1.
Taylor & Francis
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Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom that publishes books and academic journals. It is a division of Informa plc, a United Kingdom-based publisher, the company was founded in 1852 when William Francis joined Richard Taylor in his publishing business. Taylor initially founded his company in 1798 and their subjects covered include agriculture, chemistry, education, engineering, geography, law, mathematics, medicine, and social sciences. From 1917 to 1930 Francis son, Richard Taunton Francis was sole partner in the firm, in 1965 Taylor & Francis launched Wykeham Publications and began book publishing. In 1988 it acquired Hemisphere Publishing and the company was renamed Taylor & Francis Group to reflect the number of imprints. In 1990 Taylor & Francis exited from the business to concentrate on publishing. In 1998 Taylor & Francis Group went public on the London Stock Exchange, acquisitions of other publishers has remained a core part of the group’s business strategy. Taylor & Francis merged with Informa in 2004 to create a new company called T&F Informa, following the merger, T&F closed the historic Routledge books office in New Fetter Lane, London and relocated to its current headquarters in Milton Park, Oxfordshire. Taylor & Francis Group is now the publishing arm of Informa. Taylor & Francis publishes more than 2,500 journals, and approximately 6,500 new books each year, with a backlist of over 130,000 titles available in print and digital formats. Although generally considered the smallest of the Big Four STEM publishers, its Routledge imprint is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities, the journals and e-books have been delivered through the Taylor & Francis Online website since June 2011. Prior to that they were provided through the Informaworld website, Taylor & Francis operates a number of Web services for its digital content including Routledge Handbooks Online, the Routledge Performance Archive, Secret Intelligence Files and CRC Netbase. Taylor & Francis offers Open Access publishing options in both its books and journals divisions and through its Cogent Open Access journals imprint, the group has approximately 1,800 employees located in at least 18 offices worldwide. The old Taylor and Francis logo depicts a hand pouring oil into a lit lamp, the modern logo is a stylised oil lamp in a circle. In 2013, the board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned in a dispute over author licensing agreements. Category, Taylor & Francis academic journals Munroe, Mary H. Taylor & Francis, the Academic Publishing Industry, A Story of Merger and Acquisition. The Lamp Of Learning, Taylor & Francis And Two Centuries Of Publishing, official website Taylor & Francis online journals and reference works Taylor & Francis eBooks Informa Divisions - Academic Publishing
2.
Abingdon-on-Thames
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Abingdon /ˈæbɪŋdən/, also known as Abingdon on Thames or Abingdon-on-Thames, is a market town and civil parish in England. Historically the county town of Berkshire, since 1974 it has been the seat of the Vale of White Horse district in the county of Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 33,130. This is 2,504 more than in the 2001 Census total of 30,626 and it is on the A415 between Witney and Dorchester, adjacent to the A34 trunk road, linking it with the M4 and M40 motorways. The B4017 and A4183 also link the town, both being part of the old A34 and often heavily congested, Local bus services to Oxford and the surrounding areas are run by Stagecoach Oxfordshire, Thames Travel, the Oxford Bus Company and smaller independent companies. The small, primarily stopping-service, railway stations at Culham and Radley are both just over 2 miles away, Abingdons eastern ring-road and newest suburbs are under a mile which is connected by footpath and cycleway from Radley railway station. The Radley to Abingdon railway station branch line closed to passengers in 1963, the nearest major stations with taxi ranks are Oxford and Didcot Parkway. All are managed by First Great Western, frequent express buses operate between Oxford station and Abingdon. A Neolithic stone hand axe was found at Abingdon, petrological analysis in 1940 identified the stone as epidotised tuff from Stake Pass in the Lake District,250 miles to the north. Stone axes from the same source have been found at Sutton Courtenay, Alvescot, Kencot, Abingdon has been occupied from the early to middle Iron Age and the remains of a late Iron Age defensive enclosure lies below the town centre. The oppidum was in use throughout the Roman occupation, Abingdon Abbey was founded in Saxon times, possibly around AD676, but its early history is confused by numerous legends, invented to raise its status and explain the place name. The name seems to mean Hill of a man named Æbba, or a woman named Æbbe, however Abingdon stands in a valley and not on a hill. It is thought that the name was first given to a place on Boars Hill above Chilswell, in 1084, William the Conqueror celebrated Easter at the Abbey and then left his son, the future Henry I, to be educated there. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Abingdon was an agricultural centre with an extensive trade in wool. The abbot seems to have held a market very early times and charters for the holding of markets and fairs were granted by various sovereigns. In 1337 there was a riot in protest at the Abbots control of this market in which several of the monks were killed. P. The present Christs Hospital originally belonged to the Guild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI founded the almshouses instead, the council was empowered to elect one burgess to parliament and this right continued until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were appointed and the boundaries described in great detail
3.
Academic journal
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An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
4.
Humanities
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Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human culture. In the Middle Ages, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and sometimes social, sciences as well as professional training. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, art, scholars in the humanities are humanity scholars or humanists. The term humanist also describes the position of humanism, which some antihumanist scholars in the humanities refuse. The Renaissance scholars and artists were also called humanists, some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of English literature, global studies and art. Human disciplines like history and cultural anthropology study subject matters that the method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method. Anthropology is the science of humans, a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the sciences, humanities. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields, archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions, the word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, the goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological and it is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture, the archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a science and a branch of the humanities. It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time
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Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
6.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
7.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
8.
Academy (educational institution)
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Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
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Cinven
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In 2014, it had €11.5 billion in assets under management. Cinven’s funding base originally came solely from three UK pension funds who remain as important investors, Cinven has been reported to originally stand for Coal Investment Nominees for Venture Capital. Cinven invests in six sectors on a basis, Business Services, Technology, Media and Telecommunications, Financial Services, Industrials, Healthcare. Cinven is an equity firm based in London. Some of the recent acquisitions include, Avio – In 2006, Cinven purchased Avio from Carlyle, spire Healthcare – In June 2007, BUPA announced that it had agreed to sell its hospitals business, comprising 25 hospitals, to Cinven for $1.44 billion. Spire has since acquired the Classics Hospital Group for GBP145 million, as well as a single hospital in Gerrards Cross. Gondola Holdings – acquired in 2007 for $1.36 billion, Gondola is the leader in the UK casual dining sector, with brands such as PizzaExpress, ASK, Zizzi and BYRON.4 billion in cash. CeramTec Group – acquired in June 2013 Host Europe Group – acquired in July 2013, medpace – In February 2014, Cinven agreed to acquire the pharmaceutical contract research organisation from CCMP Capital for around $900 million. Northgate Public Services – In December 2014, Cinven agreed to acquire the services division of Northgate Information Solutions for an undisclosed amount. Labco – In May 2015, Cinven agreed to acquire this operator of medical diagnostics laboratories for €1.2 billion, synlab Group acquired in June 2015 for €1. 7-1.8 billion. Kurt Geiger - In December 2015, Cinven acquired UK-based fashion retailer Kurt Geiger from Sycamore Partners for £245 million
10.
