1.
Telephone
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A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice and this instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households, the essential elements of a telephone are a microphone to speak into and an earphone which reproduces the voice in a distant location. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a dial, which was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial. The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear, the dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the network to the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The first telephones were connected to each other from one customers office or residence to another customers location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. For greater mobility, various systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the middle 20th century. Hand-held mobile phone]s was introduced for personal service starting in 1973, by the late 1970s several mobile telephone networks operated around the world. In 1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System was launched, offering a standardized technology providing portability for users far beyond the residence or office. These analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with better security, greater capacity, better regional coverage, the public switched telephone network, with its hierarchical system of many switching centers, interconnects telephones around the world for communication with each other. With the standardized international numbering system, E.164, each line has an identifying telephone number. Although originally designed for voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional capabilities. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile communication, a traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service, commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair of insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial, the ringer, or beeper, light or other device, alerts the user to incoming calls
2.
Telephone switchboard
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The switchboard was an essential component of a manual telephone exchange, and was operated by switchboard operators who used electrical cords or switches to establish the connections. The electromechanical automatic telephone exchange, invented by Almon Strowger in 1888, in 1919, the Bell System in the United States also adopted automatic switching as its future technology, after years of reliance on manual systems. Nevertheless, many manual branch exchanges remained operational into the half of the 20th century in many enterprises. Later electronic devices and computer technology gave the access to an abundance of features. A private branch exchange in a business usually has an attendant console for the operator, or an auto-attendant, following the invention of the telephone in 1876, the first telephones were rented in pairs which were limited to conversation between the parties operating those two instruments. The use of an exchange was soon found to be even more advantageous than in telegraphy. In January 1878 the Boston Telephone Dispatch company had started hiring boys as telephone operators, thus, on September 1,1878, Boston Telephone Dispatch hired Emma Nutt as the first woman operator. Small towns typically had the switchboard installed in the home so that he or she could answer calls on a 24-hour basis. In 1894, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company installed the first battery-operated switchboard on January 9 in Lexington, Early switchboards in large cities usually were mounted floor to ceiling in order to allow the operators to reach all the lines in the exchange. The operators were boys who would use a ladder to connect to the higher jacks, late in the 1890s this measure failed to keep up with the increasing number of lines, and Milo G. Kellogg devised the Divided Multiple Switchboard for operators to work together, with a team on the A board and these operators were almost always women until the early 1970s, when men were once again hired. Cord switchboards were often referred to as cordboards by telephone company personnel, conversion to Panel switch and other automated switching systems first eliminated the B operator and then, usually years later, the A. Rural and suburban switchboards for the most part remained small and simple, in many cases, customers came to know their operator by name. As telephone exchanges converted to service, switchboards continued to serve specialized purposes. Before the advent of direct-dialed long distance calls, a subscriber would need to contact the operator in order to place a toll call. In large cities, there was often a number, such as 112. Elsewhere, the subscriber would ask the operator to ring the long-distance operator. The long distance operator would record the name and city of the person to be called, each toll center had only a limited number of trunks to distant cities, and if those circuits were busy, the operator would try alternate routings through intermediate cities
3.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
4.
Pulse dialing
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This lends the method the often used name loop disconnect dialing. In the most common variant of pulse dialing, decadic dialing, the most common version decodes the digits 1 through 9, as one to nine pulses, respectively, and the digit 0 as ten pulses. Historically, the most common device to produce such pulse trains is the dial of the telephone, lending the technology another name. The pulse repetition rate was determined based on the response time needed for electromechanical switching systems to operate reliably. Most telephone systems used the nominal rate of ten pulses per second, automatic telephone exchange systems were developed in the late 19th and early 20th century. For identification, telephone subscribers were assigned a number unique to each circuit. Various methods evolved to signal the desired destination telephone number for a telephone call directly dialed by the subscriber, an automatic switch-hook was designed by Hilborne Roosevelt. But the use of keys with separate conductors to the exchange was not practical. Strowger also filed the first patent for a dial in 1891. The first dials worked by direct, forward action, the pulses were sent as the user rotated the dial to the finger stop starting at a different position for each digit transmitted. Operating the dial error-free required smooth rotary motion of the wheel by the user. This mechanism was soon refined to include a spring and a centrifugal governor to control the recoil speed. The user selected a digit to be dialed by inserting a finger into the corresponding hole, when released from this position, the dial pulsing contacts were opened and closed repeatedly, thus interrupting the loop current in a pattern on the return to the home position. The exchange switch decoded the pattern for each digit thus transmitted by stepping relays or by accumulation in digit registers. When electromechanical switching system were still in use, the current pulses generated by the dial on the local loop operated electrical relays in the switches at the central office. The mechanical nature of these relays and the capacitance, affecting pulse shape, generally limited the speed of operation. Exceptions to this are, Sweden, with one click for 0, two clicks for 1, and so on, and New Zealand with ten clicks for 0, nine clicks for 1, etc. Oslo, the city of Norway, used the New Zealand system
5.
