1.
Abingdon-on-Thames
–
Abingdon /ˈæbɪŋdən/, also known as Abingdon on Thames or Abingdon-on-Thames, is a market town and civil parish in England. Historically the county town of Berkshire, since 1974 it has been the seat of the Vale of White Horse district in the county of Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 33,130. This is 2,504 more than in the 2001 Census total of 30,626 and it is on the A415 between Witney and Dorchester, adjacent to the A34 trunk road, linking it with the M4 and M40 motorways. The B4017 and A4183 also link the town, both being part of the old A34 and often heavily congested, Local bus services to Oxford and the surrounding areas are run by Stagecoach Oxfordshire, Thames Travel, the Oxford Bus Company and smaller independent companies. The small, primarily stopping-service, railway stations at Culham and Radley are both just over 2 miles away, Abingdons eastern ring-road and newest suburbs are under a mile which is connected by footpath and cycleway from Radley railway station. The Radley to Abingdon railway station branch line closed to passengers in 1963, the nearest major stations with taxi ranks are Oxford and Didcot Parkway. All are managed by First Great Western, frequent express buses operate between Oxford station and Abingdon. A Neolithic stone hand axe was found at Abingdon, petrological analysis in 1940 identified the stone as epidotised tuff from Stake Pass in the Lake District,250 miles to the north. Stone axes from the same source have been found at Sutton Courtenay, Alvescot, Kencot, Abingdon has been occupied from the early to middle Iron Age and the remains of a late Iron Age defensive enclosure lies below the town centre. The oppidum was in use throughout the Roman occupation, Abingdon Abbey was founded in Saxon times, possibly around AD676, but its early history is confused by numerous legends, invented to raise its status and explain the place name. The name seems to mean Hill of a man named Æbba, or a woman named Æbbe, however Abingdon stands in a valley and not on a hill. It is thought that the name was first given to a place on Boars Hill above Chilswell, in 1084, William the Conqueror celebrated Easter at the Abbey and then left his son, the future Henry I, to be educated there. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Abingdon was an agricultural centre with an extensive trade in wool. The abbot seems to have held a market very early times and charters for the holding of markets and fairs were granted by various sovereigns. In 1337 there was a riot in protest at the Abbots control of this market in which several of the monks were killed. P. The present Christs Hospital originally belonged to the Guild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI founded the almshouses instead, the council was empowered to elect one burgess to parliament and this right continued until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were appointed and the boundaries described in great detail
Abingdon-on-Thames
–
The
River Thames at Abingdon looking towards St. Helen's parish church
Abingdon-on-Thames
–
Coat of arms of Abingdon: Vert a Cross patonce Or between four Crosses pattée Argent
Abingdon-on-Thames
–
Long Alley Almshouses near
St Helen's Church
Abingdon-on-Thames
–
County Hall, completed in 1680
2.
Academic journals
–
An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
Academic journals
–
Different types of peer-reviewed research journals; these specific publications are about
economics
3.
Humanities
–
Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human culture. In the Middle Ages, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and sometimes social, sciences as well as professional training. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, art, scholars in the humanities are humanity scholars or humanists. The term humanist also describes the position of humanism, which some antihumanist scholars in the humanities refuse. The Renaissance scholars and artists were also called humanists, some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of English literature, global studies and art. Human disciplines like history and cultural anthropology study subject matters that the method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method. Anthropology is the science of humans, a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the sciences, humanities. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields, archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions, the word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, the goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological and it is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture, the archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a science and a branch of the humanities. It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time
Humanities
–
The philosopher
Plato – Roman copy of a work by
Silanion
Humanities
–
Bust of
Homer, a Greek poet
Humanities
–
A trial at a criminal court, the
Old Bailey in
London
Humanities
–
Shakespeare wrote some of the most acclaimed works in
English literature.
4.
Social science
–
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
Social science
–
Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in
Chichicastenango Market,
Guatemala.
Social science
–
A depiction of world's oldest university, the
University of Bologna, in Italy
Social science
–
This article is about the science studying social groups. For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see
Social studies.
Social science
–
A trial at a criminal court, the
Old Bailey in
London
5.
Education
–
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
Education
–
Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering,
CTU, in Prague
Education
–
School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province,
Afghanistan
Education
–
Student participants in the
FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.
Education
–
Nalanda, ancient center for higher learning
6.
Genre
–
Genre is any form or type of communication in any mode with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time. Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented, often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible. Genre began as a classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry, prose, and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, in later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre became a tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a state, in that people write/paint/sing/dance about what they know about. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized, and to works on their unique merit. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes. The term genre is used in the history and criticism of visual art. These are distinguished from staffage, incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting, Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the hierarchy of genres was a one in artistic theory. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a role in academic art. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as adult, young adult. They also must not be confused with format, such as novel or picture book
Genre
–
A genre painting (Peasant Dance, c. 1568, by
Pieter Brueghel the Elder)
7.