Informa
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Informa plc is a multinational publishing and events company with its head office and registered office in London. It has offices in 43 countries and around 6,500 employees and it owns numerous brands including CRC Press, Datamonitor, Institute for International Research, Lloyds List, Routledge, and Taylor & Francis. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, Informas oldest business started in 1734 when Lloyds List, now one of the worlds oldest continuously running journals, began covering London shipping news. Informa itself was created in 1998 by the merger of IBC Group plc, in October 2006, the company was approached by Springer Science and Business Media in a takeover bid, but in early November the Informa board rejected the 630p per share offer as too low. On 8 June 2008, The Sunday Telegraph revealed that United Business Media had proposed a merger with Informa to create a media group worth over £3 billion, the talks were confirmed by Informa in a press release that same day, but described as preliminary. Previously on May 13 The Times had reported that the Carlyle Group, on June 17 talks with UBM ended because of the rapid rise in Informas stock price after the public disclosure of the potential merger. On June 26 a private equity consortium consisting of Providence Equity Partners, on 1 May 2009 the company announced that it would be restructure its business so it was incorporated in Jersey but tax resident in Switzerland. On 10 July 2013 the company announced that Peter Rigby would retire at the end of 2013 to be replaced as CEO by Stephen A Carter, also in 2013, Informa acquired the Canadian company Hobby Star Marketing, who runs the comic book convention brand Fan Expo. Informa has since acquired other conventions and placed them under Fan Expos auspises, in December 2013, Informa acquired the assets of Elsevier Business Intelligence from Reed Elsevier. The EBI business unit includes such publications as The Pink Sheet, The Gray Sheet, IN VIVO, Start-Up, the EBI assets combined with Scrip, Datamonitor and several other publications formed the newly created Pharma Intelligence division of Informa Business Information. In January 2014, Stephen Carter became CEO of Informa plc, the company operates more than 10,000 conferences annually, and publishes newsletters, academic journals, commercial databases, and academic and business books. Its online publishing portal Informaworld provided subscribers with more than half a million articles and 13,000 e-books from all its imprints. In June 2011 the journals and e-books transferred to a new website, abstracting and indexing databases and bibliographic databases were to move from Informaworld to Taylor & Francis Online at a later date. Besides publishing, the group has several other interests represented by the brands it owns in many countries and these brands work in the areas of performance improvement and management consulting. It has the following divisions, Informa
11.
Milton Park
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Milton Park is a 250-acre mixed use business and technology park operated by MEPC plc. It is just south of the village of Milton, Oxfordshire and it is on the site of a former Ministry of Defence depot between the A34 and Didcot Power Station. Although closer to Didcot, it lies within the Abingdon postcode area, Milton Park is home to 7,500 people and 250 organisations. It includes the offices of Alamy, RM Education, Halliburton and Taylor & Francis, offices of ITV and distribution depots for DHL. Milton Park has 3,400,000 sq ft business accommodation, and houses the Milton Park Innovation Centre, Milton Park is served by Thames Travel bus services X2, X32 and 32A. There is a siding for rail freight, connected to the Great Western Main Line. The nearest train service is to Didcot Parkway railway station and MEPC runs a shuttle bus service from the station to the business park
12.
Oxfordshire
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Oxfordshire is a county in South East England bordering on Warwickshire, Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire and Gloucestershire. The county has major education and tourist industries and is noted for the concentration of performance companies and facilities. Oxford University Press is the largest firm among a concentration of print and publishing firms, the main centre of population is the city of Oxford. The highest point is White Horse Hill, in the Vale of White Horse, oxfordshires county flower is the Snakes-head Fritillary. Historically the area has always had some importance, since it contains valuable agricultural land in the centre of the county, largely ignored by the Romans, it was not until the formation of a settlement at Oxford in the eighth century that the area grew in importance. Alfred the Great was born across the Thames in Wantage, Vale of White Horse, the University of Oxford was founded in 1096, though its collegiate structure did not develop until later on. The university in the county town of Oxford grew in importance during the Middle Ages, the area was part of the Cotswolds wool trade from the 13th century, generating much wealth, particularly in the western portions of the county in the Oxfordshire Cotswolds. Morris Motors was founded in Oxford in 1912, bringing industry to an otherwise agricultural county. The importance of agriculture as an employer has declined rapidly in the 20th century though, nonetheless, Oxfordshire remains a very agricultural county by land use, with a lower population than neighbouring Berkshire and Buckinghamshire, which are both smaller. The Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, the army unit in the area, was based at Cowley Barracks on Bullingdon Green. Conversely, the Caversham area of Reading, now administratively in Berkshire, was part of Oxfordshire as was the parish of Stokenchurch. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Oxfordshire at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Oxfordshire has a comprehensive education system with 23 independent schools and 35 state secondary schools. Only eight schools do not have a form, these are mostly in South Oxfordshire. The county has two universities, the ancient University of Oxford and the modern Oxford Brookes University, both located in Oxford, in addition, Wroxton College, located in Banbury, is affiliated with Fairleigh Dickinson University of New Jersey. The dreaming spires of the buildings of the University of Oxford are among the reasons for Oxford being the sixth most visited city in the United Kingdom for international visitors. Among many notable University buildings are the Sheldonian Theatre, built 1664–68 to the design of Sir Christopher Wren, Blenheim Palace close to Woodstock was built by the great architect John Vanbrugh for John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, after he had won the battle of Blenheim. The gardens, which can be visited, were designed by the landscape gardener Capability Brown, in the palace, which can also be visited by the public, Sir Winston Churchill was born in 1874
13.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
14.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
15.
New Delhi
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New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
16.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
17.
Beijing
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Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
18.
Tauchnitz publishers
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Tauchnitz was the name of a family of German printers and publishers. They published English language literature for distribution on the European continent outside Great Britain, Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz, born at Grossbardau near Grimma, Saxony, established a printing business in Leipzig in 1796 and a publishing house in 1798. He specialized in the publication of dictionaries, Bibles, and stereotyped editions of the Greek and he was the first publisher to introduce stereotyping into Germany. The business was carried on by his son, Karl Christian Phillipp Tauchnitz, until 1865 and he left large sums to the city of Leipzig for philanthropic purposes. Christian Bernhard, Freiherr von Tauchnitz, the founder of the firm of Bernhard Tauchnitz, was the nephew of the first-mentioned, christians father died when he was young and his uncle played an important part in his development. His printing and publishing firm was started at Leipzig on February 1,1837, Bernhard started the Collection of British and American Authors in 1841, a reprint series familiar to anglophone travellers on the continent of Europe. These inexpensive paperbound editions, a precursor to mass-market paperbacks, were begun in 1841. In 1868 he began the Collection of German Authors, followed in 1886 by the Students Tauchnitz Editions, in fact the books were authorised by the authors or their representatives for Continental sale only. The authors were paid royalties even at a time when no copyright protection for English and that was Baron Tauchnitzs policy from the foundation of his company. In 1841, when Tauchnitz started his English-language editions, there were no copyright treaties between England or the United States and Continental countries, although Tauchnitzs editions were authorised, they were not protected from copyright infringement and he could offer none to the authors he paid. A few years later, various Continental States formed copyright treaties with Britain, Prussia and Saxony in 1846, France in 1852, in these countries, the Tauchnitz Authorised Edition became the Copyright Edition. Finally, the Berne Convention of 1886 conferred copyright upon authors in its fullest form over the part of the developed world. In 1860 he was ennobled with the title of Freiherr for his services to literature, from 1866 to 1895 he was British Consul-General for the kingdom and duchies of Saxony. Christian Bernhard was succeeded in the business by his son, Christian Karl Bernhard and he made a tour of Europe, stayed some time in England, and learned to speak and write English with barely a flaw. In 1866, he entered partnership with his father at his firm. The two authors who first attracted Tauchnitzs attention were Dickens and Lytton with the novels Pickwick Papers, twenty-two years later, in 1863, the five-hundredth title of the series was published under the title Five Centuries of the English Language and Literature. In 1869, an English-language edition of The New Testament, exhibiting the differences between the original Alexandrine, Sinaitic and Vatican manuscripts, was the one-thousandth title. It was dedicated by the Baron To my English and American Authors, as a Token of Esteem for the Living, by 1901,3,500 books had been published
19.