Telephone call
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A telephone call is a connection over a telephone network between the called party and the calling party. The first telephone call was made on March 10,1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, Bell demonstrated his ability to talk with electricity by transmitting a call to his assistant, Thomas Watson. The first words transmitted were Mr Watson, come here and this event has been called Bells greatest success, as it demonstrated the first successful use of the telephone. Although it was his greatest success, he refused to have one in his own home because it was something he invented by mistake, the call may use land line, mobile phone, satellite phone or any combination thereof. When a telephone call has more than one called party it is referred to as a conference call, when two or more users of the network are sharing the same physical line, it is called a party line or Rural phone line. If the callers wireline phone is connected directly to the party, when the caller takes their telephone off-hook. This is called a hot line or ringdown, otherwise, the calling party is usually given a tone to indicate they should begin dialing the desired number. In some cases, if the party cannot dial calls directly. Calls may be placed through a public network provided by a telephone company or a private network called a PBX. In most cases a private network is connected to the network in order to allow PBX users to dial the outside world. Most telephone calls through the PSTN are set up using ISUP signalling messages or one of its variants between telephone exchanges to establish the end to end connection, calls through PBX networks are set up using QSIG, DPNSS or variants. Some types of calls are not charged, such as local calls dialed directly by a subscriber in Canada. In most other areas, all calls are charged a fee for the connection. Fees depend on the provider of the service, the type of service being used, in most circumstances, the calling party pays this fee. However, in circumstances such as a reverse charge or collect call. In some circumstances, the caller pays a flat charge for the telephone connection. The caller then rotary dials or presses buttons for the number needed to complete the call. The second phone makes a noise to alert its owner
6.
Telephone exchange
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A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
7.
Governor (device)
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A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine, such as an engine. Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills since the 17th century, early steam engines employed a purely reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water – an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed. It was not until the Scottish engineer James Watt introduced the steam engine, for driving factory machinery. Between the years 1775 and 1800, Watt, in partnership with industrialist Matthew Boulton, the theoretical basis for the operation of governors was described by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868 in his seminal paper On Governors. Building on Watt’s design was American engineer Willard Gibbs who in 1872 theoretically analyzed Watt’s conical pendulum governor from an energy balance perspective. Gibbs theorized that, analogous to the equilibrium of the simple Watt governor, the first is the heat energy supplied to the intermediate substance, and the second is the work energy performed by the intermediate substance. In this case, the substance is steam. These sorts of theoretical investigations culminated in the 1876 publication of the Gibbs famous work On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, Governors can be used to limit the top speed for vehicles, and for some classes of vehicle such devices are a legal requirement. They can more generally be used to limit the speed of the internal combustion engine or protect the engine from damage due to excessive rotational speed. Today, BMW, Audi, Volkswagen and Mercedes-Benz limit their cars to 250 kilometres per hour. Certain Quattro GmbH and AMG cars, and the Mercedes/McLaren SLR is an exception, the BMW Rolls-Royces are limited to 240 kilometres per hour. Jaguars, although British, also have a limiter, as do the Swedish Saab and this was done to reduce the political desire to introduce a legal speed limit. Ferrari, Lamborghini, Maserati, Porsche, Aston Martin and Bentley also do not limit their cars, the Chrysler 300C SRT8 is limited to 270 km/h. Most Japanese domestic market vehicles are limited to only 180 kilometres per hour or 190 kilometres per hour, the top speed is a strong sales argument, though speeds above about 300 kilometres per hour are not likely reachable on public roads. Many performance cars are limited to a speed of 250 kilometres per hour to limit insurance costs of the vehicle, mopeds in the United Kingdom have had to have a 30 mph speed limiter since 1977. Most other European countries have similar rules, public service vehicles often have a legislated top speed. Scheduled coach services in the United kingdom are limited to 65 mph, urban public buses often have speed governors which are typically set to between 65 kilometres per hour and 100 kilometres per hour. All heavy vehicles in Europe and New Zealand have law/by-law governors that limits their speeds to 90 kilometres per hour or 100 kilometres per hour, fire engines and other emergency vehicles are exempt from this requirement
8.