Academic
–
Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
Academic
–
Students and scholars at the entrance to the
University of Concepción,
Chile.
Academic
–
Nalanda, ancient center of higher learning in
Bihar,
India from 427 to 1197
8.
Cinven
–
In 2014, it had €11.5 billion in assets under management. Cinven’s funding base originally came solely from three UK pension funds who remain as important investors, Cinven has been reported to originally stand for Coal Investment Nominees for Venture Capital. Cinven invests in six sectors on a basis, Business Services, Technology, Media and Telecommunications, Financial Services, Industrials, Healthcare. Cinven is an equity firm based in London. Some of the recent acquisitions include, Avio – In 2006, Cinven purchased Avio from Carlyle, spire Healthcare – In June 2007, BUPA announced that it had agreed to sell its hospitals business, comprising 25 hospitals, to Cinven for $1.44 billion. Spire has since acquired the Classics Hospital Group for GBP145 million, as well as a single hospital in Gerrards Cross. Gondola Holdings – acquired in 2007 for $1.36 billion, Gondola is the leader in the UK casual dining sector, with brands such as PizzaExpress, ASK, Zizzi and BYRON.4 billion in cash. CeramTec Group – acquired in June 2013 Host Europe Group – acquired in July 2013, medpace – In February 2014, Cinven agreed to acquire the pharmaceutical contract research organisation from CCMP Capital for around $900 million. Northgate Public Services – In December 2014, Cinven agreed to acquire the services division of Northgate Information Solutions for an undisclosed amount. Labco – In May 2015, Cinven agreed to acquire this operator of medical diagnostics laboratories for €1.2 billion, synlab Group acquired in June 2015 for €1. 7-1.8 billion. Kurt Geiger - In December 2015, Cinven acquired UK-based fashion retailer Kurt Geiger from Sycamore Partners for £245 million
Cinven
–
Basic investment types
Cinven
–
Cinven
Cinven
–
3i Group
9.
Informa
–
Informa plc is a multinational publishing and events company with its head office and registered office in London. It has offices in 43 countries and around 6,500 employees and it owns numerous brands including CRC Press, Datamonitor, Institute for International Research, Lloyds List, Routledge, and Taylor & Francis. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, Informas oldest business started in 1734 when Lloyds List, now one of the worlds oldest continuously running journals, began covering London shipping news. Informa itself was created in 1998 by the merger of IBC Group plc, in October 2006, the company was approached by Springer Science and Business Media in a takeover bid, but in early November the Informa board rejected the 630p per share offer as too low. On 8 June 2008, The Sunday Telegraph revealed that United Business Media had proposed a merger with Informa to create a media group worth over £3 billion, the talks were confirmed by Informa in a press release that same day, but described as preliminary. Previously on May 13 The Times had reported that the Carlyle Group, on June 17 talks with UBM ended because of the rapid rise in Informas stock price after the public disclosure of the potential merger. On June 26 a private equity consortium consisting of Providence Equity Partners, on 1 May 2009 the company announced that it would be restructure its business so it was incorporated in Jersey but tax resident in Switzerland. On 10 July 2013 the company announced that Peter Rigby would retire at the end of 2013 to be replaced as CEO by Stephen A Carter, also in 2013, Informa acquired the Canadian company Hobby Star Marketing, who runs the comic book convention brand Fan Expo. Informa has since acquired other conventions and placed them under Fan Expos auspises, in December 2013, Informa acquired the assets of Elsevier Business Intelligence from Reed Elsevier. The EBI business unit includes such publications as The Pink Sheet, The Gray Sheet, IN VIVO, Start-Up, the EBI assets combined with Scrip, Datamonitor and several other publications formed the newly created Pharma Intelligence division of Informa Business Information. In January 2014, Stephen Carter became CEO of Informa plc, the company operates more than 10,000 conferences annually, and publishes newsletters, academic journals, commercial databases, and academic and business books. Its online publishing portal Informaworld provided subscribers with more than half a million articles and 13,000 e-books from all its imprints. In June 2011 the journals and e-books transferred to a new website, abstracting and indexing databases and bibliographic databases were to move from Informaworld to Taylor & Francis Online at a later date. Besides publishing, the group has several other interests represented by the brands it owns in many countries and these brands work in the areas of performance improvement and management consulting. It has the following divisions, Informa
Informa
–
Informa plc
10.
