service to the premises. Telephone overhead lines are connected to the switched telephone network. Modern lines may run underground, and may carry analog or digital signals to the exchange, often the customer end of that wire pair is connected to a data access arrangement, the telephone company end of that wire pair is connected to a telephone hybrid. In most cases, two wires for each telephone line run from a home or other small building to a local telephone exchange. The wires between the box and the exchange are known as the local loop, and the network of wires going to an exchange. The vast majority of houses in the U. S. are wired with 6-position modular jacks with four conductors wired to the junction box with copper wires. Those wires may be connected back to two telephone lines at the local telephone exchange, thus making those jacks RJ14 jacks. More often, only two of the wires are connected to the exchange as one line, and the others are unconnected. In that case, the jacks in the house are RJ11, inside the walls of the house—between the houses outside junction box and the interior wall jacks—the most common telephone cable in new houses is Category 5 cable—4 pairs of 24 AWG solid copper. Inside large buildings, and in the cables that run to the telephone company POP
27.
Mnemonic
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A mnemonic device, or memory device is any learning technique that aids information retention in the human memory. Mnemonics make use of encoding, retrieval cues, and imagery as specific tools to encode any given information in a way that allows for efficient storage. Mnemonics aid original information in becoming associated with something more meaningful—which, in turn, the word mnemonic is derived from the Ancient Greek word μνημονικός, meaning of memory, or relating to memory and is related to Mnemosyne, the name of the goddess of memory in Greek mythology. Both of these words are derived from μνήμη, remembrance, memory, mnemonics in antiquity were most often considered in the context of what is today known as the art of memory. Ancient Greeks and Romans distinguished between two types of memory, the memory and the artificial memory. The former is inborn, and is the one that everyone uses instinctively, the latter in contrast has to be trained and developed through the learning and practice of a variety of mnemonic techniques. Mnemonic systems are techniques or strategies consciously used to improve memory and they help use information already stored in long-term memory to make memorisation an easier task. Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek sophists and philosophers and are referred to by Plato. In later times the poet Simonides was credited for development of these techniques, the Romans valued such helps in order to support facility in public speaking. The Greek and the Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of mental places and signs or pictures, to recall these, an individual had only to search over the apartments of the house until discovering the places where images had been placed by the imagination. Except that the rules of mnemonics are referred to by Martianus Capella, among the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte memorativa. Ramon Llull devoted special attention to mnemonics in connection with his ars generalis, about the end of the 15th century, Petrus de Ravenna provoked such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats that he was believed by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix artis memoriae went through as many as nine editions, about the end of the 16th century, Lambert Schenkel, who taught mnemonics in France, Italy and Germany, similarly surprised people with his memory. He was denounced as a sorcerer by the University of Louvain, the most complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil Martin Sommer, published in Venice in 1619. In 1618 John Willis published Mnemonica, sive ars reminiscendi, containing a statement of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum, other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius, Johannes Romberch, Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae, and B. The philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz adopted a very similar to that of Wennsshein for his scheme of a form of writing common to all languages. Wennssheins method was adopted with slight changes afterward by the majority of subsequent original systems and it was modified and supplemented by Richard Grey, a priest who published a Memoria technica in 1730
28.
Telephone number
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A telephone number serves as an address for switching telephone calls using a system of destination code routing. Telephone numbers are entered or dialed by a party on the originating telephone set. The exchange completes the call either to another locally connected subscriber or via the PSTN to the called party, telephone numbers were first used in 1879 in Lowell, Massachusetts when they replaced the request for subscriber names by callers connecting to the switchboard operator. Telephone numbers are dialed in conjunction with other signaling code sequences, such as vertical service codes. When telephone numbers were first used they were short, from one to three digits, and were communicated orally to a switchboard operator when initiating a call. As telephone systems have grown and interconnected to encompass worldwide communication, in addition to telephones, they have been used to access other devices, such as computer modems, pagers, and fax machines. The number contains the necessary to identify uniquely the intended endpoint for the telephone call. Each such endpoint must have a number within the public switched telephone network. Most countries use fixed length numbers and therefore the number of endpoints determines the length of the telephone number. It is also possible for each subscriber to have a set of numbers for the endpoints most often used. These shorthand or speed calling numbers are translated to unique telephone numbers before the call can be connected. Some special services have their own short numbers The dialing plan in some areas permits dialing numbers in the local calling area without using area code or city code prefixes. For example, a number in North America consists of a three-digit area code, a three-digit central office code. If the area has no area code overlays, seven-digit dialing may be permissible for calls within the area, for each large metro area, all of these lines will share the same prefix, the last digits typically corresponding to the stations frequency, callsign, or moniker. In the international network, the format of telephone numbers is standardized by ITU-T recommendation E.164. This code specifies that the number should be 15 digits or shorter. For most countries, this is followed by a code or city code and the subscriber number. ITU-T recommendation E.123 describes how to represent an international telephone number in writing or print, starting with a plus sign and the country code
29.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
30.