Pulse (signal processing)
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A rapid change in some characteristic of a signal, e. g. phase or frequency, from a baseline value to a higher or lower value, followed by a rapid return to the baseline value. Pulse shapes can arise out of a process called pulse-shaping, optimum pulse shape depends on the application. These can be found in pulse waves, square waves, boxcar functions, in digital signals the up and down transitions between high and low levels are called the rising edge and the falling edge. In digital systems the detection of these sides or action taken in response is termed edge-triggered, a digital timing diagram is an example of a well-ordered collection of rectangular pulses. A Nyquist pulse is one which meets the Nyquist ISI criterion and is important in data transmission, an example of a pulse which meets this condition is the sinc function. The sinc pulse is of significance in signal-processing theory but cannot be produced by a real generator for reasons of causality. The pulses were more than 99 percent perfect and were produced using a simple laser, a Gaussian pulse is shaped as a Gaussian function and is produced by a Gaussian filter. It has the properties of maximum steepness of transition with no overshoot and minimum group delay
9.
Almon Brown Strowger
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Almon Brown Strowger was an American inventor who gave his name to the Strowger switch, an electromechanical telephone exchange technology that his invention and patent inspired. Strowger was born in Penfield, New York, near Rochester, little information is available about his early life, but it is known that he was the grandson of the second settler and first miller in Penfield. He taught school in Penfield for a time, and served in the 8th New York Volunteer Cavalry during the American Civil War and it is believed that he fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run near Manassas, Virginia. After the Civil War, it appears he first became a school teacher before he became an undertaker. He is variously attributed as living in El Dorado, Kansas, or Topeka, Kansas, and finally Kansas City, Missouri. It is not clear where his idea of a telephone exchange was originally conceived. Anecdotally, Strowgers undertaking business was losing clients to a competitor whose telephone-operator wife was redirecting everyone who called for Strowger, motivated to remove the intermediary operator, he invented the first automatic telephone exchange in 1889 and received its patent in 1891. It is reported that he constructed a model of his invention from a round collar box. He married Susan A. from Massachusetts in 1897 as his second wife, Strowger sold his patents to his associates in 1896 for $1,800 and sold his share in the Automatic Electric Company for $10,000 in 1898. His patents subsequently sold to Bell Systems for $2.5 million in 1916, the companys engineers continued development of Strowgers designs and submitted several patents in the names of its employees. It also underwent several name changes, Strowger himself seems to have not taken part in this further development. He subsequently moved to St. Petersburg, Florida and appears to have returned to being an undertaker, bussey Funeral Home records report an unidentified body being moved for Mr. Strowger in December 1899. The same funeral home subsequently buried Strowger himself, Strowger was a man of some wealth at his death and was reported as owning at least a city block of property. He died, aged 62, of an aneurysm after suffering from anemia, at St. Petersburg, Pinellas County and his grave is marked with the traditional white headstone with an inscription that reads, Lieut. He was survived by his widow Susan A. Strowger and she had claimed that her husband had only received $10,000 for his invention, when he should have received $1,000,000. A bronze plaque, to commemorate his invention, was placed on his grave in 1945 by telephone company officials, Strowger was admitted to the hall of fame of the U. S. Apart from his invention, his name has also given to a locomotive. In 2003, the Verizon Foundation awarded $4500 to Pinellas Heritage, Inc. the funds were used to develop a website to impart the history of the cemetery where Strowger is buried, and to restore two Civil War memorials
10.