Milton Park
–
Milton Park is a 250-acre mixed use business and technology park operated by MEPC plc. It is just south of the village of Milton, Oxfordshire and it is on the site of a former Ministry of Defence depot between the A34 and Didcot Power Station. Although closer to Didcot, it lies within the Abingdon postcode area, Milton Park is home to 7,500 people and 250 organisations. It includes the offices of Alamy, RM Education, Halliburton and Taylor & Francis, offices of ITV and distribution depots for DHL. Milton Park has 3,400,000 sq ft business accommodation, and houses the Milton Park Innovation Centre, Milton Park is served by Thames Travel bus services X2, X32 and 32A. There is a siding for rail freight, connected to the Great Western Main Line. The nearest train service is to Didcot Parkway railway station and MEPC runs a shuttle bus service from the station to the business park
Milton Park
–
Milton Park
11.
Oxfordshire
–
Oxfordshire is a county in South East England bordering on Warwickshire, Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire and Gloucestershire. The county has major education and tourist industries and is noted for the concentration of performance companies and facilities. Oxford University Press is the largest firm among a concentration of print and publishing firms, the main centre of population is the city of Oxford. The highest point is White Horse Hill, in the Vale of White Horse, oxfordshires county flower is the Snakes-head Fritillary. Historically the area has always had some importance, since it contains valuable agricultural land in the centre of the county, largely ignored by the Romans, it was not until the formation of a settlement at Oxford in the eighth century that the area grew in importance. Alfred the Great was born across the Thames in Wantage, Vale of White Horse, the University of Oxford was founded in 1096, though its collegiate structure did not develop until later on. The university in the county town of Oxford grew in importance during the Middle Ages, the area was part of the Cotswolds wool trade from the 13th century, generating much wealth, particularly in the western portions of the county in the Oxfordshire Cotswolds. Morris Motors was founded in Oxford in 1912, bringing industry to an otherwise agricultural county. The importance of agriculture as an employer has declined rapidly in the 20th century though, nonetheless, Oxfordshire remains a very agricultural county by land use, with a lower population than neighbouring Berkshire and Buckinghamshire, which are both smaller. The Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, the army unit in the area, was based at Cowley Barracks on Bullingdon Green. Conversely, the Caversham area of Reading, now administratively in Berkshire, was part of Oxfordshire as was the parish of Stokenchurch. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Oxfordshire at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Oxfordshire has a comprehensive education system with 23 independent schools and 35 state secondary schools. Only eight schools do not have a form, these are mostly in South Oxfordshire. The county has two universities, the ancient University of Oxford and the modern Oxford Brookes University, both located in Oxford, in addition, Wroxton College, located in Banbury, is affiliated with Fairleigh Dickinson University of New Jersey. The dreaming spires of the buildings of the University of Oxford are among the reasons for Oxford being the sixth most visited city in the United Kingdom for international visitors. Among many notable University buildings are the Sheldonian Theatre, built 1664–68 to the design of Sir Christopher Wren, Blenheim Palace close to Woodstock was built by the great architect John Vanbrugh for John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, after he had won the battle of Blenheim. The gardens, which can be visited, were designed by the landscape gardener Capability Brown, in the palace, which can also be visited by the public, Sir Winston Churchill was born in 1874
Oxfordshire
–
Oxfordshire County Council http://www.oxfordshire.gov.uk
Oxfordshire
–
Flag
Oxfordshire
–
Brasenose Lane in Oxford city centre, a street onto which three colleges back.
Oxfordshire
–
The University of Oxford's Chemistry Research Laboratory.
12.
Philadelphia
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Philadelphia
–
From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a
statue of Benjamin Franklin, the
Liberty Bell, the
Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Philadelphia City Hall, and
Independence Hall
Philadelphia
–
An 18th century map of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia
–
Penn's Treaty with the Indians by
Benjamin West
Philadelphia
–
Benjamin Franklin, 1777
13.
Melbourne
–
Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
Melbourne
–
(From top left to bottom right)
Melbourne City Centre,
Flinders Street Station,
Shrine of Remembrance,
Federation Square,
Melbourne Cricket Ground,
Royal Exhibition Building.
Melbourne
–
Melbourne Landing, 1840; watercolour by W. Liardet (1840)
Melbourne
–
"Canvas Town", South Melbourne in the 1850s depicting temporary accommodation for the thousands who poured into Melbourne each week during the gold rush.
Melbourne
–
Lithograph of the
Royal Exhibition Building, built to host the
Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880
14.
New Delhi
–
New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
New Delhi
–
Clockwise from top left:
Secretariat Building,
Connaught Place,
Jantar Mantar,
Rashtrapati Bhavan,
India Gate
New Delhi
–
Lord Curzon and
Lady Curzon arriving at the Delhi Durbar, 1903.
New Delhi
–
The Delhi Durbar of 1911, with King George V and Queen Mary seated upon the dais.
New Delhi
–
The 1931 series celebrated the inauguration of New Delhi as the seat of government. The one
rupee stamp shows
George V with the "Secretariat Building" and Dominion Columns.
