1.
Rowing (sport)
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Rowing, often referred to as crew in the United States, is a sport with origins back to Ancient Egyptian times. It is based on propelling a boat on water using oars, by pushing against the water with an oar, a force is generated to move the boat. The sport can be recreational, where the focus is on learning the technique of rowing, or competitive. There are a number of different boat classes in which athletes compete, modern rowing as a competitive sport can be traced to the early 10th century when races were held between professional watermen on the River Thames in London, United Kingdom. Often prizes were offered by the London Guilds and Livery Companies, amateur competition began towards the end of the 18th century with the arrival of boat clubs at the British public schools of Eton College and Westminster School. Similarly, clubs were formed at the University of Oxford, with a race held between Brasenose College and Jesus College in 1815, at the University of Cambridge the first recorded races were in 1827. In 1843, the first American college rowing club was formed at Yale University, the International Rowing Federation, responsible for international governance of rowing, was founded in 1892 to provide regulation at a time when the sport was gaining popularity. Across six continents,150 countries now have rowing federations that participate in the sport, Rowing is one of the oldest Olympic sports. Though it was on the programme for the 1896 games, racing did not take due to bad weather. Womens rowing was added to the Olympic programme in 1976, today, only fourteen boat classes race at the Olympics, Each year the World Rowing Championships is staged by FISA with 22 boat classes raced. In Olympic years only the boat classes are raced at the World Championships. The European Rowing Championships are held annually, along with three World Rowing Cups in which each event earns a number of points for a country towards the World Cup title, since 2008, rowing has also been competed at the Paralympic Games. Many other competitions often exist for racing clubs, schools, and universities in each nation. While rowing, the athlete sits in the boat facing toward the stern and this may be done on a canal, river, lake, sea, or other large bodies of water. The sport requires strong core balance, physical strength, flexibility, whilst the action of rowing and equipment used remains fairly consistent throughout the world, there are many different types of competition. These include endurance races, time trials, stake racing, bumps racing, the many different formats are a result of the long history of the sport, its development in different regions of the world, and specific local requirements and restrictions. There are two forms of rowing, In sweep or sweep-oar rowing, each rower has one oar and this is generally done in pairs, fours, and eights. In some regions of the world, each rower in a boat is referred to either as port or starboard
2.
Amstel
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The Amstel is a river in the Netherlands which runs through the city of Amsterdam. The rivers name is derived from Aeme-stelle, old Dutch for water-area, namely, the well-known bridge Magere Brug in Amsterdam crosses the river, as do the bridges Blauwbrug, Hoge Sluis and Berlagebrug. The Stopera city hall and opera house and Carré theatre are located on the banks of the river. A nationally televised concert is held on the every year on Bevrijdingsdag. The rowing races Head of the River Amstel and Heineken Roeivierkamp are held on the river annually, the river also forms part of the route of the Canal Parade, Amsterdams annual floating gay pride parade. Amstel beer is named after the river, the Amstel brewery, as many other breweries, was situated close to the Amstel river because river water was used to produce the beer. The river originally began where two rivers, the Drecht and Kromme Mijdrecht, joined together, a little south of Uithoorn. After the construction of a canal, the Amstel-Drecht Kanaal, the river now begins where the Drecht and another canal, tributary rivers are the Kromme Mijdrecht, Bullewijk and Waver. The rivers outlet is in Amsterdam, where it meets the IJ bay, however, during 1936 the last part of the river was filled in, so the river now ends near Muntplein square, although it remains connected to the bay through subterranean pipes. The river contains one island, Amsteleiland, at 52°17′15″N 4°53′15″E. The only road leading to it belongs to the village of Ouderkerk aan de Amstel and it has an area of about 0.05 km². Amsterdam took its name from the river, the city developed from a small fishing village named Amstelredam, built during the 13th century alongside a dam at the mouth of the river. The town was granted city rights about 1300, the hamlet developed into the small town Amsteldam, which later became Amsterdam. The area through which the river passes is known as the Amstelland, the city and municipality of Amstelveen, the municipality of Ouder-Amstel, the towns of Ouderkerk aan de Amstel and Nes aan de Amstel are all named for the river as well. Amsterdam has a street named Amstel, a square named Amstelveld, in the former Dutch colonies in North America, a town was captured from the Swedes in 1655 and renamed Nieuw-Amstel. It is now known as New Castle, Delaware, the river has been depicted by many artists, including, Aert van der Neer Rembrandt Willem Witsen George Hendrik Breitner Piet Mondrian Media related to Amstel at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Oar
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An oar is an implement used for water-borne propulsion. Oars have a blade at one end. Rowers grasp the oar at the other end, the difference between oars and paddles are that paddles are held by the paddler, and are not connected with the vessel. Oars generally are connected to the vessel by means of rowlocks or tholes which transmit the force to the boat. In this system the water is the fulcrum, rowers generally face the stern of the vessel, reach towards the stern, and insert the blade of their oar in the water. As they lean back, towards the bow, the blade of their oars sweeps the water towards the stern. For thousands of vessels were powered either by sails, or the mechanical work of rowers. Some ancient vessels were propelled by oars or sail, depending on the speed. Rowing oars have been used since the early Neolithic period, wooden oars, with canoe-shaped pottery, dating from 5000–4500 BC have been discovered in a Hemudu culture site at Yuyao, Zhejiang, in modern China. In 1999, an oar measuring 63.4 cm in length, dating from 4000 BC, was unearthed at Ishikawa Prefecture, oars have traditionally been made of wood. The form is a shaft with a flat blade on the end. Where the oar connects to the boat there is a collar which stops the oar slipping past the rowlock, oars usually have a handle about 150mm long, which may be a material sleeve or alternatively an ovoid shape carved to fit the hands. This is a normal, usually wooden oar to which weight has been added at the end so that the blade end is noticeably lighter and easier for a rower to operate without fatigue. For a 7-foot oar the balance point is about 12 inches outboard of the rowlock, often surplus wood is removed from the blades width and thickness and at the neck between the blade and the shaft to further reduce outboard weight. This type of oar is much better for long-range rowing, the oars used for transportation come in a variety of sizes. The oars used in small dinghies or rafts can be less than 2 metres long, in classical times warships were propelled by very long oars that might have several oarsmen per oar. These oars could be more than a dozen metres long, the oars used in competitive rowing are long poles with one flat end about 50 cm long and 25 cm wide, called the blade. The part of the oar the oarsman holds while rowing is called the handle, while rowing, the oars are supported by metal frames attached to the side of the boat called outriggers
4.