Bell System
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On December 31,1983, the system was broken up into independent companies by a U. S. Justice Department mandate. Ma Bell is also used to refer to the female voices behind recordings for the Bell System, Mary Moore, Jane Barbe. In 1877, the American Bell Telephone Company, named after Alexander Graham Bell, opened the first telephone exchange in New Haven, within a few years local exchange companies were established in every major city in the United States. In 1899, American Telephone & Telegraph acquired the assets of its parent, originally American Bell had created AT&T to provide long-distance calls between New York and Chicago and beyond. AT&T became the parent of American Bell, and thus the head of the Bell System, because regulatory and tax rules were leaner in New York than in Boston, after 1934, AT&T was regulated by the Federal Communication Commission. Receiving a U. S. patent for the invention of the telephone on March 7,1876, Alexander Graham Bell formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail returned as President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment with the federal government. S. The Bell trademark pictured here was used from 1921 through 1939 by both the AT&T corporation and the regional operating corporations to co-brand themselves under a single Bell System trademark, the regional operating corporations name was placed where name of associated company appears in this template version of the trademark. Bell system telephones and related equipment were made by Western Electric, member telephone companies paid a fixed fraction of their revenues as a license fee to Bell Labs. As a result of this monopoly, by 1940 the Bell System effectively owned most telephone service in the United States, from local. This allowed Bell to prohibit their customers from connecting phones not made or sold by Bell to the system without paying fees, Northern Electric was spun off in 1956 by Western Electric, but AT&T did not spin off Bell Canada until 1975. The Bell Systems Caribbean regional operating companies were sold to the ITT Corporation, before 1956, the Bell Systems reach was truly gargantuan. The 1984 Bell System divestiture brought an end to the branded as the Bell System. The suit was settled on January 8,1982, superseding the former restrictions that AT&T and the DOJ had agreed upon in 1956. Currently, the word mark Bell, the logo, and other related trademarks, are held by each of the remaining Bell companies, namely AT&T, Verizon, CenturyLink, and Cincinnati Bell
11.
Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling
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DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States, and became known under the trademark Touch-Tone for use in push-button telephones supplied to telephone customers, starting in 1963. DTMF is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23 and it is also known in the UK as MF4. The Touch-Tone system using a telephone keypad gradually replaced the use of dial and has become the industry standard for landline. Other multi-frequency systems are used for internal signaling within the telephone network, prior to the development of DTMF, telephone numbers were dialed by users with a loop-disconnect signaling, more commonly known as pulse dialing in the U. S. The exchange equipment responds to the dial pulses either directly by operating relays, the physical distance for which this type of dialing was possible was restricted by electrical distortions and was only possible on direct metallic links between end points of a line. Placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance or provision of special subscriber trunk dialing equipment, operators used an earlier type of multi-frequency signaling. Multi-frequency signaling is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone sounds, various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness, the DTMF system uses a set of eight audio frequencies transmitted in pairs to represent 16 signals, represented by the ten digits, the letters A to D, and the symbols # and *. AT&T described the product as a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the transmission path. DTMF was known throughout the Bell System by the trademark Touch-Tone, the term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5,1960 and was introduced to the public on November 18,1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public. It was a trademark by AT&T from September 4,1962 to March 13,1984. It is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23, in the UK, it is also known as MF4. Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature tone dialing or DTMF, previously, terrestrial television stations used DTMF tones to control remote transmitters. The engineers had envisioned telephones being used to access computers, and they consulted with companies to determine the requirements. This led to the addition of the sign and asterisk or star keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection. Public payphones that accept credit cards use these codes to send the information from the magnetic strip. The AUTOVON telephone system of the United States Armed Forces used these signals to assert certain privilege, precedence is still a feature of military telephone networks, but using number combinations. For example, entering 93 before a number is a priority call, present-day uses of the A, B, C and D signals on telephone networks are few, and are exclusive to network control
12.