15.
Singapore
–
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
Singapore
–
Raffles Square around 1900.
Singapore
–
Flag
Singapore
–
Victorious Japanese troops marching through Singapore City after the British capitulation at the
Battle of Singapore in 1942.
Singapore
–
A cheering crowd welcome the return of British forces, 1945
16.
Beijing
–
Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
Beijing
–
Clockwise from top:
Beijing CBD skyline,
Tiananmen,
Temple of Heaven,
National Center for the Performing Arts, and
Beijing National Stadium
Beijing
–
The museum at
Zhoukoudian
Beijing
–
The
Tianning Pagoda, built around 1120.
Beijing
–
Longevity Hill in Beijing where
Kublai Khan wrote his poem.
17.
Tauchnitz
–
Tauchnitz was the name of a family of German printers and publishers. They published English language literature for distribution on the European continent outside Great Britain, Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz, born at Grossbardau near Grimma, Saxony, established a printing business in Leipzig in 1796 and a publishing house in 1798. He specialized in the publication of dictionaries, Bibles, and stereotyped editions of the Greek and he was the first publisher to introduce stereotyping into Germany. The business was carried on by his son, Karl Christian Phillipp Tauchnitz, until 1865 and he left large sums to the city of Leipzig for philanthropic purposes. Christian Bernhard, Freiherr von Tauchnitz, the founder of the firm of Bernhard Tauchnitz, was the nephew of the first-mentioned, christians father died when he was young and his uncle played an important part in his development. His printing and publishing firm was started at Leipzig on February 1,1837, Bernhard started the Collection of British and American Authors in 1841, a reprint series familiar to anglophone travellers on the continent of Europe. These inexpensive paperbound editions, a precursor to mass-market paperbacks, were begun in 1841. In 1868 he began the Collection of German Authors, followed in 1886 by the Students Tauchnitz Editions, in fact the books were authorised by the authors or their representatives for Continental sale only. The authors were paid royalties even at a time when no copyright protection for English and that was Baron Tauchnitzs policy from the foundation of his company. In 1841, when Tauchnitz started his English-language editions, there were no copyright treaties between England or the United States and Continental countries, although Tauchnitzs editions were authorised, they were not protected from copyright infringement and he could offer none to the authors he paid. A few years later, various Continental States formed copyright treaties with Britain, Prussia and Saxony in 1846, France in 1852, in these countries, the Tauchnitz Authorised Edition became the Copyright Edition. Finally, the Berne Convention of 1886 conferred copyright upon authors in its fullest form over the part of the developed world. In 1860 he was ennobled with the title of Freiherr for his services to literature, from 1866 to 1895 he was British Consul-General for the kingdom and duchies of Saxony. Christian Bernhard was succeeded in the business by his son, Christian Karl Bernhard and he made a tour of Europe, stayed some time in England, and learned to speak and write English with barely a flaw. In 1866, he entered partnership with his father at his firm. The two authors who first attracted Tauchnitzs attention were Dickens and Lytton with the novels Pickwick Papers, twenty-two years later, in 1863, the five-hundredth title of the series was published under the title Five Centuries of the English Language and Literature. In 1869, an English-language edition of The New Testament, exhibiting the differences between the original Alexandrine, Sinaitic and Vatican manuscripts, was the one-thousandth title. It was dedicated by the Baron To my English and American Authors, as a Token of Esteem for the Living, by 1901,3,500 books had been published
Tauchnitz
–
Christian Bernhard, 1st Baron of Tauchnitz
Tauchnitz
–
Christian Karl Bernhard, 2nd Baron of Tauchnitz. from a portrait by
Vilma Lwoff-Parlaghy
Tauchnitz
–
Two Tauchnitz books from the 1930s. The last line on the cover reads: Not to be introduced into the British Empire or U.S.A. (
Details)
18.
Frederick Warne
–
Frederick Warne was a British publisher, founder of Frederick Warne & Co. He was born in Westminster in 1825, sixth and youngest son of the children of Edmund Warne, a builder. From 1851 to 1865 Warne was largely identified with the success of the firm, in 1865, on the advice of the publisher George Smith, of Smith, Elder & Co. Warne began an independent publishing career, he was joined by Edward James Dodd, and by A. W. Duret, an American branch was established in New York in 1881. Warne effectively emulated Routledges ambition to popularise well-regarded literature, in 1868 he inaugurated Chandos Classics, there were 154 titles in the series, and five million copies were sold. The series included an edition of Shakespeare which sold 340,000 copies, nuttalls Dictionary, which was originally published by Routledge, Warne & Routledge in 1863, was first issued by Warne in January 1867, when 668,000 copies were soon sold. In 1886 a revised edition appeared, which nearly one million copies by 1911. Warne was active in the publication of coloured picture books for children, in the field of fiction Warne issued Benjamin Disraelis novels before their transfer to Messrs. Longman in 1870, and published in London most of Frances Hodgson Burnetts novels and he also first introduced to the English reading public the three American magazines The Century Magazine, St. Nicholas Magazine, and Scribners Monthly. In 1895 Warne, with his partner Dodd, left the business and he died at his home,8 Bedford Square, on 7 November 1901, and was buried at Highgate Cemetery. He married on 6 July 1852, Louisa Jane, daughter of William Fruing of Jersey, they had seven sons, three sons and two daughters survived him. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Owen. Dictionary of National Biography,1912 supplement, London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 594–595
Frederick Warne
–
Frederick Warne & Co
Frederick Warne
–
1899 printing of
Charles Kingsley 's
Westward Ho!