Frederick Warne
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Frederick Warne was a British publisher, founder of Frederick Warne & Co. He was born in Westminster in 1825, sixth and youngest son of the children of Edmund Warne, a builder. From 1851 to 1865 Warne was largely identified with the success of the firm, in 1865, on the advice of the publisher George Smith, of Smith, Elder & Co. Warne began an independent publishing career, he was joined by Edward James Dodd, and by A. W. Duret, an American branch was established in New York in 1881. Warne effectively emulated Routledges ambition to popularise well-regarded literature, in 1868 he inaugurated Chandos Classics, there were 154 titles in the series, and five million copies were sold. The series included an edition of Shakespeare which sold 340,000 copies, nuttalls Dictionary, which was originally published by Routledge, Warne & Routledge in 1863, was first issued by Warne in January 1867, when 668,000 copies were soon sold. In 1886 a revised edition appeared, which nearly one million copies by 1911. Warne was active in the publication of coloured picture books for children, in the field of fiction Warne issued Benjamin Disraelis novels before their transfer to Messrs. Longman in 1870, and published in London most of Frances Hodgson Burnetts novels and he also first introduced to the English reading public the three American magazines The Century Magazine, St. Nicholas Magazine, and Scribners Monthly. In 1895 Warne, with his partner Dodd, left the business and he died at his home,8 Bedford Square, on 7 November 1901, and was buried at Highgate Cemetery. He married on 6 July 1852, Louisa Jane, daughter of William Fruing of Jersey, they had seven sons, three sons and two daughters survived him. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Owen. Dictionary of National Biography,1912 supplement, London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 594–595
20.
Uncle Tom's Cabin
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Uncle Toms Cabin, or, Life Among the Lowly, is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852, the novel helped lay the groundwork for the Civil War, the sentimental novel depicts the reality of slavery while also asserting that Christian love can overcome something as destructive as enslavement of fellow human beings. Uncle Toms Cabin was the novel of the 19th century. It is credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s, in the first year after it was published,300,000 copies of the book were sold in the United States, one million copies in Great Britain. In 1855, three years after it was published, it was called the most popular novel of our day, to affirm the role of literature as an agent of social change. The book and the plays it inspired helped popularize a number of stereotypes about black people and these include the affectionate, dark-skinned mammy, the pickaninny stereotype of black children, and the Uncle Tom, or dutiful, long-suffering servant faithful to his white master or mistress. In recent years, the associations with Uncle Toms Cabin have, to an extent. Stowe, a Connecticut-born teacher at the Hartford Female Seminary and an active abolitionist, wrote the novel as a response to the passage, in 1850, of the second Fugitive Slave Act. Much of the book was composed in Brunswick, Maine, where her husband, Calvin Ellis Stowe, taught at his alma mater, Bowdoin College. Stowe was partly inspired to create Uncle Toms Cabin by the slave narrative The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. Henson, an enslaved black man, had lived and worked on a 3,700 acres tobacco plantation in North Bethesda, Maryland. Henson escaped slavery in 1830 by fleeing to the Province of Upper Canada, where he helped other fugitive slaves settle and become self-sufficient, Stowe acknowledged in 1853 that Hensons writings inspired Uncle Toms Cabin. When Stowes work became a best-seller, Henson republished his memoirs as The Memoirs of Uncle Tom and traveled on lecture tours extensively in the United States and Europe. Stowes novel lent its name to Hensons home—Uncle Toms Cabin Historic Site, near Dresden and it is now a part of the National Park Service National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program, and plans are underway to build a museum and interpretive center on the site. American Slavery As It Is, Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, a volume co-authored by Theodore Dwight Weld and the Grimké sisters, is also a source of some of the novels content. Stowe said she based the novel on a number of interviews with people who escaped slavery during the time when she was living in Cincinnati, Ohio, across the Ohio River from Kentucky, a slave state. In Cincinnati the Underground Railroad had local abolitionist sympathizers and was active in efforts to help runaway slaves on their route from the South. Stowe mentioned a number of the inspirations and sources for her novel in A Key to Uncle Toms Cabin and this non-fiction book was intended to verify Stowes claims about slavery
21.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
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Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton PC, was an English novelist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was immensely popular with the public and wrote a stream of bestselling novels which earned him a considerable fortune. He coined the phrases the great unwashed, pursuit of the almighty dollar, the pen is mightier than the sword, dweller on the threshold, and he had two elder brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer and Henry, later Lord Dalling and Bulwer. When Edward was four his father died and his moved to London. He was a delicate, neurotic child and was discontented at a number of boarding schools, but he was precocious and Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, Ishmael and Other Poems. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met John Auldjo, in 1825 he won the Chancellors Gold Medal for English verse. In the following year he took his B. A. degree and printed, for private circulation and he purchased a commission in the army, but sold it without serving. In August 1827, against his mothers wishes, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler, when they married his mother withdrew his allowance and he was forced to work for a living. They had two children, Lady Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton, and Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton who became Governor-General and his writing and political work strained their marriage while his infidelity embittered Rosina, in 1833 they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal. Three years later, Rosina published Cheveley, or the Man of Honour, in June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she indignantly denounced him at the hustings. He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance, finally he had her committed to a mental asylum. But, after a public outcry she was released a few weeks later and this incident was chronicled in her memoir, A Blighted Life. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband’s character, the death of Bulwer-Lyttons mother in 1843 greatly saddened him. His own exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief, on 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mothers will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence. His widowed mother had done the same in 1811, but, his brothers remained plain Bulwer. When King Otto of Greece abdicated in 1862, he was offered the crown of Greece, in 1866 Bulwer-Lytton was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton. According to the Fulham Football Club, he resided in the original Craven Cottage. Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered with a disease of the ear and for the last two or three years of his life he lived in Torquay nursing his health
22.