Push-button telephone
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The push-button telephone is a telephone that uses buttons or keys for dialing a telephone number to place a call to another telephone subscriber. 5 Crossbar switching system in Pennsylvania, but the technology proved unreliable and it was not until long after the invention of the transistor when push-button technology matured. Over the next few decades touch-tone service replaced traditional pulse dialing technology, although DTMF was the driving technology implemented in push-button telephones, some telephone manufacturers used push-button keypads to generate pulse dial signaling. The concept of the use of push-buttons in telephony originated around 1887 with a called the micro-telephone push-button. This use even predated the invention of the dial by Almon Brown Strowger in 1891. The Bell System in the United States relied on manual switched service until 1919, as direct distance dialing expanded to a growing number of communities, local numbers were extended to standardized seven-digit named exchanges. A toll call to another area code was eleven digits, including the leading 1, in the 1950s, AT&T conducted extensive studies of product engineering and efficiency and concluded that push-button dialing was preferable to rotary dialing. In 1962, Touch-Tone telephones, including other Bell innovations such as pagers, were on display for the public to try out at the Bell Systems pavilion at the Seattle Worlds Fair. Ref. YouTube video entitled Vintage Roadtrips -1962 Seattle Worlds Fair, on 22 April 1963 President John F. This phone, the Western Electric 1500, had only ten buttons, in 1968 it was replaced by the twelve-button model 2500, adding the asterisk or star and pound or hash keys. Although push-button touch-tone telephones made their debut to the public in 1963. In the 1970s the majority of telephone subscribers still had rotary phones, adoption of the push-button phone was steady, but it took a long time for them to appear in some areas. At first it was primarily businesses that adopted push-button phones, some exchanges no longer support pulse-dialing or charge their few remaining pulse-dial users the higher tone-dial monthly rate as rotary telephones become increasingly rare. The international standard for telephone signaling utilizes dual-tone multi-frequency signaling, more known as touch-tone dialing. It replaced the older and slower pulse dial system, the push-button format is also used for all cell phones, but with out-of-band signaling of the dialed number. The touch-tone system uses audible tones for each of the digits zero through nine, later this was expanded by two keys labeled with an asterisk and the pound or hash sign to represent the 11th and 12th DTMF signals. These signals accommodate various additional services and customer-controlled calling features, when announced, the DTMF technology was not immediately available on all switching systems. Rural party line service was based on mechanical switching equipment which could not be upgraded
13.
Century 21 Exposition
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The Century 21 Exposition was a worlds fair held April 21,1962, to October 21,1962, in Seattle, Washington. Nearly 10 million people attended the fair, unlike some other worlds fairs of its era, Century 21 made a profit. As planned, the left behind a fairground and numerous public buildings and public works, some credit it with revitalizing Seattles economic. The fair saw the construction of the Space Needle and Alweg monorail, as well as sports venues and performing arts buildings. The site, slightly expanded since the fair, is now called Seattle Center, another notable Seattle Center building, the Museum of Pop Culture, was built nearly 40 years later and designed to fit in with the fairground atmosphere. The fair was conceived in 1955 to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1909 Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition. As a result, the themes of space, science, in June 1960, the International Bureau of Expositions certified Century 21 as a worlds fair. Project manager Ewen Dingwall went to Moscow to request Soviet participation, the Baltic states were not invited, nor was the Peoples Republic of China, Vietnam, nor North Korea. As it happened, the Cold War had an effect on the fair. President John F. Kennedy was supposed to attend the ceremony of the fair on October 21,1962. He bowed out, pleading a heavy cold, it became public that he was dealing with the Cuban Missile Crisis. In contrast,12 years later—even in far more conservative Spokane, once the fair idea was conceived, several sites were considered. Two sites south of the city proper were considered—Midway, near Des Moines, the site finally selected for the Century 21 Exposition had originally been contemplated for a civic center. The idea of using it for the fair came later and brought in federal money for the United States Science Pavilion. Some of the land had donated to the city by James Osborne in 1881 and by David. The Warren Avenue School, an elementary school with several programs for physically handicapped students, was torn down, its programs dispersed. Near the school, some of the citys oldest houses, apartments, the old Fire Station No.4 was also sacrificed. As early as the 1909 Bogue plan, this part of Lower Queen Anne had been considered for a civic center
14.