19.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
–
Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton PC, was an English novelist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was immensely popular with the public and wrote a stream of bestselling novels which earned him a considerable fortune. He coined the phrases the great unwashed, pursuit of the almighty dollar, the pen is mightier than the sword, dweller on the threshold, and he had two elder brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer and Henry, later Lord Dalling and Bulwer. When Edward was four his father died and his moved to London. He was a delicate, neurotic child and was discontented at a number of boarding schools, but he was precocious and Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, Ishmael and Other Poems. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met John Auldjo, in 1825 he won the Chancellors Gold Medal for English verse. In the following year he took his B. A. degree and printed, for private circulation and he purchased a commission in the army, but sold it without serving. In August 1827, against his mothers wishes, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler, when they married his mother withdrew his allowance and he was forced to work for a living. They had two children, Lady Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton, and Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton who became Governor-General and his writing and political work strained their marriage while his infidelity embittered Rosina, in 1833 they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal. Three years later, Rosina published Cheveley, or the Man of Honour, in June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she indignantly denounced him at the hustings. He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance, finally he had her committed to a mental asylum. But, after a public outcry she was released a few weeks later and this incident was chronicled in her memoir, A Blighted Life. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband’s character, the death of Bulwer-Lyttons mother in 1843 greatly saddened him. His own exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief, on 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mothers will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence. His widowed mother had done the same in 1811, but, his brothers remained plain Bulwer. When King Otto of Greece abdicated in 1862, he was offered the crown of Greece, in 1866 Bulwer-Lytton was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton. According to the Fulham Football Club, he resided in the original Craven Cottage. Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered with a disease of the ear and for the last two or three years of his life he lived in Torquay nursing his health
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
–
The Right Honourable The Lord Lytton
PC
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
–
Edward Bulwer-Lytton. His Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848) was the source for Verdi's opera
Aroldo
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
–
Bulwer-Lytton in later life
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
–
1849 printing of Pelham with Hablot K. Browne (
Phiz) frontispiece: Pelham's electioneering visit to the Revd. Combermere St Quintin, who is surprised at dinner with his family.
20.
Beatrix Potter
–
Helen Beatrix Potter was an English writer, illustrator, natural scientist, and conservationist best known for her childrens books featuring animals, such as those in The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Born into a household, Potter was educated by governesses. She had numerous pets and spent holidays in Scotland and the Lake District, developing a love of landscape, flora and fauna, in her thirties, Potter published the highly successful childrens book, The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Potter began writing and illustrating childrens books full-time, with the proceeds from the books and a legacy from an aunt, in 1905 Potter bought Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, a village in the Lake District, which at that time was in Lancashire. Over the following decades, she purchased additional farms to preserve the unique hill country landscape, in 1913, at the age of 47, she married William Heelis, a respected local solicitor from Hawkshead. Potter was also a breeder of Herdwick sheep and a prosperous farmer keenly interested in land preservation. Potter wrote about 30 books, the best known being her 24 childrens tales and she died of pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at her home in Near Sawrey at age 77, leaving almost all her property to the National Trust. She is credited with preserving much of the land that now constitutes the Lake District National Park. Potters books continue to sell throughout the world in many languages with her stories being retold in song, film, ballet, and animation, and her life depicted in a feature film and television film. Potters paternal grandfather, Edmund Potter, from Glossop in Derbyshire, owned what was then the largest calico printing works in England, and later served as a member of parliament. Beatrixs father, Rupert William Potter, was educated at Manchester College by the Unitarian philosopher Dr. James Martineau and he then trained as a barrister in London. Rupert practised law, specialising in equity law and conveyancing and he married Helen Leech on 8 August 1863 at Hyde Unitarian Chapel, Gee Cross. Helen was the daughter of Jane Ashton and John Leech, a cotton merchant. Helens first cousin was Harriet Lupton – the sister of Thomas Ashton, Beatrixs parents lived comfortably at 2 Bolton Gardens, West Brompton, where Helen Beatrix was born on 28 July 1866 and her brother Walter Bertram on 14 March 1872. Both parents were talented, and Rupert was an adept amateur photographer. Rupert had invested in the market and by the early 1890s was extremely wealthy. Potters family on both sides were from the Manchester area and they were English Unitarians, associated with dissenting Protestant congregations, influential in 19th century England, that affirmed the oneness of God and that rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Beatrix was educated by three able governesses, the last of whom was Annie Moore, just three years older than Beatrix, who tutored Beatrix in German as well as acting as ladys companion
Beatrix Potter
–
Beatrix Potter
Beatrix Potter
–
Potter at fifteen years with her
springer spaniel, Spot
Beatrix Potter
–
First edition, 1902
Beatrix Potter
–
Potter used many real locations for her book illustrations, the Tower Bank Arms, Near Sawrey appears in The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck.