Paddling
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Paddling with regard to watercraft is the act of manually propelling a boat using a paddle. The paddle, which consists of one or two blades joined to a shaft, is used to steer the vessel. The paddle is not connected to the boat, canoeing is the activity of paddling a canoe for leisure, navigation or exploration. In America the term refers exclusively to using one or more single blades or paddles to propel a canoe, in the United Kingdom and some other countries in Europe however, canoeing is also used to refer to kayaking and Canadian canoeing is used then to distinguish canoeing from kayaking. There are sub-varieties of canoeing, such as touring and whitewater or wildwater canoeing, outrigger canoeing, travelling whitewater in a whitewater raft can involve using either paddles, or a pair of oars, or both. Outrigger canoe racing is a team paddling sport which uses the outrigger canoe, in his lifetime, according to the Guinness Book of World Records Verlen Kruger paddled the most miles of anyone in the sport. Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving across water, kayaking is differentiated from canoeing by the fact kayakers use a double bladed paddle and sit in a seat with their legs extended out in front of them. Canoeists will either sit on a bench seat or kneel directly on the bottom of the boat with two knees or one knee in the high kneel posture. The kayak may be either sit-in or sit-on-top, sit-in kayaks provide more protection from water and the elements, and are popular for day trips and touring. Sit-on-top kayaks are growing in popularity for fishing and surfing, a dragon boat is a long and narrow human powered boat used in the team paddling sport of dragon boat racing which originated in China. For racing events, dragon boats are not rigged with full decorative Chinese dragon heads, the decorative boats are used in ceremonial events. They do howevever use smaller and lighter dragon heads and tails and they are not normally used during practice. Rafting or whitewater rafting uses a raft to navigate a river or other bodies of water and this is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. The development of activity as a leisure sport has become popular since the mid-1970s. Stand-up paddleboards, are steered with a singled bladed paddle, originating in Hawaii to help navigate the waves, the sport has grown to include flat water lakes, easy rivers, and spring runs. Traditional paddleboarding is done kneeling on a board and paddling with the hands
5.
Gunwale
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The gunwale is the top edge of the side of a boat. Originally the gunwale was the gun ridge on a sailing warship and this represented the strengthening wale or structural band added to the design of the ship, at and above the level of a gun deck. It was designed to accommodate the stresses imposed by the use of artillery, in wooden boats, the gunwale remained, mounted inboard of the sheer strake, regardless of the use of gunnery. In modern boats, it is the top edge of the side there is usually some form of stiffening. On a canoe, the gunwale is typically the edge at the top of the side of the boat. Modern cedar-strip canoes have gunwales which consist of inner and outer parts called inwales and outwales and these two parts of the gunwale give rigidity and strength to the hull. The inwale will often have scuppers or slots cut into the inwale to allow water to drain when the hull is turned upside down for storing. On a rowing boat, the gunwale is sometimes referred to as the saxboard
6.
Rowlock
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A rowlock UK /ˈrɒlək/, sometimes spur, oarlock or gate is a brace that attaches an oar to a boat. On ordinary rowing craft, the rowlocks are attached to the gunwales, in the sport of rowing, the rowlocks are attached to outriggers, which project from the boat and provide greater leverage. In sport rowing, the rowlocks are normally U-shaped and attached to a pin which allows the rowlock to pivot around the pin during the rowing stroke. They additionally have a locking mechanism across the top of the U to prevent the oar from unintentionally popping out of the rowlock, originally, rowlocks were two wooden posts or thole pins that the shaft of the oar nestled between. Single THOLE PINS may be used when the oars have holes cut into the loom which then sits over/around the THOLE PIN, in sport rowing oarlocks were originally brass or bronze and open. With the advent of modern materials oarlocks are now injection moulded plastic, the most recent sport racing oarlocks have a spring loaded feature to keeps the oar collar firmly against the pin at all times. Oarlocks are technical pieces of equipment in sport rowing, holding the oar shaft, the Norwegian municipalities of Fosnes, Radøy and Tjøme have rowlocks in their coats-of-arms
7.
Sculling
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Sculling is the use of oars to propel a boat by moving the oars through the water on both sides of the craft, or moving a single oar over the stern. By extension, the oars themselves are referred to as sculls when used in this manner. Two-oared sculling is a form of rowing in which a boat is propelled by one or more rowers, each of whom operates two oars, one held in the fingers and upper palm of each hand. This contrasts with the common method of rowing, sweep rowing. Two-oared sculling can either be competitive or recreational, but the watercraft used will vary between the two as the shells of competitive rowing are built for speed rather than stability. Sculling, one of the two divisions of crew, is composed of races between small, sculled boats manned by various numbers of rowers. Generally, one, two, or four athletes row these shells and these shells are classified according to the number of rowers that they can hold, singles have one seat, doubles have two, and quads have four. In keeping with this pattern, quads rowed by three people are often referred to as triples. A rare sculling shell is the octuple, rowed by an eight-man crew, the physical movement of sculling is split into two main parts, the drive and the recovery. These two parts are separated by what is called the catch and the finish, the recovery is the section where the rowers blades are not in the water, but instead gliding above it as the rower prepares for the next stroke. In order to balance on the recovery, the blades are feathered, or held parallel to the surface of the water, at the finish. Competitive crew requires an efficient stroke with all rowers matching the cadence and movements of the stroke seat, a key technical difference between sculling and sweeping in crew is that the sculling oar handles overlap twice during the stroke, while sweep oar handles never overlap during normal rowing. The overlap occurs at the midpoint of the drive and again during the recovery, because of this, to prevent this from impacting the balance of the boat, one oarlock is rigged higher than the other prior to rowing. This prevents the oar handles from colliding with one another and causing a crab or other problems, the technique is very old and its origin uncertain, though it is thought to have developed independently in different locations and times. It is known to have used in ancient China. Backward thrust can also be generated by twisting the oar in the other direction, steering, as in moving coxless sculling shells in crew, is accomplished by directing the thrust. Specifically, the operation of the single sculling is unique as turning the blade of the oar in figure 8 motions operates them and it is not hoisted in and out of the water like any other traditional oars. The objective is to minimize the movement of the hands
8.