Telephone keypad
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A telephone keypad is the keypad installed on a push-button telephone or similar telecommunication device for the primary purpose of dialing a telephone number. The contemporary keypad is laid out in an array of twelve push buttons arranged as four rows. For military applications, a fourth, right-most column of keys was added for priority signaling in the Autovon system in the 1960s. These keys were added to provide signals for anticipated data entry purposes in business applications, the layout of the digit keys is different from that commonly appearing on calculators and numeric keypads. This layout was chosen after extensive human factors testing at Bell Labs, at the time, mechanical calculators were not widespread, and few people had experience with them. Indeed, calculators were only just starting to settle on a common layout, two other calculators have keysets resembling. In any case, Bell Labs testing found that the layout with 1,2. The key labeled ✻ was officially named the star key, the original design used a symbol with six points, but an asterisk with five points commonly appears in printing. # is officially called the sign key, but other names such as pound key, hash key, hex key, octothorpe, gate. The Greek symbols alpha and omega had been planned originally and these can be used for special functions. For example, in the UK, users can order a 7,30 am alarm call from a British Telecom telephone exchange by dialing, most of the keys also bear letters according to the following system, These letters have been used for multiple purposes. Originally, they referred to the letters of telephone exchange names. The UK telephone numbering system used a similar two-letter code after the zero to form the first part of the subscriber trunk dialling code for a region. For example, Aylesbury was assigned 0AY6, which translated into 0296, the letters have also been used, mainly in the United States, as a technique for remembering telephone numbers easily. For example, an interior decorator might license the telephone number 1-800-724-6837, sometimes businesses advertise a number with a mnemonic word having more letters than there are digits in the phone number. Usually, this means that the caller just stops dialing at 7 digits after the code or that the extra digits are ignored by the central office. On modern mobile phones and smart phones, the letters on the keys are needed for entering text for text messaging, entering names in the book, mobile apps, mobile browser. To compensate for the keys, mobile phones use systems like multi-tap
15.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
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Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
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Chicago Tunnel Company
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The Chicago Tunnel Company built a 2 ft narrow gauge railway freight tunnel network under the downtown of the city of Chicago. This was regulated by the Interstate Commerce Commission as an interurban despite the fact that it operated entirely under central Chicago, did not carry passengers and it inspired the construction of the London Post Office Railway. Initial plans for the called for filling them with phone cables. When the city refused to permit manholes through which cable could be unreeled into the tunnels, in early 1905, the system was taken over by the Illinois Tunnel Company. By this time,26 miles of a projected 60 miles of tunnel had been completed, the actual construction work was subcontracted to the Illinois Telephone Construction Company, under the management of George W. Jackson. By 1904, the first round of financing for tunnel system construction had largely been spent, with this financing, the Chicago Subway Company, incorporated in New Jersey, became a new holding company for the tunnel system. The Chicago Warehouse and Terminal Company was an affiliate, formed in 1904 to construct and operate facilities for interchanging freight with railroads. The tunnel company refused to recognize the union and began firing union members, despite the intervention of Congressman William Lorimer, all 260 employees went on strike on May 9. The company hired strikebreakers and refused to rehire any of the strikers, the Tunnel Company ran into a problem with a part of its planned expansion. In November 1906, the Chicago Board of Local Improvements announced it was considering widening Halsted Street between Chicago Avenue and 22nd Street, by 1909, the cost of construction had bankrupted the Illinois Tunnel Company. By this time, it was estimated that $30,000,000 had been spent on building and operating the tunnel. In 1913, the Chicago Tunnel Company agreed to sell its operations to American Telephone and Telegraph Company. By 1920, all telephone cables had been removed from the tunnels, by 1914, about 60 miles of tunnel had been constructed, typically 7 feet 6 inches high and 6 feet wide, with 2 ft gauge track. 19 elevators connected the tunnel with customers, and five elevators served universal public stations where freight could be dropped off or picked up by the public. The railroad operated 132 electric locomotives, typically 30 to 50 horsepower each, in 1914, the tunnel company handled 609,320 short tons of freight,275,218 short tons of which were merchandise. The remainder was presumably coal, ash and excavation debris, from 1912 into the 1930s, the tunnel company was managed by Sherman Weld Tracy. It was never profitable, but it avoided receivership, with most of the stock held by J. Ogden Armour, E. H. Harriman. Excavation debris from the new tunnels was hauled away by the Chicago Tunnel Company as the subway replaced the freight tunnels along their route
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Automatic Electric