21.
Edmund Routledge
–
Edmund Routledge, was a British publisher of boys magazine and an author of books about sports. Edmund Routledge was born in London on 30 January 1843, the son of George Routledge. He started with his fathers publishing house in 1859 and he founded and edited the magazines The Broadway, one of the earliest sixpenny monthly magazines, and Every Boys Magazine. He became a partner in Routledge, Warne, & Routledge in July 1865, in 1886, he stood as the Liberal Party candidate for Parliament for Kensington North, but came second to the incumbent, Sir Roper Lethbridge for the Conservative Party. In 1887, he stood as the Liberal candidate for Parliament for Paddington North in a by-election, from 1889 to 1895, he was a member of the London County Council for the Progressive Party. Routledges Dramatic Readings,196 pages In 1865, he married Martha Stephenson, on 25 August 1899, he died of a heart attack at Queen Anns Mansion, London, leaving five sons and three daughters. He is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, London
Edmund Routledge
–
His daughters Violet and Lily, painted by
Walter Crane
22.
Sir William Crookes
–
Sir William Crookes OM PRS was an English chemist and physicist who attended the Royal College of Chemistry in London, and worked on spectroscopy. He was a pioneer of vacuum tubes, inventing the Crookes tube which was made in 1875, Crookes was the inventor of the Crookes radiometer, which today is made and sold as a novelty item. Late in life, he interested in spiritualism, and became the president of the Society for Psychical Research. Crookes made a career of being a meteorologist and fierce lecture giver at multiple studies and courses, Crookes worked in chemistry and physics. His experiments were notable for the originality of their design and his interests, ranging over pure and applied science, economic and practical problems, and psychiatric research, made him a well-known personality. He received many public and academic honors, Crookess life was one of unbroken scientific activity. William Crookes was born in London, the eldest of 16 siblings and his father, Joseph Crookes, was a tailor of north-country origin, at that time living with his second wife, Mary Scott Lewis Rutherford Johnson. From 1850 to 1854 he filled the position of assistant in the college and it wasnt in organic chemistry which the focus of his teacher, August Wilhelm von Hofmann, might have been expected to lead him towards, but into new compounds of selenium. These were the subject of his first published papers,1851, in 1855 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Chester Diocesan Training College. In 1856 he married Ellen, daughter of William Humphrey of Darlington and they had three sons and a daughter. Married and living in London, he was devoted mainly to independent work, in 1859, he founded the Chemical News, a science magazine which he edited for many years and conducted on much less formal lines than was usual for the journals of scientific societies. In 1861, Crookes discovered an unknown element with a bright green emission line in its spectrum and named the element thallium, from the Greek thallos. Crookes wrote a treatise on Select Methods in Chemical Analysis in 1871. The method of analysis, introduced by Bunsen and Kirchhoff, was received by Crookes with great enthusiasm. His first important discovery was that of the element thallium, announced in 1861, by this work his reputation became firmly established, and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1863. He developed the Crookes tubes, investigating cathode rays and he published numerous papers on spectroscopy and conducted research on a variety of minor subjects. In his investigations of the conduction of electricity in low pressure gases, he discovered that as the pressure was lowered, as these examples indicate, he was a pioneer in the construction and use of vacuum tubes for the study of physical phenomena. He was, as a consequence, one of the first scientists to investigate what is now called a plasma and he also devised one of the first instruments for studying nuclear radioactivity, the spinthariscope
Sir William Crookes
–
Sir William Crookes in 1906
Sir William Crookes
–
Blue plaque, 7 Kensington Park Gardens, London
23.