Lease
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An asset-backed security is a security whose income payments and hence value are derived from and collateralized by a specified pool of underlying assets. The pool of assets is typically a group of small and illiquid assets which are unable to be sold individually. The pools of underlying assets can include common payments from credit cards, auto loans, often a separate institution, called a special purpose vehicle, is created to handle the securitization of asset backed securities. The special purpose vehicle, which creates and sells the securities, uses the proceeds of the sale to pay back the bank that created, or originated and this allows banks to invest more of their capital in new loans or other assets and possibly have a lower capital requirement. In the first case, collateralized debt obligations and mortgage-backed securities, are subsets and it has also interpreted the phrase discrete pool to exclude those that can change in composition over time. However, such securities may be shelf-registered on Form S-3 only if the value of the leased property represents less than 20% of the original securitized pool balance. However, consistent with current practice, shelf registration on will be only if delinquent assets constitute 20% or less of the original asset pool. Exceptions to the Discrete Pool Requirement, the new rules generally codify the SEC staff’s position that a security must be backed by a discrete pool of assets in order to be considered an ABS. However, the new rules establish the following exceptions to address market practices, any security issued in a master trust structure would meet the definition of asset-backed security without limitation. Asset-backed securities will also include securities with a period of up to one year during which up to 50% of the offering proceeds may be used for subsequent purchases of pool assets. The new rules also include within the definition of asset-backed security securities with revolving periods during which new financial assets may be acquired, however, the new assets added to the pool during the revolving period must be of the same general character as the original pool assets. Investors typically refer to HELs as any nonagency loans that do not fit either the jumbo or alt-A loan categories. While early HELs were mostly second lien subprime mortgages, first-lien loans now make up the majority of issuance, Subprime mortgage borrowers have a less than perfect credit history and are required to pay interest rates higher than what would be available to a typical agency borrower. The second largest subsector in the ABS market is auto loans, auto finance companies issue securities backed by underlying pools of auto-related loans. Auto ABS are classified into three categories, prime, nonprime, and subprime, Prime auto ABS are collaterized by loans made to borrowers with strong credit histories, nonprime auto ABS consist of loans made to lesser credit quality consumers, which may have higher cumulative losses. Subprime borrowers will typically have lower incomes, tainted credited histories, owner trusts are the most common structure used when issuing auto loans and allow investors to receive interest and principal on sequential basis. Deals can also be structured to pay on a pro-rata or combination of the two, Securities backed by credit card receivables have been benchmark for the ABS market since they were first introduced in 1987. Credit card holders may borrow funds on a basis up to an assigned credit limit
23.
Frederick Warne & Co
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Frederick Warne & Co is a British publisher famous for childrens books, particularly those of Beatrix Potter, and for its Observers Books which have gained a cult following. Frederick Warne & Co was founded in 1865 by London bookseller and publisher, the business was a replacement of an earlier association between Warne and George Routledge, who went on to found his own publishing company, Routledge. Toward the end of the century, Frederick Warne had retired, Warne was among the six publishers whom Beatrix Potter submitted her first book, the story of a rabbit called Peter. Like the other five firms, Warne turned the proposal down, but the people at the firm changed their minds, when they saw the privately published copy in 1901. They said they would publish the book, as long as the illustrations were drawn in colour, the next year, Warne published THE TALE OF PETER RABBIT, and by Christmas it had sold 20,000 copies. This began a forty year partnership which saw the publication of twenty two additional little books, Beatrix Potter was engaged to marry Norman Warne, her editor and the youngest of the three Warne brothers. However, he died tragically in 1905, only a few weeks after their engagement. Harold and she continued to produce one or two new Little Books each year for the next eight years until her marriage in 1913 to William Heelis. Potter, who had no children, left the rights to her works to Warne upon her death, the company continued to publish them, it also brought out several biographical works about its most renowned author. Over the years, Warne also expanded its publishing, issuing among others the world-famous Observer books. In 1983, Warne was bought by Penguin books and it began developing classic book-based childrens character brands. The merchandising program was expanded from a base of thirty-five licenses to more than four hundred by the late 1990s, over the years, Warne acquired a variety of other classic books. A major motion picture about the life of Beatrix Potter Miss Potter, starring Renée Zellweger as Beatrix Potter, while the company no longer exists as an independent company, it continues to exist as an imprint of Penguin Group. The company will be collaborating with Sony Pictures Animation and Animal Logic to produce the upcoming Peter Rabbit film, as mentioned earlier, Warne printed twenty three books written by Beatrix Potter. These books were written about animals, and were written from 1902-1930. Here is the list of her books, the links to their Wikipedia pages, the aim of these books were to interest the observer. They were called the Observers books and these books were very popular amongst children. Over the past few years they have become very popular collector items, for the dedicated collector this could be a lifetimes work as there are over 800 variations, some of which are now very rare. The values of the books can vary from 50p to hundreds of pounds and they all include a variety of topics, which include hobbies, art, history, wildlife and many more
24.
Beatrix Potter
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Helen Beatrix Potter was an English writer, illustrator, natural scientist, and conservationist best known for her childrens books featuring animals, such as those in The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Born into a household, Potter was educated by governesses. She had numerous pets and spent holidays in Scotland and the Lake District, developing a love of landscape, flora and fauna, in her thirties, Potter published the highly successful childrens book, The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Potter began writing and illustrating childrens books full-time, with the proceeds from the books and a legacy from an aunt, in 1905 Potter bought Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, a village in the Lake District, which at that time was in Lancashire. Over the following decades, she purchased additional farms to preserve the unique hill country landscape, in 1913, at the age of 47, she married William Heelis, a respected local solicitor from Hawkshead. Potter was also a breeder of Herdwick sheep and a prosperous farmer keenly interested in land preservation. Potter wrote about 30 books, the best known being her 24 childrens tales and she died of pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at her home in Near Sawrey at age 77, leaving almost all her property to the National Trust. She is credited with preserving much of the land that now constitutes the Lake District National Park. Potters books continue to sell throughout the world in many languages with her stories being retold in song, film, ballet, and animation, and her life depicted in a feature film and television film. Potters paternal grandfather, Edmund Potter, from Glossop in Derbyshire, owned what was then the largest calico printing works in England, and later served as a member of parliament. Beatrixs father, Rupert William Potter, was educated at Manchester College by the Unitarian philosopher Dr. James Martineau and he then trained as a barrister in London. Rupert practised law, specialising in equity law and conveyancing and he married Helen Leech on 8 August 1863 at Hyde Unitarian Chapel, Gee Cross. Helen was the daughter of Jane Ashton and John Leech, a cotton merchant. Helens first cousin was Harriet Lupton – the sister of Thomas Ashton, Beatrixs parents lived comfortably at 2 Bolton Gardens, West Brompton, where Helen Beatrix was born on 28 July 1866 and her brother Walter Bertram on 14 March 1872. Both parents were talented, and Rupert was an adept amateur photographer. Rupert had invested in the market and by the early 1890s was extremely wealthy. Potters family on both sides were from the Manchester area and they were English Unitarians, associated with dissenting Protestant congregations, influential in 19th century England, that affirmed the oneness of God and that rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Beatrix was educated by three able governesses, the last of whom was Annie Moore, just three years older than Beatrix, who tutored Beatrix in German as well as acting as ladys companion
25.