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Automatic Electric Company was the largest of the manufacturing units of the Automatic Electric Group. It was an equipment supplier for independent telephone companies in North America. With its line of telephone exchanges, it was also a long-term supplier of switching equipment to the Bell System. In 1889, Almon Strowger, of Kansas City, Missouri, was inspired by the idea of manufacturing automatic telephone exchanges that would not require switchboard operators and he founded the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company in 1891, which held the first patents for the automatic telephone exchange. Subsequently, in 1901, Strowger helped form the Automatic Electric Company to which he leased his patents exclusively, Automatic switches proliferated in independent telephone companies in the 1910s and 1920s, well before the Bell System started deployment of Panel switch technology in the 1920s. In 1919 the Bell System was impacted considerably by organized operator strikes, as a result, Automatic Electric became a long-term supplier of step-by-step switching equipment to the Bell System. General Telephone and Electronics acquired Automatic Electric through a merger with Theodore Gary & Company in 1955, lenkurt, a manufacturer of carrier equipment, was purchased by GT&E in 1959, and held separately from Automatic Electric. In 1989, the assets of the company were placed into a joint venture between AT&T and GTE called AG Communication Systems. At the same time, GTE Communications systems spun off their business to a joint venture called Fujitsu GTE, later to be renamed as Fujitsu Business Communication systems. AG Communication Systems ceased separate existence in 2004, and became incorporated into Lucent. Alcatel-Lucent also owns many of the assets of the Western Electric Company, Automatic Electrics former rival, among other equipment, Automatic Electric manufactured automatic stepping switches which enabled Strowgers vision. These switches allowed customers to connect their own calls without operator assistance, the GTD-5 EAX, GTE Automatic Electrics digital class 4/5 central office telephone switch, was first deployed on June 26,1982. The original facilities of the Automatic Electric Company were located in a complex erected at the intersection of Morgan Street. Automatic Electric was later located in Northlake, Illinois, and maintained research and development facilities in Melrose Park and Elmhurst, AE acquired a manufacturing facility in Genoa, Illinois, from Leich Electric, and, in 1978, opened a research and development branch in Phoenix, Arizona. In the mid-1960s, a plant was built in Huntsville. Public coin-operated telephones and the Styleline series of telephones were manufactured there. A smaller rental telephone refurbishment operation was moved to the Huntsville plant in the 1970s. The plant was closed in the mid-1980s as domestic labour and production rose sharply against overseas competitors
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Telegraphy
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
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La Porte, Indiana
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La Porte is a city in LaPorte County, Indiana, United States, of which it is the county seat. Its population was 22,053 at the 2010 census, LaPorte is located in northwest Indiana, east of Gary, and west of South Bend and was first settled in 1832. The current mayor of La Porte, Blair Milo, is one of the youngest mayors in the citys history, the settlement of La Porte was established in July 1832. Abraham P. Andrew, one of the purchasers of the site, the first settler arrived in October, building a permanent cabin just north of what would become the Courthouse square. In 1833 a Federal Land Office was established in La Porte, people would come to this office from newly established surrounding counties to buy land from the government, including Solon Robinson, founder of Crown Point. The office was moved to Winamac in 1839, by 1835 the settlement had grown to the extent that it was decided that La Porte should become incorporated as a town. A newspaper was established in 1836 and La Porte Medical School was founded in 1842, a former graduate of the school William Worrall Mayo established the famed Mayo Clinic in Minnesota in 1889. By 1852 La Porte had become a settlement of considerable size for its time and vicinity. In that same year it was granted a city charter by the Indiana General Assembly, La Porte continued to grow, attracting numerous diverse industries, the largest of which became the Advance-Rumely company. Advance-Rumely was responsible for developing the Oil-Pull tractor engine, considered to have played a role in the agricultural development of the Great Plains. By 1869, Advance-Rumely was the largest employer in La Porte, during the 1850s numerous maple trees were planted along Indiana and Michigan avenues in La Porte by local resident Sebastian Lay. Subsequently, La Porte became known as the Maple City, today, Indiana and Michigan avenues comprise a historic district in the city, containing many homes and other structures of architectural and historical interest. Between 1892 and 1894, the third and current LaPorte county courthouse was erected at a cost of $300,000, the structure is built of red sandstone from Lake Superior, shipped via boat to Michigan City and then by rail to La Porte. The courthouse is considered to be one of La Portes best known structures, in 2007 the building had its exterior extensively restored at a cost of $2.9 million. La Porte is also known for the area of which Belle Gunness serial murders took place. Belle moved to the United States in 1881 in search of wealth, Belle had posted many notices in lovelorn columns in hopes to attracted wealthy men. She would attract men to her farmland, and mysteriously they would all disappear. Not only did she murder the men she attracted, but also her adopted daughter
21.