Charles Kegan Paul
–
Charles Kegan Paul was an English publisher and author. Paul was born at White Lackington, Somerset, and was educated at Eton and at Exeter College and he became curate at Great Tew in 1851. From 1853 to 1862 he was a master at Eton, after twelve years as vicar of Sturminster Marshall from 1862 to 1874, he entered the publishing business in London, from which he retired in 1899. Kegan Pauls business was continued by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. which merged with George Routledge in 1912 and he left the Church of England for Positivism, and in his last years entered the Roman Catholic Church. His portrait was painted by Anna Lea Merritt, as an author he is best known for his biographies and translations. Their son Eden Paul was a socialist physician, writer and translator and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, works by or about Charles Kegan Paul at Internet Archive C. Kegan Paul at Library of Congress Authorities, with 15 catalogue records
Charles Kegan Paul
–
Charles Kegan Paul.
24.
Karl Mannheim
–
Mannheim was born in Budapest, to a Hungarian father who was a textile manufacturer and a German mother. He studied at the University of Budapest as well as in Berlin, Paris, at the University of Budapest, he earned a doctorate in philosophy. In 1914 he attended lectures by Georg Simmel, after the ouster of Bela Kun and the rise of Horthy as Regent of Hungary, Mannheim chose exile in Germany. In Germany Mannheim moved from Freiburg to Heidelberg, and in 1921 he married psychologist Juliska Károlyné Lang, after an unsuccessful attempt to gain a philosopher as sponsor in Heidelberg, he began work in 1924 under the German sociologist Alfred Weber, brother of the well-known sociologist Max Weber. In 1926 Mannheim had his habilitation accepted by the faculty of social sciences, Mannheim was chosen over other competitors for the post, one of whom was Walter Benjamin. From 1929-1933 he served as a professor of sociology and political economy at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, norbert Elias and Hans Gerth worked as his assistants during this period with Elias as the senior partner. In January 1946 he was appointed as the first sociology professor at the Institute of Education and he gained a position of influence through his editorship of the extensive Routledge series on social sciences. Mannheim’s life, one of intellectual and geographical migration, falls into three phases, Hungarian, German, British. Among his valued interlocutors were György Lukács, Oszkár Jászi, Georg Simmel, Martin Heidegger, Edmund Husserl, Karl Marx, Alfred and Max Weber, Max Scheler, and Wilhelm Dilthey. In his work, he sought variously to synthesize elements derived from German historicism, Marxism, phenomenology, sociology, Mannheim was a precocious scholar and an accepted member of two influential intellectual circles in Budapest. Some discussion focused on the enthusiasms of German diagnosticians of cultural crisis, notably the novels of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, the Social Science Association, on the other hand, was founded by Oszkár Jászi in 1919 and was interested above all in French and English sociological writings. Mannheims Hungarian writings, notably his doctoral dissertation Structural Analysis of Epistemology, according to the sociologist Longhurst, the Sonntagskreis rejected any positivist or mechanist understanding of society and was dissatisfied with the existing political arrangements in Hungary. The way forward was seen to be through the spiritual renewal entailed in a revolution in culture, the group members were discontent with the political and intellectual composition of Hungary, however, they rejected a materialist Marxist critique of this society. Hungary was to be changed by a spiritual renewal led by those who had reached a significant level of cultural awareness, yet they did not exclude Marxist themes and Mannheims work was influenced by Lukacs Marxist interests, as he credits Marx as the forerunner to the sociology of knowledge. The sociology of culture is defined as the relationship between culture and society, the radical branch highlighted that society is determined by all aspects of culture. When it came to the sociology of knowledge, Mannheim believed that it established a dependence of knowledge on social reality, Mannheim affirmed the sociology of knowledge as an extrinsic interpretation and sets apart from the immanent interpretation of thought products. Mannheim claimed that the sociology of knowledge has to be understood as the expression of historical experience which has social reality at its vital center. In 1920 a series of his essays were published in Germany under the name Essays in Sociology of Knowledge and these essays focused on the search for the meaning behind social reality, the notion of truth and the role of the empirical intellectual in search for these truths
Karl Mannheim
–
Monument to Karl Mannheim in Golder's Green Columbarium, part of Golder's Green Crematorium
Karl Mannheim
–
Karl Mannheim
25.
Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
Philosophy
–
René Descartes
Philosophy
–
Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy
–
Jeremy Bentham
Philosophy
–
Thomas Hobbes
26.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
Psychology
–
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Psychology
–
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Psychology
–
Skinner's
teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of
programmed instruction
Psychology
–
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
27.
Social sciences
–
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
Social sciences
–
Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in
Chichicastenango Market,
Guatemala.
Social sciences
–
A depiction of world's oldest university, the
University of Bologna, in Italy
Social sciences
–
This article is about the science studying social groups. For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see
Social studies.
Social sciences
–
A trial at a criminal court, the
Old Bailey in
London
28.