Sweep (rowing)
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Sweep or sweep-oar rowing is a type of rowing when a rower has one oar, usually held with both hands. As each rower has one oar, the rowers have to be paired so that there is an oar on each side of the boat. This is in contrast to sculling when a rower has two oars, one in each hand, in the UK the term is less used as the term rowing generally refers to sweep oar. The term pulling was also used historically, sweep or single oar rowing has a long history and was the means of propulsion for Greek triremes and Viking longboats. These boats were wide enough for the pairs of rowers to sit alongside each other, boats can go faster, the narrower they are, because a smaller cross-sectional area reduces drag and wave drag and gives a sharper angle to the bow. The hulls can be kept narrower by attaching riggers to the gunwales, a narrower hull means the rowers cannot sit side by side and so they sit one behind another. The riggers are staggered alternately along the boat so that the forces apply asymmetrically to each side of the boat, sweep rowing has to be done with crews in multiples of two, pairs, fours and eights. Each rower in a boat is on either stroke side or bow side. In a sculling boat the riggers apply forces symmetrically, while sculling boats are also in multiples of two, it is possible to have a single scull or triple scull. The primary sweep oar racing boats are as follows, eight A shell with 8 rowers. Always with coxswain because of the size, weight and speed of the boat, four or A shell with 4 rowers. Coxless fours are often referred to as straight fours, and are used by lightweight. In club and school rowing, one frequently sees a coxed four which is easier to row. Pair or A shell with 2 rowers, the coxless pair, often called a straight pair, is a demanding but satisfying boat to master. Coxed pairs are rarely rowed by most club and school programs and it is no longer an Olympic class event, but it continues to be rowed at the World Rowing Championships
9.
Coxswain (rowing)
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In a crew, the coxswain /ˈkɒksən/ is the member who sits in the stern facing the bow. The coxswain is responsible for steering the boat, and coordinating the power, in some capacities, the coxswain is responsible for implementing the training regimen prescribed by a teams coach during practice. Be responsible for the vessel, in the event of a collision, the coxswain is in charge of the shell. They are responsible for safety, which must be the prime concern. Along with steering, their role is to coach the crew, the cox acts as the coachs assistant, but in the absence of a coach, as is the case in a race, the cox becomes the coach. Being in the boat, the cox has a feel for what the crew need, the cox needs to translate the coachs concerns into practical calls. The cox must be able to diagnose problems such as balance and it is essential that the coach and the cox work in good harmony and show respect to each other all the time. Its essential that the cox is briefed on what the coach wants to achieve in the outing from the point of view of building physical fitness, technical skill, a cox must be positive, a good motivator and very encouraging. Whilst errors must be spotted and corrected, it is important to catch someone getting it right where they have been struggling. Rowing boats are designed for speed, not manoeuverability, so steering requires effort, coxswains may steer with either the tiller, commands for increased pressure or strength from rowers on one side of the boat, or both, depending on what is necessary in the situation. In the most extreme cases, the coxswain may go full tiller, turning the rudder to its maximum angle and this technique is usually reserved for only the sharpest turns, as the sharp angle of the rudder increases drag and upsets the balance of the boat. For more conventional turns, the coxswain may move the tiller slightly to one side or the other over the course of a few strokes, to minimize disturbance of the boats stability, the motion of the tiller must be smooth and not sudden. The coxswain may also initiate the turn during the phase of the stroke. For very small steering adjustments, the coxswain may move the tiller very subtly during the phase of a single stroke. This technique is most effective at speeds and on straight courses. The technique that often accompanies this view involves repeatedly moving the back and forth over several strokes. However, the rudder has much less steering power during the drive phase because of the large forward propulsion force it must overcome. As a result, this often causes more boat drag due to longer rudder use
10.
Galley
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A galley is a type of ship that is propelled mainly by rowing. The galley is characterized by its long, slender hull, shallow draft, virtually all types of galleys had sails that could be used in favorable winds, but human strength was always the primary method of propulsion. This allowed galleys to navigate independently of winds and currents, Galleys were the warships used by the early Mediterranean naval powers, including the Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans. They remained the dominant types of vessels used for war and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea until the last decades of the 16th century and they were the first ships to effectively use heavy cannons as anti-ship weapons. As highly efficient gun platforms they forced changes in the design of medieval seaside fortresses as well as refinement of sailing warships. The zenith of galley usage in warfare came in the late 16th century with battles like that at Lepanto in 1571, by the 17th century, however, sailing ships and hybrid ships like the xebec displaced galleys in naval warfare. From the mid-16th century galleys were in intermittent use in the Baltic Sea, with its short distances, there was a minor revival of galley warfare in the 18th century in the wars between Russia, Sweden and Denmark. The term galley derives from the medieval Greek galea, a version of the dromon. The origin of the Greek word is unclear but could possibly be related to galeos, the word galley has been attested in English from c. It was only from the 16th century that a unified galley concept came in use, before that, particularly in antiquity, there was a wide variety of terms used for different types of galleys. Ancient galleys were named according to the number of oars, the number of banks of oars or lines of rowers, the terms are based on contemporary language use combined with more recent compounds of Greek and Latin words. The earliest Greek single-banked galleys are called triaconters and penteconters, for later galleys with more than one row of oars, the terminology is based on Latin numerals with the suffix -reme from rēmus, oar. A monoreme has one bank of oars, a two and a trireme three. Since the maximum banks of oars was three, any expansion above that did not refer to additional banks of oars, but of additional rowers for every oar. Quinquereme was literally a five-oar, but actually meant that there were several rowers to certain banks of oars which made up five lines of oar handlers, for simplicity, they have by many modern scholars been referred to as fives, sixes, eights, elevens, etc. Anything above six or seven rows of rowers was not common, any galley with more than three or four lines of rowers is often referred to as a polyreme. Oared military vessels built on the British Isles in the 11th to 13th centuries were based on Scandinavian designs, many of them were similar to birlinns, close relatives of longship types like the snekkja. By the 14th century, they were replaced with balingers in southern Britain while longship-type Irish galleys remained in use throughout the Middle Ages in northern Britain, Medieval and early modern galleys used a different terminology than their ancient predecessors
11.