Edmund Routledge
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Edmund Routledge, was a British publisher of boys magazine and an author of books about sports. Edmund Routledge was born in London on 30 January 1843, the son of George Routledge. He started with his fathers publishing house in 1859 and he founded and edited the magazines The Broadway, one of the earliest sixpenny monthly magazines, and Every Boys Magazine. He became a partner in Routledge, Warne, & Routledge in July 1865, in 1886, he stood as the Liberal Party candidate for Parliament for Kensington North, but came second to the incumbent, Sir Roper Lethbridge for the Conservative Party. In 1887, he stood as the Liberal candidate for Parliament for Paddington North in a by-election, from 1889 to 1895, he was a member of the London County Council for the Progressive Party. Routledges Dramatic Readings,196 pages In 1865, he married Martha Stephenson, on 25 August 1899, he died of a heart attack at Queen Anns Mansion, London, leaving five sons and three daughters. He is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, London
26.
William Crookes
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Sir William Crookes OM PRS was an English chemist and physicist who attended the Royal College of Chemistry in London, and worked on spectroscopy. He was a pioneer of vacuum tubes, inventing the Crookes tube which was made in 1875, Crookes was the inventor of the Crookes radiometer, which today is made and sold as a novelty item. Late in life, he interested in spiritualism, and became the president of the Society for Psychical Research. Crookes made a career of being a meteorologist and fierce lecture giver at multiple studies and courses, Crookes worked in chemistry and physics. His experiments were notable for the originality of their design and his interests, ranging over pure and applied science, economic and practical problems, and psychiatric research, made him a well-known personality. He received many public and academic honors, Crookess life was one of unbroken scientific activity. William Crookes was born in London, the eldest of 16 siblings and his father, Joseph Crookes, was a tailor of north-country origin, at that time living with his second wife, Mary Scott Lewis Rutherford Johnson. From 1850 to 1854 he filled the position of assistant in the college and it wasnt in organic chemistry which the focus of his teacher, August Wilhelm von Hofmann, might have been expected to lead him towards, but into new compounds of selenium. These were the subject of his first published papers,1851, in 1855 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Chester Diocesan Training College. In 1856 he married Ellen, daughter of William Humphrey of Darlington and they had three sons and a daughter. Married and living in London, he was devoted mainly to independent work, in 1859, he founded the Chemical News, a science magazine which he edited for many years and conducted on much less formal lines than was usual for the journals of scientific societies. In 1861, Crookes discovered an unknown element with a bright green emission line in its spectrum and named the element thallium, from the Greek thallos. Crookes wrote a treatise on Select Methods in Chemical Analysis in 1871. The method of analysis, introduced by Bunsen and Kirchhoff, was received by Crookes with great enthusiasm. His first important discovery was that of the element thallium, announced in 1861, by this work his reputation became firmly established, and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1863. He developed the Crookes tubes, investigating cathode rays and he published numerous papers on spectroscopy and conducted research on a variety of minor subjects. In his investigations of the conduction of electricity in low pressure gases, he discovered that as the pressure was lowered, as these examples indicate, he was a pioneer in the construction and use of vacuum tubes for the study of physical phenomena. He was, as a consequence, one of the first scientists to investigate what is now called a plasma and he also devised one of the first instruments for studying nuclear radioactivity, the spinthariscope
27.
William Swan Sonnenschein
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William Swan Sonnenschein, known from 1917 as William Swan Stallybrass, was a British publisher, editor and bibliographer. His publishing firm, Swan Sonnenschein, published works in the fields of philosophy. As well as literature and periodicals. In 1902 he became the managing director of the British publishing firm George Routledge & Sons. In his youth Sonnenschein was apprenticed to the London publishers and book importers Williams, in 1878 he founded the publishing firm, W. Swan Sonnenschein & Allen, with the first of several partners, J. Archibald Allen. In 1882 the firms name was restyled to W. Swan Sonnenschein & Co, in 1895 the firm became a limited liability company. Under him the firm published several renowned book series, including the Library of Philosophy, the firm also acquired a reputation for publishing radical works, including those of George Bernard Shaw, Karl Marx, and Edward Carpenter. Other major authors published were J. M. Barrie, Henry James, George Meredith and he was a member of the Ethical Society and published its literature. In 1902 he left Swan Sonnenschein to work as managing director at the publishing house George Routledge & Sons. Later he took up a position at Kegan Paul, in 1911 the firm Swan Sonnenschein became amalgamated with George Allen & Co. Sonnenschein wrote The Best Books, a general bibliography that became a standard reference book in larger libraries for many years. Its third edition was described by The New York Times as a valuable work and he was one of six children of Adolphus Sonnenschein, a teacher and writer originally from Moravia and his first wife, Sarah Robinson Stallybrass. One of his brothers was the English classical scholar Edward Adolf Sonnenschein and he married Helena Teulon in 1882. William and Helena had two children, the jurist and university administrator William Teulon Swan Sonnenschein and Frances Helena Swan Sonnenschein, similarly, his wife and children changed their names to Helena Stallybrass, William Teulon Swan Stallybrass and Frances Helena Swan Stallybrass respectively. London, Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey & Co.1887, 3rd ed. London, George Routledge and Sons, 1910–35. A true account of the most remarkable assaults committed of late years upon the Coast of the West Indies by the Buccaneers of Jamaica and Tortuga, a translation of the 1684–85 revision and edited by W. S. Stalleybrass. With an introduction by Andrew Lang, with frontispiece,10 full-page plates, and text figures. The Epic of the Beast, Consisting of English Translations of The History of Reynard the Fox, London, George Routledge & Sons Ltd.1924
28.
Charles Kegan Paul
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Charles Kegan Paul was an English publisher and author. Paul was born at White Lackington, Somerset, and was educated at Eton and at Exeter College and he became curate at Great Tew in 1851. From 1853 to 1862 he was a master at Eton, after twelve years as vicar of Sturminster Marshall from 1862 to 1874, he entered the publishing business in London, from which he retired in 1899. Kegan Pauls business was continued by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. which merged with George Routledge in 1912 and he left the Church of England for Positivism, and in his last years entered the Roman Catholic Church. His portrait was painted by Anna Lea Merritt, as an author he is best known for his biographies and translations. Their son Eden Paul was a socialist physician, writer and translator and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, works by or about Charles Kegan Paul at Internet Archive C. Kegan Paul at Library of Congress Authorities, with 15 catalogue records
29.