Panel switch
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The Panel Machine Switching System is an early type of automatic telephone exchange for urban service, introduced in the Bell System in the 1920s. Both systems had many features in common, the first Panel-type exchanges were placed in service in Newark, New Jersey, on January 16,1915 at the Mulberry central office, and on June 12 in the Waverly central office. These system were semi-mechanical systems using telephones at customer stations without a dial, operators answered calls and keyed the station number into the panel switch. Most Panel installations were replaced by modern systems during the 1970s, the Panel switch was named for its tall panels covered with 500 rows of terminals. Each panel had a motor to drive usually sixty selectors by electromagnetically controlled clutches. The selector was similar in effect to a stepping switch though it moved continuously over the contacts, each selector had five brushes, each of which could select from 100 terminals arranged in groups. As in the Strowger system, each office could address up to 10,000 numbered lines. The panel system was designed to interconnect the offices of a city or a calling area. Each office was assigned a two- digit office code, callers dialed the office code followed by the station number. In most situations this led to six-digit numbers, but from the beginning the panel system handled seven-digit numbers, for two reasons. Party line numbers were listed with one of the letters J, M, R, the caller dialed the office code, the line number, and the digit corresponding to the letter. The panel system was designed to work with manual offices of up to 10,500 lines, to call a line in a manual office, callers dialed the office code followed by the line number, just as they would when calling a number in a fully automatic office. For lines 10,000 and up, callers dialed the office code. A subscribers line had two appearances in an office, one on the originating side, and one on the terminating side. The cutoff relay was controlled by a lead that, as with the multiple switchboard. The final selector performed a sleeve test to detect a busy line when a subscriber was called, supervision was supplied by a District circuit, similar to the plug and light cord circuit that plugged into a line jack on a switchboard. Some District frames were equipped with the more complex supervisory and timing circuits required to generate coin collect, many of the urban and commercial areas where Panel was first used had message rate service rather than flat rate calling. The introduction of direct distance dialing in the 1950s required the addition of automatic number identification equipment for centralized automatic message accounting
31.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
32.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
33.
Retaining ring
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A retaining ring is a fastener that holds components or assemblies onto a shaft or in a housing/bore when installed in a groove. Once installed, the exposed portion acts as a shoulder which retains the specific component or assembly, circlips are a type of retaining ring. Self-locking retaining rings may be installed in applications where there is no groove and this assures contact with the groove along the entire periphery of the ring. These rings may be installed axially or radially, axially assembled retaining rings are installed into machined grooves in housings/bores or on shafts. These rings are manufactured with lug holes—small holes in the lugs of both internal and external retaining rings—that are used to install/remove them, using pliers designed for this purpose. Inverted retaining rings are a variation of axially assembled rings in which the lug holes are inverted to fit in the bottom of the groove. Inverting the lugs allows greater clearance on a shaft or in a housing and forms a higher uniform shoulder good for retaining bearings, beveled retaining rings feature a 15° beveled or angled edge. This angle allows the ring to wedge itself between the groove and the part until it can go no farther, effectively “locking” everything in place. Think of placing a cork in a bottle, the cork is forced into the opening until it is wedged as far into the opening as possible. The same thing happens when a retaining ring is installed into an application. The ring is wedging itself into place between the wall and the retained part, resulting in what is referred to as rigid end-play take-up. Bowed retaining rings are curved versions of standard flat internal and external retaining rings and this takes up the end-play and acts like a spring, which keeps the assembly in compression. If they are made on the side of the tolerance, they will extend further into the groove. Compensating for accumulated tolerances is what bowed retaining rings are designed to do, radially assembled retaining rings are installed externally into machined grooves on a shaft. These rings have no lug holes and must be installed using applicators, self-locking retaining rings can be installed in a housing/bore or on a shaft that has not had a groove machined into it. Self-locking rings with no lug holes are impossible to remove without destroying the ring or warping it out of specified tolerances. Constant section retaining rings feature a uniform, constant section, in other words, the material used to make the ring is the same width at any point along the circumference of the ring. When they are contracted or expanded, they take on an elliptical deformation, as a result, they contact the groove at three or more isolated points but never continuously around the periphery
34.