Man-of-war
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The man-of-war was a British Royal Navy expression for a powerful warship or frigate from the 16th to the 19th century. The term often refers to an armed with cannon and propelled primarily by sails. The man-of-war was developed in England in the early 16th century from earlier roundships with the addition of a second mast to form the carrack, the 16th century saw the carrack evolve into the galleon and then the ship of the line. The evolution of the term has been given thus, Man-of-war, a phrase applied to a line of battle ship, contrary to the usual rule in the English language by which all ships are feminine. It probably arose in the manner, Men of war were heavily armed soldiers. A ship full of them would be called a man-of-war ship, in process of time the word ship was discarded as unnecessary and there remained the phrase a man-of-war. The man-of-war design developed by Sir John Hawkins, had three masts, each three to four sails. The ship could be up to 60 metres long and could have up to 124 guns, four at the bow, eight at the stern, all these cannons required three gun decks to hold them, one more than any earlier ship. It had a maximum sailing speed of eight or nine knots
12.
Naval warfare
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Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. Mankind has fought battles on the sea for more than 3,000 years, even in the interior of large landmasses, transportation before the advent of extensive railroads was largely dependent upon rivers, canals, and other navigable waterways. Prior to 1750, materials largely moved by barge or sea vessels. Thus armies, with their exorbitant needs for food, ammunition, the oceanic influences throughout pre-recorded history, and classical works such as The Odyssey underscore the past influences. The Persian Empire – united and strong – could not prevail against the might of the Athenian fleet combined with that of city states in several attempts to conquer the Greek city states. Phoenicias and Egypts power, Carthages and even Romes largely depended upon control of the seas, so too did the Venetian Republic dominate Italys city states, thwart the Ottoman Empire, and dominate commerce on the Silk Road and the Mediterranean in general for centuries. For three centuries, the Northmen raided and pillaged and went where they willed, far into central Russia and the Ukraine, many sea battles through history also provide a reliable source of shipwrecks for underwater archaeology. A major example is the exploration of the wrecks of various warships in the Pacific Ocean, the first dateable recorded sea battle occurred about 1210 BC, Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites, defeated a fleet from Cyprus, and burned their ships at sea. In the Battle of the Delta, the Ancient Egyptians defeated the Sea Peoples in a sea battle circa 1175 BC, no written mention of strategy or tactics seems to have survived. Josephus Flavius reports a battle between Tyre and the king of Assyria who was aided by the other cities in Phoenicia. The battle took place off the shores of Tyre, although the Tyrian fleet was much smaller in size, the Tyrians defeated their enemies. The Greeks of Homer just used their ships as transport for land armies and it seems unlikely that all this was the product of a single mind or even of a generation, most likely the period of evolution and experimentation was simply not recorded by history. After some initial battles while subjugating the Greeks of the Ionian coast, the Persians determined to invade Greece proper. The first Persian campaign, in 492 BC, was aborted because the fleet was lost in a storm, attacks by the Greek armies repulsed these. The third Persian campaign in 480 BC, under Xerxes I of Persia, but the defeat on land at Thermopylae forced a Greek withdrawal, and Athens evacuated its population to nearby Salamis Island. The ensuing Battle of Salamis was one of the engagements of history. Themistocles trapped the Persians in a too narrow for them to bring their greater numbers to bear. Aeschylus wrote a play about the defeat, The Persians, which was performed in a Greek theatre competition a few years after the battle and it is the oldest known surviving play
13.
Classical antiquity
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It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwestern Asia. Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer, and continues through the emergence of Christianity and it ends with the dissolution of classical culture at the close of Late Antiquity, blending into the Early Middle Ages. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many disparate cultures, Classical antiquity may refer also to an idealised vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poes words, the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome. The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of art, philosophy, society. The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place before the background of gradual re-appearance of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse, the 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, in the same period falls the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean, carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. The Etruscans had established control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic. According to legend, Rome was founded on April 21,753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth and it was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock, the people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son. Lucretias kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus, summoned the Senate and had Superbus, after Superbus expulsion, the Senate voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government in 509 BC. In fact the Latin word Rex meaning King became a dirty and hated throughout the Republic. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras. Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony, but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos, Thebes and Corinth, the two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387 BC
14.
Sailing
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Sailing employs the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water, on ice or on land over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation. A course defined with respect to the wind direction is called a point of sail. Conventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind, on a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the apparent wind direction to mobilize the power of the wind. In the 21st century, most sailing represents a form of recreation or sport, recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, until the end of the 19th century, sailing ships were the primary means for marine commerce. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating between 5000 and 5500 BCE, polynesian oceanfarers traveled vast distances of open ocean in outrigger canoes using navigation methods such as stick charts. Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were improvements in sails, masts and rigging, improvements in marine navigation including the tree and charts. Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world, the air interacting with the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, however, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack back and forth in order to progress directly upwind, sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat. Sails work in two modes to use the wind to force, PUSH, when the boat is going in the same direction as the wind. The force on the sail is mostly aerodynamic drag, and sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. This force manifests itself as pressure differences between the two sides of the sail - there is a region of low pressure on the front side of the sail and a region of high pressure on the back. Another way to say this is that sails generate lift using the air flows around them in the same way as an aircraft wing. The wind that a boat experiences is the combination of the true wind and this combination is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat. When sailing upwind the apparent wind is greater than the true wind, iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface, the sailboat does this by placing the sail in the air and the hull in the water
15.
Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
16.
Spanish Armada
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The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais. While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parmas army the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack, in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parmas army, who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats. The Armada managed to regroup and, driven by southwest winds, the commander ordered a return to Spain, but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return, the expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The word armada is from the Spanish armada, which is a cognate with English army, originally from the Latin armāta, the past participle of armāre to arm, used in Romance languages as a noun, for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy, Armada was also the Portuguese traditional term of the Portuguese Navy. Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, a devout Catholic, Mary began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake, marys death in 1558 led to her half-sister, Elizabeth I, taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp, Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. Under Roman law, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate, Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth, the King was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. A raid on Cadiz, led by Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies, the Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise and he was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred, and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it. The Armadas appointed commander was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he died in February 1588, and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, while a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armadas banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, on 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. The fleet was composed of 130 ships,8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, the full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. It included twenty eight purpose-built warships, of twenty were galleons, four galleys
17.