Karl Mannheim
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Mannheim was born in Budapest, to a Hungarian father who was a textile manufacturer and a German mother. He studied at the University of Budapest as well as in Berlin, Paris, at the University of Budapest, he earned a doctorate in philosophy. In 1914 he attended lectures by Georg Simmel, after the ouster of Bela Kun and the rise of Horthy as Regent of Hungary, Mannheim chose exile in Germany. In Germany Mannheim moved from Freiburg to Heidelberg, and in 1921 he married psychologist Juliska Károlyné Lang, after an unsuccessful attempt to gain a philosopher as sponsor in Heidelberg, he began work in 1924 under the German sociologist Alfred Weber, brother of the well-known sociologist Max Weber. In 1926 Mannheim had his habilitation accepted by the faculty of social sciences, Mannheim was chosen over other competitors for the post, one of whom was Walter Benjamin. From 1929-1933 he served as a professor of sociology and political economy at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, norbert Elias and Hans Gerth worked as his assistants during this period with Elias as the senior partner. In January 1946 he was appointed as the first sociology professor at the Institute of Education and he gained a position of influence through his editorship of the extensive Routledge series on social sciences. Mannheim’s life, one of intellectual and geographical migration, falls into three phases, Hungarian, German, British. Among his valued interlocutors were György Lukács, Oszkár Jászi, Georg Simmel, Martin Heidegger, Edmund Husserl, Karl Marx, Alfred and Max Weber, Max Scheler, and Wilhelm Dilthey. In his work, he sought variously to synthesize elements derived from German historicism, Marxism, phenomenology, sociology, Mannheim was a precocious scholar and an accepted member of two influential intellectual circles in Budapest. Some discussion focused on the enthusiasms of German diagnosticians of cultural crisis, notably the novels of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, the Social Science Association, on the other hand, was founded by Oszkár Jászi in 1919 and was interested above all in French and English sociological writings. Mannheims Hungarian writings, notably his doctoral dissertation Structural Analysis of Epistemology, according to the sociologist Longhurst, the Sonntagskreis rejected any positivist or mechanist understanding of society and was dissatisfied with the existing political arrangements in Hungary. The way forward was seen to be through the spiritual renewal entailed in a revolution in culture, the group members were discontent with the political and intellectual composition of Hungary, however, they rejected a materialist Marxist critique of this society. Hungary was to be changed by a spiritual renewal led by those who had reached a significant level of cultural awareness, yet they did not exclude Marxist themes and Mannheims work was influenced by Lukacs Marxist interests, as he credits Marx as the forerunner to the sociology of knowledge. The sociology of culture is defined as the relationship between culture and society, the radical branch highlighted that society is determined by all aspects of culture. When it came to the sociology of knowledge, Mannheim believed that it established a dependence of knowledge on social reality, Mannheim affirmed the sociology of knowledge as an extrinsic interpretation and sets apart from the immanent interpretation of thought products. Mannheim claimed that the sociology of knowledge has to be understood as the expression of historical experience which has social reality at its vital center. In 1920 a series of his essays were published in Germany under the name Essays in Sociology of Knowledge and these essays focused on the search for the meaning behind social reality, the notion of truth and the role of the empirical intellectual in search for these truths
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Philosophy
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Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
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Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
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Thomson Corporation
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This article is about Thomson prior to its merger with Reuters Group. For the current company, see Thomson Reuters, for other companies called Thomson, see Thomson. The Thomson Corporation was one of the worlds largest information companies and it was established in 1989 following a merger between International Thomson Organisation Ltd and Thomson Newspapers. In 2008, it purchased Reuters Group to form Thomson Reuters, the Thomson Corporation was active in financial services, healthcare sectors, law, science and technology research and tax and accounting sectors. The company operated through five segments, Thomson Financial, Thomson Healthcare, Thomson Legal, Thomson Scientific, until 2007, Thomson was also a major worldwide provider of higher education textbooks, academic information solutions and reference materials. On 26 October 2006, Thomson announced the sale of its Thomson Learning assets. In May 2007, Thomson Learning was acquired by Apax Partners, the Thomson Learning brand was used to the end of August 2007. Subsequently, on 15 October 2007, Educational Testing Service finalized acquisition of Thomsons Prometric, Thomson sold its global network of testing centres in 135 countries, for a reported $435 million. Prometric now operates as an owned subsidiary of ETS. On 15 May 2007, the Thomson Corporation reached an agreement with Reuters to combine the two companies, a deal valued at $17.2 billion, on 17 April 2008 the new company was created under the name of Thomson Reuters. The chief executive officer of Thomson Reuters is Jim Smith, although it was officially a Canadian company and remained Canadian owned, Thomson was run from its operational headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut, in the United States. Thomson had grown from a single Canadian newspaper, the Timmins Daily Press, acquired in 1934 by Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet and it once owned several prominent newspapers in the United Kingdom, including The Times and The Scotsman, and it owned Scottish Television. In the 1960s, Thomsons publishing realm expanded further to include Thomson Publication, a magazine and book publishing house. In 1965, Thomson Newspapers, Ltd. was formed as a publicly traded company in Canada, Roy Thomsons prolific endeavors in publishing had earned him a hereditary title, Lord Thomson of Fleet. Thomson used its oil profits to buy small newspapers in the United States, starting with the acquisition of Brush-Moore Newspapers in 1967 for $72 million, by the end of the 1970s, Thomson Newspapers circulation in the United States had surpassed the 1 million mark. The merger of Thomson Newspapers and the International Thomson Organization in 1989 created the Thomson Corporation, over the years, the company has withdrawn from its holdings in the oil and gas business, the travel industry and department stores. When Kenneth Thomson took over from his father Roy in 1976, at Kenneths death in June 2006, the company was valued at about $29.3 billion. In 1978, the acquisition of Wadsworth Publishing provided Thomson with its first entry into specialised information, college textbooks, starting in the mid-1990s, Thomson invested further in specialised information services and began selling off its newspapers
33.