North American Numbering Plan
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The North American Numbering Plan is a telephone numbering plan that encompasses 25 distinct regions in twenty countries primarily in North America, including the Caribbean and the U. S. territories. Not all North American countries participate in the NANP, each participating country forms a regulatory authority that has plenary control over local numbering resources. The FCC also serves as the U. S. regulator, Canadian numbering decisions are made by the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium. The NANP divides the territories of its members into numbering plan areas which are encoded numerically with a telephone number prefix. Each telephone is assigned a telephone number unique only within its respective plan area. The telephone number consists of a central office code and a four-digit station number. The combination of a code and the telephone number serves as a destination routing address in the public switched telephone network. For international call routing, the NANP has been assigned the calling code 1 by the International Telecommunications Union. The North American Numbering Plan conforms with ITU Recommendation E.164, from its beginnings in 1876 and throughout the first part of the 20th century, the Bell System grew from essentially local or regional telephone systems. These systems expanded by growing their subscriber bases, as well as increasing their service areas by implementing additional local exchanges that were interconnected with tie trunks and it was the responsibility of each local administration to design telephone numbering plans that accommodated the local requirements and growth. As a result, the Bell System as a developed into an unorganized system of many differing local numbering systems. The diversity impeded the efficient operation and interconnection of exchanges into a system for long-distance telephone communication. The new numbering plan was accepted in October 1947, dividing most of North America into 86 Numbering Plan Areas. Each NPA was assigned a Numbering Plan Area code, often abbreviated as area code and these codes were first used by long-distance operators to establish long-distance calls between toll offices. The first customer-dialed direct call using area codes was made on November 10,1951, from Englewood, New Jersey, to Alameda, California. Direct distance dialing was introduced across the country and by the early 1960s most areas of the Bell System had been converted and it was commonplace in cities. In the following decades, the system expanded to all of the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda. By 1967,129 area codes had been assigned, mexican participation was planned, but implementation stopped after two area codes had been assigned and Mexico opted for an international numbering format, using country code 52
22.
Direct distance dialing
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Direct distance dialing is a telecommunication service feature in which a caller may, without operator assistance, call any other user outside the local calling area. Direct dialing by subscribers typically requires extra digits to be dialed as prefixes than for dialing within the area or within an area code. DDD also extends beyond the boundaries of national public telephone network, DDD was the term used when the North American Numbering Plan was implemented in the 1950s. In the United Kingdom and other parts of the Commonwealth of Nations, the equivalent terms are or were STD, for subscriber trunk dialing, the first direct-dialed long-distance telephone calls were possible in the New Jersey communities of Englewood and Teaneck starting on November 10,1951. Whitehorse, Yukon, had numbers from 1965, but the necessary switching equipment was not in place locally until 1972. The No.4 Crossbar switching system had been introduced in the 1940s to switch four-wire circuits and this design was further refined to serve DDD. The card sorter of the 4A/CTS allowed six digit translation of the office code number dialed by the customer. This determined the proper trunk circuits to use, where separate circuit groups were used for different cities in the area code, as in the case of Oakland. The new device used metal cards similar in principle to computer punched cards, on busy days, it sounded like a machine gun firing. CTS machines were called 4A if the translator was included in the original installation, a 1970s version of 4XB, the 4A/ETS, used a computer to translate. For international dialing, Traffic Service Position System provided the computer power. The reach of DDD was limited due to the inefficiency and expense of switching equipment, one obstacle was that the majority of switching gear did not provide Automatic Number Identification. Common control switches such as 1XB switch were fairly quickly retrofitted to provide ANI, panel switch were eventually retrofitted, as were some step-by-step that were not scheduled for immediate replacement. Even if a switch had ANI, it could not identify callers on party lines and this was only partly overcome by Tip Party Identification. As the cost of subscriber line carrier declined, party lines were phased out. In the 1960s, with the conversion still underway, plans were laid to extend Direct Dialing beyond North America. Gateway offices were set up in New York, London and Paris, the New York gateway was at 32 Avenue of the Americas. Other 5XB in the few years were installed with IDDD as original equipment