Trireme
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A trireme was an ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans. The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars, manned with one man per oar. The early trireme was a development of the penteconter, an ancient warship with a row of 25 oars on each side, and of the bireme. The word dieres does not appear until the Roman period and it must be assumed the term pentekontor covered the two-level type. Triremes played a role in the Persian Wars, the creation of the Athenian maritime empire. The term is also used to refer to medieval and early modern galleys with three files of oarsmen per side as triremes. Fragments from an 8th-century relief at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh depicting the fleets of Tyre and Sidon show ships with rams and they have been interpreted as two-decked warships, and also as triremes. Modern scholarship is divided on the provenance of the trireme, Greece or Phoenicia, clement of Alexandria in the 2nd century, drawing on earlier works, explicitly attributes the invention of the trireme to the Sidonians. According to Thucydides, the trireme was introduced to Greece by the Corinthians in the late 8th century BC, and the Corinthian Ameinocles built four such ships for the Samians. This was interpreted by later writers, Pliny and Diodorus, to mean that triremes were invented in Corinth, Thucydides meanwhile clearly states that in the time of the Persian Wars, the majority of the Greek navies consisted of penteconters and ploia makrá. Athens was at that time embroiled in a conflict with the island of Aegina. The first clash with the Persian navy was at the Battle of Artemisium, however, the decisive naval clash occurred at Salamis, where Xerxes invasion fleet was decisively defeated. After Salamis and another Greek victory over the Persian fleet at Mycale, the Ionian cities were freed, gradually, the predominance of Athens turned the League effectively into an Athenian Empire. The source and foundation of Athens power was her strong fleet, in addition, as it provided permanent employment for the citys poorer citizens, the fleet played an important role in maintaining and promoting the radical Athenian form of democracy. Athenian maritime power is the first example of thalassocracy in world history, aside from Athens, other major naval powers of the era included Syracuse, Corfu and Corinth. In the subsequent Peloponnesian War, naval battles fought by triremes were crucial in the balance between Athens and Sparta. Based on all archeological evidence, the design of trireme surely pushed the limits of the ancient world. After gathering the proper timbers and materials it was time to consider the fundamentals of the trireme design and these fundamentals included accommodations, propulsion, weight and waterline, center of gravity and stability, strength, and feasibility
18.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
19.
Gondola
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The gondola is a traditional, flat-bottomed Venetian rowing boat, well suited to the conditions of the Venetian lagoon. It is similar to a canoe, except it is narrower and it is propelled by a gondolier, who uses a rowing oar, which is not fastened to the hull, in a sculling manner and acts as the rudder. For centuries, the gondola was the means of transportation. In modern times, the boats still do have a role in public transport in the city. They are also used in special regattas held amongst gondoliers and their primary role today, however, is to carry tourists on rides at fixed rates. The gondola is propelled by a person who stands facing the bow and rows with a forward stroke, followed by a compensating backward stroke. The oar rests in an carved wooden rest shaped to project from the side of the craft so as to allow the slight drag of each return stroke to pull the bow back to its forward course. Because of the flat bottom it may also be drifted sideways when required. Contrary to popular belief, the gondola is never poled like a punt as the waters of Venice are too deep. Until the early 20th century, as many photographs attest, gondolas were often fitted with a felze and its windows could be closed with louvered shutters—the original Venetian blinds. While in previous centuries gondolas could be different colors, a sumptuary law of Venice required that gondolas should be painted black. It is estimated there were eight to ten thousand gondolas during the 17th and 18th century. There are just over four hundred in service today, virtually all of them used for hire by tourists. Those few that are in ownership are either hired out to Venetians for weddings or used for racing. Now, only a handful of batellas survive, and caorlinas are used for racing only, the historical gondola was quite different from its modern evolution, the paintings of Canaletto and others show a much lower prow, a higher ferro, and usually two rowers. The banana-shaped modern gondola was developed only in the 19th century by the boat-builder Tramontin, the construction of the gondola continued to evolve until the mid-20th century, when the city government prohibited any further modifications. The oar or rèmo is held in an oar lock known as a fórcola, the forcola is of a complicated shape, allowing several positions of the oar for slow forward rowing, powerful forward rowing, turning, slowing down, rowing backwards, and stopping. The ornament on the front of the boat is called the fèrro and can be made from brass, stainless steel and it serves as decoration and as counterweight for the gondolier standing near the stern
20.
Whitehall rowboat
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Whitehall rowboats are considered one of the most refined rowboats of the 19th century. The basic design is much older and of European ancestry and it strongly resembles a sailing ships gig or a Thames river wherry used by watermen as a taxi service. They were first made in the U. S. at the foot of Whitehall Street in New York City to be used to ferry goods, services, the boats range from 14 to 22 ft in length, the larger requiring two people to row them. A Whitehall gig, which is the longer version is 25 ft in length, requiring four rowers. They were the first boats to incorporate an inverted-hull frame set up to speed up the manufacturing process, considered one of the most beautiful row-boats, they are designed to handle the harbor chop and yet track straight. Speed was the issue with these boats, as the first to the ship with the generally received the lions share of the sales. Later the shore patrol used these boats for customs, police issues, water taxi, Whitehalls in the early 20th century were a popular recreational boat and were known as the bicycle of the sea. A beginning rower finds it easier to row this design in a line because of the tracking type keel. Turning requires stronger strokes on one side, and by braking with one oar, Whitehall designs are currently being built in wood, and also manufactured fiberglass usually with wood trims, and more recently thermoformed in co-polymer plastic. These boats are either traditional fixed seat row boats or slide seat rowing boats, some models or also including sailing rigs. Many designs are mistakenly being called Whitehalls when they are not actually true to the design criteria, the Mystic Seaport Maritime Museum has a comprehensive collection of authentic Whitehall lines. The Village Community Boathouse in New York City has dedicated its boatbuiding program to almost exclusively building and restoring wooden Whitehall Gigs. They have built dozens over the last decade, most of which are available for public use at their boathouse on Pier 40 while others have been loaned or donated to sister organizations. American Small Sailing Craft, Their Design, Development, and Construction, a description of American small sailing boats
21.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
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A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France and he followed its martial tradition, and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American cause in its war was noble. There, he was made a general, however, the 19-year-old was initially not given troops to command. Wounded during the Battle of Brandywine, he managed to organize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island, in the middle of the war, he returned home to lobby for an increase in French support. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was given positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops in Virginia under his command blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American, Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointed to the Assembly of Notables, which was convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from the three orders of French society—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, after the storming of the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the French Revolution. In August 1792, the radical factions ordered his arrest, fleeing through the Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of the remainder of his life. During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette declined an offer to become the French dictator, instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on 20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States, he is sometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds. Lafayettes lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayettes early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III, a Marshal of France, had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arcs army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, according to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade. Lafayettes father likewise died on the battlefield, on 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia. Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother, in 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comtes apartments in Luxembourg Palace
22.