Private equity
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In finance, private equity is a type of equity and one of the asset classes consisting of equity securities and debt in operating companies that are not publicly traded on a stock exchange. A private equity investment will generally be made by an equity firm. Bloomberg Businessweek has called private equity a rebranding of leveraged-buyout firms after the 1980s, common investment strategies in private equity include, leveraged buyouts, venture capital, growth capital, distressed investments and mezzanine capital. In a typical leveraged-buyout transaction, a private-equity firm buys majority control of an existing or mature firm and this is distinct from a venture-capital or growth-capital investment, in which the investors invest in young, growing or emerging companies, and rarely obtain majority control. Private equity is often grouped into a broader category called private capital, generally used to describe capital supporting any long-term. The strategies private equity firms may use are as follows, leveraged buyout being the most important, the companies involved in these transactions are typically mature and generate operating cash flows. Leveraged buyouts involve a financial sponsor agreeing to an acquisition without itself committing all the capital required for the acquisition, to do this, the financial sponsor will raise acquisition debt which ultimately looks to the cash flows of the acquisition target to make interest and principal payments. Acquisition debt in an LBO is often non-recourse to the sponsor and has no claim on other investments managed by the financial sponsor. Historically the debt portion of a LBO will range from 60%–90% of the purchase price, between 2000–2005 debt averaged between 59. 4% and 67. 9% of total purchase price for LBOs in the United States. A private equity fund say for example, ABC Capital II, to this it adds $2bn of equity – money from its own partners and from limited partners. With this $11bn it buys all the shares of an underperforming company and it replaces the senior management in XYZ Industrial, and they set out to streamline it. The workforce is reduced, some assets are sold off, etc, the objective is to increase the value of the company for an early sale. The stock market is experiencing a market, and XYZ Industrial is sold two years after the buy-out for $13bn, yielding a profit of $2bn. The original loan can now be paid off with interest of say $0. 5bn, the remaining profit of $1. 5bn is shared among the partners. Taxation of such gains is at capital gains rates, notes, The lenders can insure against default by syndicating the loan to spread the risk, or by buying credit default swaps or selling collateralised debt obligations from/to other institutions. Often the loan/equity is not paid off after sale but left on the books of the company for it to pay off over time and this can be advantageous since the interest is typically offsettable against the profits of the company, thus reducing, or even eliminating, tax. Most buyout deals are much smaller, the average purchase in 2013 was $89m. The target company does not have to be floated on the stockmarket, buy-out operations can go wrong and in such cases the loss is increased by leverage, just as the profit is if all goes well
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Rebranding
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Often, this involves radical changes to a brands logo, name, legal names, image, marketing strategy, and advertising themes. Rebranding can be applied to new products, mature products, or even products still in development, rebranding can also refer to a change in a company/ corporate brand that may own several sub-brands for products or companies. Rebranding has become something of a fad at the turn of the millennium, the rebranding of Philip Morris to Altria was done to help the company shed its negative image. Other rebrandings, such as the British Post Offices attempt to itself as Consignia, have proved such a failure that millions more had to be spent going back to square one. According to Sinclair, business the world over acknowledges the value of brands. “Brands, it seems, alongside ownership of copyright and trademarks, computer software and specialist know-how, are now at the heart of the intangible value investors place on companies. ”As such, companies in the 21st century may find it necessary to relook their brand in terms of its relevancy to consumers and the changing marketplace. Successful rebranding projects can yield a better off than before. Due to the impact that renaming and rebranding a company can have, it is critical to take the client through the process with great sensitivity. The new company identity and brand should also be launched in a subtle and methodical manner in order to avoid alienating old customers, marketing develops the awareness and associations in consumer memory so that customers know which brands best serve their needs. Corporations often rebrand in order to respond to external and/or internal issues, firms commonly have rebranding cycles in order to stay current with the times or set themselves ahead of the competition. Companies also utilize rebranding as a marketing tool to hide malpractices of the past. Corporations such as Citigroup, AOL, American Express, and Goldman Sachs all utilize third-party vendors that specialize in brand strategy, companies invest valuable resources into rebranding and third-party vendors because it is a way to protect them from being blackballed by customers in a very competitive market. Dr. Roger Sinclair, an expert on brand valuation and brand equity practice worldwide stated, “A brand is a resource acquired by an enterprise that generates future economic benefits. ”Once a brand has negative connotations associated with it, it can only lead to decreased profitability. Companies differentiate themselves from competitors by incorporating practices from changing their logo to going green, differentiating from competitors is important in order to attract more customers and an effective way to draw in more desirable employees. The need to differentiate is especially prevalent in saturated markets such as the services industry. Organisations may rebrand intentionally to shed negative images of the past, research suggests that concern over external perceptions of the organisation and its activities can function as a major driver in rebranding exercises. In a corporate context, managers can utilize rebranding as a marketing strategy to hide malpractices and avoid or shed negative connotations. Corporations such as Philip Morris USA, Blackwater and AIG rebranded in order to shed negative images, in 2008, AIGs image became damaged due to its need for a Federal bailout during the financial crisis
35.
Fredric Warburg
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Fredric John Warburg was a British publisher best known for his association with the author George Orwell. Other notable publications included The Third Eye by Lobsang Rampa, Pierre Boulles The Bridge over the River Kwai, Adolf Hitlers Mein Kampf and William Shirers The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. Warburg was born on 27 November 1898 in Paddington, London, to John Cimon Warburg, a photographer, John Cimon was the oldest son of Fredric Elias Warburg and Emma. At the age of nine, Fredric Warburg was sent to Wilkinsons boys preparatory school and he later won a scholarship to Westminster School. He recalled his first two years there as among the most hateful of my life, while he excelled academically, as a Jew he often felt an outsider. He found refuge and solace in his love of books, in summer 1917, Warburg was commissioned to serve as an officer in the Royal Artillery. He was stationed in the Ypres area until the end of the war, after the war he began studying chemistry at Christ Church, Oxford, but later switched to classics and philosophy, receiving his MA in 1922. Warburgs first marriage, to May Nellie Holt, produced three sons, David, Hew Francis and Jeremy Fredric, the marriage ended in divorce in 1932, and on 21 January 1933 Warburg married the painter and designer Pamela Bryer. They had a son who died of a brain haemorrhage within 24 hours of his birth, during the Second World War, Warburg served as a corporal in the Home Guard, in the same section in which Orwell held the rank of sergeant. Warburg died of heart failure at University College Hospital, London, on 25 May 1981, after Stallybrass died in 1931 Warburg became increasingly dissatisfied with Routledge and in 1935 he was dismissed. Later that year he and Roger Senhouse purchased the firm of Martin Secker, which had gone into receivership. The firm became renowned for its independent left-wing position, being both anti-fascist and anti-Communist, which put it at loggerheads with many intellectuals of the time. Among the books the firm published were C. L. R. Jamess World Revolution, Reg Grovess We Shall Rise Again, Boris Souvarines Stalin and André Gides Back from the USSR. When George Orwell parted company with Victor Gollancz over publication of The Road to Wigan Pier it was to Secker & Warburg that he took his next book, the firm published all of Orwells books from then on, and he and Warburg became intimate friends. In 1940 Warburg introduced Orwell to another of his firms authors, T. R. Fyvel, with its financial position devastated by paper shortages during and after the war, Secker & Warburg was forced to join the Heinemann publishing group in 1952. During the 1950s and 1960s Secker & Warburg published books by authors including Simone de Beauvoir, Colette, Alberto Moravia, Günter Grass, Angus Wilson, Melvyn Bragg and Julian Gloag. In 1961 Warburg was made a director of the Heinemann group and he also published two volumes of autobiography, An Occupation for Gentlemen and All Authors are Equal. In 1954 Secker & Warburg was prosecuted for obscenity after publishing The Philanderer, Warburg was offered the chance to plead guilty and escape with a minimal fine, but opted for trial by jury at the Old Bailey
36.