Cyrillic script
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The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
35.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
36.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
37.
Cam
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A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice versa. It is often a part of a wheel or shaft that strikes a lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be seen as a device that rotates from circular to reciprocating motion, certain cams can be characterized by their displacement diagrams, which reflect the changing position a roller follower would make as the cam rotates about an axis. These diagrams relate angular position, usually in degrees, to the radial displacement experienced at that position, displacement diagrams are traditionally presented as graphs with non-negative values. A simple displacement diagram illustrates the follower motion at a constant velocity rise followed by a return with a dwell in between as depicted in figure 2. The rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell is the motion where the follower is at rest, however, the most common type is in the valve actuators in internal combustion engines. Here, the cam profile is symmetric and at rotational speeds generally met with. Ideally, a curve between the onset and maximum position of lift reduces acceleration, but this requires impractically large shaft diameters relative to lift. Thus, in practice, the points at which lift begins and this is continuous with a tangent to the tip circle. In designing the cam, the lift and the dwell angle θ are given, here, the follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the camshaft. The base circle is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile, a once common, but now outdated, application of this type of cam was automatic machine tool programming cams. Each tool movement or operation was controlled directly by one or more cams, instructions for producing programming cams and cam generation data for the most common makes of machine were included in engineering references well into the modern CNC era. This type of cam is used in many simple electromechanical appliance controllers, such as dishwashers and clothes washing machines, a cylindrical cam or barrel cam is a cam in which the follower rides on the surface of a cylinder. In the most common type, the rides in a groove cut into the surface of a cylinder. These cams are principally used to convert rotational motion to linear motion parallel to the axis of the cylinder. A cylinder may have several grooves cut into the surface and drive several followers, applications include machine tool drives, such as reciprocating saws, and shift control barrels in sequential transmissions, such as on most modern motorcycles. A special case of cam is constant lead, where the position of the follower is linear with rotation. The purpose and detail of implementation influence whether this application is called a cam or a thread, but in some cases
38.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
39.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
40.
Emergency telephone number
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In many countries the public switched telephone network has a single emergency telephone number that allows a caller to contact local emergency services for assistance. The emergency number differs from country to country, it is typically a number so that it can be easily remembered and dialed quickly. Some countries have a different emergency number for each of the different emergency services, see List of emergency telephone numbers. The emergency telephone number is a case in the countrys telephone number plan. In the past, calls to the telephone number were often routed over special dedicated circuits. Though with the advent of electronic exchanges these calls are now mixed with ordinary telephone traffic. Often the system is set up so that once a call is made to a telephone number. Should the caller abandon the call, the line may still be held until the emergency service answers, an emergency telephone number call may be answered by either a telephone operator or an emergency service dispatcher. The nature of the emergency is then determined, if the call has been answered by a telephone operator, they then connect the call to the appropriate emergency service, who then dispatches the appropriate help. In the case of services being needed on a call. Emergency dispatchers are trained to control the call in order to help in an appropriate manner. The emergency dispatcher may find it necessary to give urgent advice in life-threatening situations, some dispatchers have special training in telling people how to perform first aid or CPR. In many parts of the world, a service can identify the telephone number that a call has been placed from. This is normally done using the system that the company uses to bill calls. For an individual fixed landline telephone, the number can often be associated with the callers address. However, with phones and business telephones, the address may be a mailing address rather than the callers location. The latest enhanced systems, such as Enhanced 911, are able to provide the location of mobile telephones. This is often specifically mandated in a countrys legislation, when an emergency happened in the pre-dial telephone era, the user simply picked up the telephone receiver and waited for the operator to answer number, please
41.