Coastal and offshore rowing
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Coastal and offshore rowing is a type of rowing performed at sea. Due to the conditions encountered, the boats are wider and more robust than those used on rivers. In North America this sport is often called Open Water Rowing, at present most British sea rowing is traditional fixed seat rowing and competition is of a regional nature. The Spanish seafaring tradition has left an important heritage of coastal rowing scull boats, in another time devoted to tasks of fishing. Each summer in the city of Malaga and nearby villages are beautiful races of seine boats, currently there are seven oars, with a length between 7 and 9 m and weighing between 850 and 1150 kg. Currently clubs in the province of Malaga are represented by a commission named COBARJA which coordinates its activities and races. In North America, coastal rowing typically involves longer, lighter and faster boats, more similar to flat-water racing shells, yet designed for stability and safety in chop, wakes and swells. Stability is achieved by a waterline beam with safety ensured through the use of positive flotation, self-bailing capacity. North American boats do not conform to the standards established by FISA, because they are too long. Open water boats are used for racing, recreation, touring, health and fitness, Open water rowing in North America is popular on the Chesapeake Bay, in coastal towns of Massachusetts, Long Island Sound communities in Connecticut and New York, California, and Washington. Open water racing is practiced on both the west and east coasts of the U. S, in South America Coastal Rowing first occurred in Perú, in the Club de Regatas Lima. In the Atlantic Ocean, there is a group of coastal rowers in the Escuela de Remo de Punta Carretas in Montevideo. The Cornish Pilot Gig Association is by far the largest British sea rowing group, the CPGA has seen a huge continuing growth over the past decade or so and new boats are constantly being built to satisfy the demand. The Cornish Gig has been adopted by rowers in the Netherlands, in recent years, the resurgence in the tradition of boatbuilding in Essex has seen the development of East Coast gigs. Built by the Pioneer Sailing Trust in Brightlingsea, the coxed four Harkers Yard gigs are based on a 19th-century design. A strong racing scene has developed around these gigs and club affiliation extends from Manningtree, on the Essex/Suffolk border, to Maldon, the gigs are traditionally named after fishing smacks built in Brightlingsea before WWII. The first boat to be built, the Velocity, is owned and raced by Brightlingsea Coastal Rowing Club, semi washdeck, chined, double skinned, plywood quads, were under construction in Guernsey during the first decade of this century, though none were built in 2009. A Guernsey designed carbon fibre double and quad appeared in 2008 and this design went into production in the UK in 2009, with a fleet being built for the 2009 world championships in Plymouth
23.
Racing shell
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In watercraft, a racing shell is an extremely narrow, and often comparatively long, rowing boat specifically designed for racing or exercise. It is outfitted with oars, outriggers to hold the oarlocks away from the boat. The boats long length and semicircular cross-section reduce drag to a minimum and this makes the boat both fast and unstable. It must be balanced by the rowers to avoid tipping. Being able to balance, or set the boat while putting maximum effort into the oars is therefore an essential skill of sport rowing, the racing shell evolved from the simple working rowboat. Boats with longer hulls and narrower in beam were developed in the early 19th century specifically for team racing and these dedicated boats were the first boats that could be called racing shells, and they have since evolved into the highly specialized forms used today. A narrower boat provides an angle to the bow and a smaller cross-sectional area reducing drag and wave drag. The first racing shells, while narrower than working rowboats, were limited by the necessary to mount the oarlocks on the boats sides. Originally made from wood, shells are now almost always made from a composite material for strength. The first composite shells were made from a form of papier-mâché and these paper shells were sold world-wide by the Waters Paper Boat Factory of Troy, New York. Modern shells are made of carbon-fibre reinforced plastic in a honeycomb structure. They are manufactured by either cold laying up of the carbon, which is left to set, or by using heat curing. The best shells are characterized by their stiffness, as the lack of flexing means none of the force exerted by the rower is wasted in twisting the boat. A rower on a seat is limited in the amount of power he can apply to the oars by the strength in his upper body. After riggers were added to the shell allowing the use of oars, rowers took advantage by taking longer strokes. At first, the athletes wore trousers with wear resistant leather bottoms covered in grease, the athletes could then use their legs to slide along the seat, adding the power of their legs and letting them greatly lengthen the stroke. This eventually led to the sliding seat, mounted on rollers. The first sliding seat was developed by George Warren of Toronto, a builder and famous decoy maker
24.