Theodor W. Adorno
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Theodor W. Adorno was a German philosopher, sociologist, and composer known for his critical theory of society. He is widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys foremost thinkers on aesthetics and philosophy, as a writer of polemics in the tradition of Nietzsche and Karl Kraus, Adorno delivered scathing critiques of contemporary Western culture. Theodor W. Adorno was born as Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund in Frankfurt am Main on September 11,1903, the only child of Oscar Alexander Wiesengrund and Maria Calvelli-Adorno della Piana. His mother, a devout Catholic from Corsica, was once a professional singer, while his father, proud of her origins, Maria wanted her sons paternal surname to be supplemented by the addition of her own name, Adorno. Thus his earliest publications carried the name Theodor Wiesengrund-Adorno, upon his application for US citizenship and he was not only a precocious child but, as he recalled later in life, a child prodigy who could play pieces by Beethoven on the piano by the time he was twelve. At the age of six, he attended the Deutschherren middle school before transferring to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gymnasium, I took this motif so much as my own that I do not believe I have ever written anything without reference to it, either implicit or explicit. Yet Adornos intellectual nonconformism was no less shaped by the repugnance he felt towards the nationalism which swept through the Reich during the First World War, the younger generations distrust for traditional knowledge arose from the way in which this tradition had discredited itself. Over time, Oscar Wiesengrunds firm established close professional and personal ties with the factory of Karplus & Herzberger in Berlin, I am not exaggerating in the slightest when I say that I owe more to this reading than to my academic teachers. In the summer of 1924, Adorno received his doctorate with a study of Edmund Husserl under the direction of the unorthodox neo-Kantian Hans Cornelius, before his graduation, Adorno had already met with his most important intellectual collaborators, Max Horkheimer and Walter Benjamin. Through Corneliuss seminars, Adorno met his future collaborator Max Horkheimer, in Vienna, he attended public lectures of the satirist Karl Kraus with Berg and met Lukács, who had been living in Vienna after the failure of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Alban Berg, the man Adorno referred to as my master and teacher, was among the most prescient of his young pupils early friends, convinced that and you are capable of supreme achievements and will undoubtedly fulfill this promise in the shape of great philosophical works. In December 1926 Adornos Two Pieces for String Quartet, op.2 were performed in Vienna, after writing the Piano Pieces in strict twelve-tone technique, as well as songs later integrated into the Six Bagatelles for Voice and Piano, op. 6, Adorno presented his Habilitation manuscript, The Concept of the Unconscious in the Transcendental Theory of the Psyche, Cornelius advised Adorno to withdraw his application on the grounds that the manuscript was too close to his own way of thinking. In this manuscript, Adorno attempted to underline the epistemological status of the unconscious as it emerged from Freuds early writings, against the function of the unconscious in both Nietzsche and Spengler, Adorno argued that Freuds notion of the unconscious serves as a sharp weapon. Against every attempt to create a metaphysics of the instincts and to deify full, undaunted by his academic prospects, Adorno threw himself once again into composition. In addition to publishing numerous reviews of performances and concerts, Adornos Four Songs for Medium Voice and Piano. Between 1928 and 1930 Adorno took on a role within the editorial committee of the Musikblätter des Anbruch. During this period he published the essays Night Music, On Twelve-Tone Technique and Reaction, at this time, Adorno struck up a correspondence with the composer Ernst Krenek, with whom he discussed problems of atonality and twelve-tone technique
37.
David Bohm
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To complement it, he developed a mathematical and physical theory of implicate and explicate order. In this, his epistemology mirrored his ontology, due to his Communist affiliations, Bohm was the subject of a federal government investigation in 1949, prompting him to leave the United States. He pursued his career in several countries, becoming first a Brazilian. Bohm was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, United States, to a Hungarian Jewish immigrant father, Samuel Bohm, and he was raised mainly by his father, a furniture-store owner and assistant of the local rabbi. Despite being raised in a Jewish family, he became an agnostic in his teenage years, Bohm attended Pennsylvania State College, graduating in 1939, and then the California Institute of Technology, for one year. He then transferred to the physics group directed by Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley. Bohm lived in the neighborhood as some of Oppenheimers other graduate students. He was active in Communist and Communist-backed organizations, including the Young Communist League, the Campus Committee to Fight Conscription, during World War II, the Manhattan Project mobilized much of Berkeleys physics research in the effort to produce the first atomic bomb. Though Oppenheimer had asked Bohm to work with him at Los Alamos, Bohm remained in Berkeley, teaching physics, until he completed his Ph. D. in 1943 by an unusual circumstance. According to Peat, the calculations that he had completed proved useful to the Manhattan Project and were immediately classified. Without security clearance, Bohm was denied access to his own work, not only would he be barred from defending his thesis, to satisfy the university, Oppenheimer certified that Bohm had successfully completed the research. Bohm later performed theoretical calculations for the Calutrons at the Y-12 facility in Oak Ridge, after the war, Bohm became an assistant professor at Princeton University, where he worked closely with Albert Einstein. In May 1949, the House Un-American Activities Committee called upon Bohm to testify because of his previous ties to suspected Communists, Bohm invoked his Fifth amendment right to refuse to testify, and refused to give evidence against his colleagues. In 1950 Bohm was arrested for refusing to answer HUACs questions and he was acquitted in May 1951, but Princeton had already suspended him. His request to go to Manchester received Einsteins support but was unsuccessful, Bohm then left for Brazil to assume a professorship of physics at the University of São Paulo at Jayme Tiomnos invitation, and on Einsteins and Oppenheimers recommendation. During his early period, Bohm made a number of significant contributions to physics, particularly quantum mechanics, as a post-graduate at Berkeley, he developed a theory of plasmas, discovering the electron phenomenon known now as Bohm-diffusion. His first book, Quantum Theory, published in 1951, was received by Einstein. But Bohm became dissatisfied with the interpretation of quantum theory he had written about in that book
38.
Judith Butler
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Judith Butler is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has influenced political philosophy, ethics and the fields of third-wave feminist, queer and literary theory. Since 1993, she has taught at the University of California, Berkeley, where she is now Maxine Elliot Professor in the Department of Comparative Literature and she is also the Hannah Arendt Chair at the European Graduate School. This theory has had a influence on feminist and queer scholarship. Her works are implemented in film studies courses emphasizing gender studies. Butler has actively supported lesbian and gay rights movements and has spoken out on many political issues. Judith Butler was born in Cleveland, Ohio, to a family of Hungarian and Russian Jewish descent, most of her maternal grandmothers family perished in the Holocaust. As a child and teenager, she attended both Hebrew school and special classes on Jewish ethics, where she received her first training in philosophy, could German Idealism be held accountable for Nazism. And how was one to understand existential theology, including the work of Martin Buber, Butler attended Bennington College and then Yale University where she studied philosophy, receiving her B. A. in 1978 and her Ph. D. in 1984. She spent one year at Heidelberg University as a Fulbright-Scholar. She taught at Wesleyan University, George Washington University, and Johns Hopkins University before joining University of California, Berkeley, in 2002 she held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam. In this essay, Judith Butler proposes her theory of gender performativity and she begins by basing her theory of gender performativity on a feminist phenomenological point of view. She suggests that both phenomenology and feminism ground their theories in lived experience and this combination of theories is essential for founding Butlers view of theatrical or performative genders in society. Butler argues that it is valid to perceive gender as a performance in which an individual agent acts. The performative element of her theory suggests a social audience, for Butler, the script of gender performance is effortlessly transmitted generation to generation in the form of socially established meanings, She states, gender is not a radical choice. Imposed or inscribed upon the individual, given the social nature of human beings, most actions are witnessed, reproduced, and internalized and thus take on a performative or theatric quality. Currently, the actions appropriate for men and women have been transmitted to produce an atmosphere that both maintains and legitimizes a seemingly natural gender binary. Butler argues that the performance of gender itself creates gender, additionally, she compares the performativity of gender to the performance of the theater. She brings many similarities, including the idea of each individual functioning as an actor of their gender, however she also brings into light a critical difference between gender performance in reality and theater performances