International Thomson
–
This article is about Thomson prior to its merger with Reuters Group. For the current company, see Thomson Reuters, for other companies called Thomson, see Thomson. The Thomson Corporation was one of the worlds largest information companies and it was established in 1989 following a merger between International Thomson Organisation Ltd and Thomson Newspapers. In 2008, it purchased Reuters Group to form Thomson Reuters, the Thomson Corporation was active in financial services, healthcare sectors, law, science and technology research and tax and accounting sectors. The company operated through five segments, Thomson Financial, Thomson Healthcare, Thomson Legal, Thomson Scientific, until 2007, Thomson was also a major worldwide provider of higher education textbooks, academic information solutions and reference materials. On 26 October 2006, Thomson announced the sale of its Thomson Learning assets. In May 2007, Thomson Learning was acquired by Apax Partners, the Thomson Learning brand was used to the end of August 2007. Subsequently, on 15 October 2007, Educational Testing Service finalized acquisition of Thomsons Prometric, Thomson sold its global network of testing centres in 135 countries, for a reported $435 million. Prometric now operates as an owned subsidiary of ETS. On 15 May 2007, the Thomson Corporation reached an agreement with Reuters to combine the two companies, a deal valued at $17.2 billion, on 17 April 2008 the new company was created under the name of Thomson Reuters. The chief executive officer of Thomson Reuters is Jim Smith, although it was officially a Canadian company and remained Canadian owned, Thomson was run from its operational headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut, in the United States. Thomson had grown from a single Canadian newspaper, the Timmins Daily Press, acquired in 1934 by Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet and it once owned several prominent newspapers in the United Kingdom, including The Times and The Scotsman, and it owned Scottish Television. In the 1960s, Thomsons publishing realm expanded further to include Thomson Publication, a magazine and book publishing house. In 1965, Thomson Newspapers, Ltd. was formed as a publicly traded company in Canada, Roy Thomsons prolific endeavors in publishing had earned him a hereditary title, Lord Thomson of Fleet. Thomson used its oil profits to buy small newspapers in the United States, starting with the acquisition of Brush-Moore Newspapers in 1967 for $72 million, by the end of the 1970s, Thomson Newspapers circulation in the United States had surpassed the 1 million mark. The merger of Thomson Newspapers and the International Thomson Organization in 1989 created the Thomson Corporation, over the years, the company has withdrawn from its holdings in the oil and gas business, the travel industry and department stores. When Kenneth Thomson took over from his father Roy in 1976, at Kenneths death in June 2006, the company was valued at about $29.3 billion. In 1978, the acquisition of Wadsworth Publishing provided Thomson with its first entry into specialised information, college textbooks, starting in the mid-1990s, Thomson invested further in specialised information services and began selling off its newspapers
International Thomson
–
Thomson Corporation headquarters
International Thomson
–
Thomson Corporation
29.
Management buyout
–
A management buyout is a form of acquisition where a companys existing managers acquire a large part or all of the company from either the parent company or from the private owners. Management and leveraged buy-outs became phenomena of the 1980s, mBOs originated in US and traversed the Atlantic, spreading first to the U. K. and then throughout the rest of Europe. The venture capital industry has played a role in the development of buy-outs in Europe, especially in smaller deals in the U. K. the Netherlands. Management buyouts are similar in all legal aspects to any other acquisition of a company. The particular nature of the MBO lies in the position of the buyers as managers of the company, in particular, the due diligence process is likely to be limited as the buyers already have full knowledge of the company available to them. Some concerns about management buyouts are that the information possessed by management may offer them unfair advantage relative to current owners. Naturally, such corporate governance concerns also exist whenever current senior management is able to benefit personally from the sale of their company or its assets and this would include, for example, large parting bonuses for CEOs after a takeover or management buyout. The mere possibility of an MBO or a substantial parting bonus on sale may create perverse incentives that can reduce the efficiency of a range of firms—even if they remain as public companies. This represents a potential negative externality. The managers of the company may at times also set up a holding company for the purpose of purchasing the shares of the target company. Management buy outs are conducted by management teams as they want to get the reward for the future development of the company more directly than they would do as employees only. The management of a company will not usually have the money available to buy the company outright themselves and they would first seek to borrow from a bank, provided the bank was willing to accept the risk. Management buyouts are frequently seen as too risky for a bank to finance the purchase through a loan, the bank then loans the company the remaining portion of the amount paid to the owner. Companies that proactively shop aggressive funding sources should qualify for total financing of at least four times cash flow. If a bank is unwilling to lend, the management will commonly look to private equity investors to fund the majority of buyout, a high proportion of management buyouts are financed in this way. The private equity investors will invest money in return for a proportion of the shares in the company, the exact financial structuring will depend on the backers desire to balance the risk with its return, with debt being less risky but less profitable than capital investment. It is common for the management to re-mortgage their houses in order to acquire a small percentage of the company, private equity backers are likely to have somewhat different goals to the management. While certain aims do coincide—in particular the aim of profitability—certain tensions can arise
Management buyout
–
Basic investment types