College rowing (United States)
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Rowing is the oldest intercollegiate sport in the United States. In the 2002-03 school year there were 1,712 male and 6,690 female collegiate rowers, Womens college rowing is sanctioned by the National Collegiate Athletic Association, whereas mens is not. Other governing bodies of college rowing in the United States are the Intercollegiate Rowing Association,1852 - Yale challenges Harvard to a rowing race and the first Harvard-Yale Boat Race is held. This is also the first intercollegiate event held in the United States, since 1864 this race has been held annually and since 1878, with few exceptions, it has been raced on the Thames River in New London, Connecticut. 1864 - Rowing became the first organized sport at Rutgers, six mile races were held on the Raritan River among six-oared boats. The first regatta was held on July 21,1871, at Ingleside, Massachusetts,1870 - Rutgers held its first intercollegiate competition on the Raritan River against the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard, the then top-ranked amateur crew of the time. The distance of the course was three miles,1875 - Wellesley College established the first womens rowing program. 1878 - Columbia wins the Visitors Challenge Cup and becomes the first foreign crew to win at the Henley Royal Regatta,1894 -The Intercollegiate Rowing Association was founded by Cornell, Columbia, and Pennsylvania, its first annual regatta was hosted on June 24,1895. Today Navy and Syracuse are also members of the association, Cornell dominates the early regattas winning 14 of the first 23 varsity 8 races. 1903- The University of Washington established a men and womens rowing program,1916 - Lightweight rowing was first introduced at the University of Pennsylvania. 1920 - Navy wins the medal at the 1920 Summer Olympics in the 8 man boat. US collegiate boats would win the medal in the 8+ at the next 7 Olympics. 1922 - The first Harvard-Yale-Princeton lightweight race is held on May 20,1923 - Washington is the first team from the west coast to win the varsity 8 title at the IRA regatta. Between 1920 and 1950, California, Navy and Washington would dominate college rowing winning 21 of the 25 varsity titles at the IRA and 5 Olympic titles in the eight man boat. 1924 - Yale varsity mens 8 wins Olympic gold in Paris 1928 The University of California varsity mens 8 wins the Olympic Gold medal in Amsterdam,1932 The University of California varsity mens 8 wins its 2nd Olympic Gold medal in Los Angeles. 1936 - Washington varsity mens 8 wins Olympic gold in Berlin,1948 - The University of California varsity mens 8 wins its 3rd Olympic gold at Henley in London. 1946 - The Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges is formed and the first Eastern Sprints is held for lightweights and heavyweights,1956 - Yale varsity mens 8 wins Olympic gold in Melbourne Australia 1963 - Harry Parker becomes coach of Harvard. 1971 - Collegiate women begin competing in the eight oared boat at the National Womens Rowing Association Championship,1972 - Congress passes Title IX which eventually leads to large growth in competitive rowing
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Human-powered transport
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Human-powered transport is the transport of person and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming, modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise, human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one used a experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle, compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment, freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs, in 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved the human-powered speed record of 142.04 km/h with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a 268.8 km/h speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3,1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car, the wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness World Records on July 17,2006 on a track in Eureka. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours by human power 1,041 km, and the second for the worlds fastest 1,000 km time trial. Both records were broken on August 6,2010 by Christian von Ascheberg who drove 1,000 km in 19 hours,27 minutes, in the same race he also raised the 12-hour record to 664.97 km, which is an average of 55.41 km/h. In 1969, artists in a small Northern California town began the Kinetic sculpture race which has grown to a 42 mi, three-day all terrain, human-powered sculpture race and it is held every year on the last weekend in May. The Pedaliante flew short distances fully under human power in 1936, the flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and not attainable by a typical human. Additional attempts were made in 1937 and 1938 using a catapult system, with the catapult launch, the plane successfully traveled the 1 km distance outlined by the competition, but was declined the prize due to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft. Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, the first officially observed human-powered helicopter to have left the ground was the Da Vinci III in 1989. It was designed and built by students at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in California and it flew for 7.1 seconds and reached a height of 8 in
27.
27.5 Mountain bike
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The 27.5 inch are seen as a compromise between the two existing standards of the original 26 inch and recently emerged 29 inch mountain bikes. They were pioneered by Kirk Pacenti in 2007, and as of 2013, at least 10 companies are launching models with 27.5 inch wheels, and parts manufacturers are following suit. Nino Schurter won the World Cup event at Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 29er mountain bike Outline of cycling
28.
29er (bicycle)
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29ers or two-niners are mountain bikes and hybrid bikes that are built to use 700c or 622 mm ISO wheels, commonly called 29 wheels. Most mountain bikes use ISO559 mm wheels, commonly called 26 wheels, the ISO622 mm wheel is typically also used for road-racing, trekking, cyclo-cross, touring and hybrid bicycles. In some countries, mainly in Continental Europe, ISO622 mm wheels are commonly called 28 wheels or 28 Incher. 29er rims have a diameter of approximately 622 millimetres and the average 29 mountain bike tire is 59-622 - corresponding to a diameter of about 29.15 inches. The typical 26 MTB tire has a rim diameter of 559 millimetres, in the early 1980s, the size of the wheels for the emerging mountain bikes was undecided. But the poor situation of the larger diameter tires meant the fledgling MTB industry stuck with the smaller wheel size. The first Geoff Apps-designed 700C wheeled off-road bicycle was made in 1981, however the bicycle marketed as the Aventura by Apps own company, Cleland Cycles Ltd, between 1982 and 1984 used the more readily available Nokian Hakkapeliitta 26 ×2. The 650B size, also known as 27.5, reappeared in 2007 as a compromise between the 26 inch and 29 inch sizes. The 650B size is called 26, and there are several 26 tire diameters but is known as 27.5 in 57mm. The name 29er comes from a bicycle called the Two Niner, the US division of Bianchi Bicycles offered a line of 29 wheeled off-road bikes beginning in 1991 called the Project bikes. Their 1992 product catalog raved about the advantages of the larger wheels, the original company Klein produced a small quantity of a 29 wheeled version of their successful Attitude MTB racer, and named it the Adept. It failed to find a market and was discontinued, the Project and Overdrive bikes were not a success for many reasons, primarily a lack of proper off-road tires and suspension forks competitive with the 26 offerings of the time. A key product release, the first true 29 tire, was produced by a supporter of the 29 movement Wilderness Trail Bikes. The company introduced the first true 29 tire, the Nanoraptor, at about the same time, White Brothers produced the first commercially available 29 suspension forks. Before then suspension forks used were designed for trekking bikes or hybrids. For many years,29 frames and bikes were only available from small little-known manufactures like Niner Bikes. Surly Bikes introduced their 29 frameset, the Karate Monkey, in 2002, gary Fisher Bicycles, a division of Trek Bicycles, became the first of the major manufactures to offer a line of 29 bikes. Their lines never sold well until the introduction of single-speed 29 bike the Rig, today, most bicycle manufacturers in the US market offer at least one 29 bicycle or frame
29.
Bicycle
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A bicycle, often called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist, Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and as of 2003, more than 1 billion have been produced worldwide, twice as many as the number of automobiles that have been produced. They are the means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services. The basic shape and configuration of an upright or safety bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and these have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling. The bicycles invention has had an effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. The word bicycle first appeared in English print in The Daily News in 1868, to describe Bysicles and trysicles on the Champs Elysées, the word was first used in 1847 in a French publication to describe an unidentified two-wheeled vehicle, possibly a carriage. The design of the bicycle was an advance on the velocipede, Other words for bicycle include bike, pushbike, pedal cycle, or cycle. In Unicode, the point for bicycle is 0x1F6B2. The entity 🚲, in HTML produces
30.