999 (emergency telephone number)
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999 is an official emergency telephone number in a number of countries which allows the caller to contact emergency services for urgent assistance. 999 is the emergency number for the United Kingdom. All calls are answered by 999 operators, the system was introduced following a fire on 10 November 1935 in a house on Wimpole Street in which five women were killed. The first arrest – for burglary – took place a week later,9 or 99, reaching at least an operator. This enables all users including the visually impaired to easily dial the emergency number, hoax calls and improper use are an issue. For these reasons, there are frequent public information campaigns in the UK on the use of the 999 system. Alternative three-digit numbers for non-emergency calls have also introduced in recent years. 101 was introduced for non-urgent calls in England and Wales The scheme was extended to Scotland, trials of 111 as a number to access health services in the UK for urgent but not life-threatening cases began in England in 2010. The main roll-out occurred from 2011 to 2013, with a number of delays, in Scotland, the NHS24 service moved from 08454242424 to 111 on 29 April 2014. NHS Direct Wales continues to use 08454647 and those registered on the database are issued with a personal identification number that can be used in two ways. By phone – either 999 or the forces non-emergency 101 number can be used – once a person is put through to the room, they only need to say Pegasus. Their details can then be retrieved from the database and the caller can quickly get on with explaining why they have called, in person – the Pegasus PIN can be told or shown to a police officer. Pegasus is also used by the City of London Police, Dyfed Powys Police, the pan-European 112 code was introduced in the UK in April 1995 with little publicity. It connects to existing 999 circuits, the GSM standard mandates that the user of a GSM phone can dial 112 without unlocking the keypad, a feature that can save time in emergencies but that also causes some accidental calls. All mobile telephones will make emergency calls with the keypad locked, originally a valid SIM card was not required to make a 999/112 emergency call in the UK. However, as a result of numbers of untraceable hoax calls being made. Most UK mobile telephone handsets will dial 999/112 without a SIM inserted, following the blocking of SIM-less calls, in 2009 the UK networks introduced emergency call roaming. This allows a user with a valid SIM of a UK network to make calls on any network for which they have coverage
42.
LED
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
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Centrifugal governor
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It uses the principle of proportional control. It was invented in 1788 by James Watt to control his steam engine where it regulates the admission of steam into the cylinder and its widest use was on steam engines during the Steam Age in the 19th century. It is also found on internal combustion engines and variously fueled turbines, the devices shown are on steam engines. Power is supplied to the governor from the output shaft by a belt or chain connected to the lower belt wheel. The governor is connected to a valve that regulates the flow of working fluid supplying the prime mover. As the speed of the prime mover increases, the spindle of the governor rotates at a faster rate. This allows the two masses on lever arms to move outwards and upwards against gravity, if the motion goes far enough, this motion causes the lever arms to pull down on a thrust bearing, which moves a beam linkage, which reduces the aperture of a throttle valve. The rate of working-fluid entering the cylinder is reduced and the speed of the prime mover is controlled. Mechanical stops may be used to limit the range of throttle motion, James Watt designed his first governor in 1788 following a suggestion from his business partner Matthew Boulton. It was a conical pendulum governor and one of the series of innovations Watt had employed for steam engines. James Watt never claimed the centrifugal governor to be an invention of his own, centrifugal governors were invented by Christian Huygens and used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills in the 17th century. A giant statue of Watts governor stands at Smethwick in the English West Midlands and it is known as the flyball governor. Centrifugal governors are also used in many modern repeating watches to limit the speed of the striking train, so the repeater doesnt run too quickly. Another kind of centrifugal governor consists of a pair of masses on a spindle inside a cylinder and this is used in a spring-loaded record player and a spring-loaded telephone dial to limit the speed. And, because the governor is a servomechanism, its analysis in a system is not trivial. In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell wrote a famous paper On governors that is considered a classic in feedback control theory. Maxwell distinguishes moderators and governors which control motive power input and he considers devices by James Watt, Professor James Thomson, Fleeming Jenkin, William Thomson, Léon Foucault and Carl Wilhelm Siemens. Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature, A Necessary Unity, cataract Hit and miss engine Governor