Outline of bicycles
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A person who rides a bicycle is called a cyclist or a bicyclist, and the activity is called cycling. Also known as a bike, push bike or cycle and these innovations have continued with the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design, allowing for a proliferation of specialized bicycle types. Recreation, bicycle touring, mountain biking, BMX and physical fitness, military, scouting, troop movement, supply of provisions, and patrol. Show, entertainment and performance, e. g. circus clowns, used as instrument by Frank Zappa. List of bicycle types Bicycles can be categorized in different ways, e. g. by function, by number of riders, by general construction, by gearing or by means of propulsion. The more common types include utility bicycles, mountain bicycles, racing bicycles, touring bicycles, hybrid bicycles, cruiser bicycles, less common are tandems, lowriders, tall bikes, fixed gear, folding models and recumbents. Unicycles, tricycles and quadracycles are not strictly bicycles, as they have respectively one, more recently, bicycle technology has in turn contributed ideas in both old and new areas. For details on specific parts, see list of bicycle parts and category. Bicycle frame The great majority of bicycles have a frame with upright seating which looks much like the first chain-driven bike. CEN, European Committee for Standardisation, also has a specific Technical Committee, TC333 and their mandate states that EN cycle standards shall harmonize with ISO standards. Some CEN cycle standards were developed before ISO published their standards, European cycle standards tend to describe minimum safety requirements, while ISO standards have historically harmonized parts geometry
31.
Bicycle trailer
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A bicycle trailer is a motorless wheeled frame with a hitch system for transporting cargo by bicycle. It can greatly increase a bikes cargo capacity, allowing point-to-point haulage of objects up to 4 cubic yards in volume that weigh as much as half a ton. Different types of trailer are designed for various purposes, cargo requirements and riding conditions, Single-wheel, though of limited towing capacity, this design tends to be more stable than trailers with two or more wheels. The single wheel can tilt from side to side when cornering allowing for coordinated turns at high speed. The connection to the bicycle is simpler than a two-wheeled trailer since only two degrees of freedom are required- the trailer tilts with the towing bicycle, two-wheel, A two-wheel design makes possible much greater load carrying capacity and a wider cargo bed. Though not suitable for speed, they are ideal for everyday cycling. Two-wheel trailers tend to be as wide or wider than the handlebars of the bicycle, general cargo, for transporting cargo of all kinds. Human passenger, constructed to enhance the comfort and safety of one or more human passengers and these usually have a low centre of gravity and widely spaced wheels to increase stability when cornering, and often have integrated rain-proof covers, seat padding, and safety belts. A lot of the designed for transporting children can also be converted to strollers. Trailers have also used as pedicabs. Child passenger, trailer bikes and pedal trailer, one-wheel trailers with integrated seat, handle bars, and drive train and these allow small children who cant yet ride a bicycle alone to accompany adult riders as participants and motive-power producers. These trailers are by far the most popular style, canoe and kayak, designed for towing long, thin, relatively light-weight loads such as canoes, kayaks, or wind surfing rigs. Disabled passenger, made for safely towing wheelchairs with persons in them, pets, for carrying small domestic animals, especially dogs, that weigh less than 100 lb. Several electric bike trailers are available such as the Ridekick and the Electric Push-Trailer, metal, usually steel or aluminum alloy tubing, assembled by brazing, welding, or nuts and bolts. Wood, seldom seen but sometimes used in makeshift and home-built trailers, fastened with glue, nails, screws, bolts, most trailers have a separate axle for each wheel, like those used on a bicycle. These separate axles usually mount directly on the frame using either threaded nuts, the use of separate axles for two-wheel trailers allows the load carrying area to be between the wheels with its base below the axles, so as to keep the centre of gravity relatively low. Some trailers support a normal axle on two sides, others mount the wheel off one side with a stub axle, traditional spoked bicycle wheel in various sizes. Has the advantage of being light, strong, readily available, pneumatic tires provide some suspension for the load, larger diameters ride smoothly and have much less drag than many other types of wheels
32.
BMX bike
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A BMX bike is an off-road sport bicycle used for racing and stunt riding. BMX frames are made of various types of steel, and aluminum, cheaper, low end bikes are usually made of steel. High range bikes are mostly chromoly or high tensile steel, although the latter is noticeably heavier with respect to strength, high-performance BMX bikes use lightweight 4130 chromoly, or generation 3 chromoly. The introduction and widespread popularity of the hub has ushered in the use of smaller gearing on BMX bikes.8,1. Advantages of smaller gearing hubs include lighter weight, and more clearance when grinding, the freewheel hub is all but extinct due to several factors. The smallest freewheels that can be made is with 8 teeth, also, they are less consistent than cassette hubs, and skip or jam up far more frequently. On most freestyle, street, and park BMX bikes, the wheels have 36 spokes, race bike wheels also usually have 36 spokes, but wheels for the smallest racers, sometimes as young as three years old, can be built with 18 or 28 spokes. More aggressive riders may opt for wheels with a count of up to 48 spokes, however hub. BMX Racing bike wheels vary in size, from 16 to 26, BMX started in the early 1970s when children began racing their bicycles on dirt tracks in Southern California, drawing inspiration from the motocross superstars of the time. The size and availability of the Schwinn Sting-Ray made it the natural bike of choice, since they were easily customized for better handling, BMX racing was a phenomenon by the mid-1970s. Children were racing standard road bikes off-road, around purpose-built tracks in California, the 1972 motorcycle racing documentary On Any Sunday is generally credited with inspiring the movement nationally in the US, its opening scene shows kids riding their Schwinn Stingrays off-road. By the middle of that decade the sport achieved critical mass, George E. Esser founded the National Bicycle League as a non-profit bicycle motocross sanctioning organization in 1974. Before they set up the NBL, George and his wife, Mary, promoted motorcycle races with the AMA and their two sons, Greg and Bryan, raced motorcycles, but also enjoyed riding and racing BMX with their friends. It was their sons’ interest, and the absence of an Eastern presence by the National Bicycle Association, by 1977 the American Bicycle Association was organized as a national sanctioning body for the growing sport. In April 1981, the International BMX Federation was founded, since January 1993 BMX has been integrated into the Union Cyclist International. BMX Freestyle was created by racers who enjoyed pushing the limits of what they could do on their bikes. Haro Bikes founder Bob Haro is popularly known as The Father of Freestyle, BMX Freestyle is now one of the staple events at the annual Summer X Games Extreme Sports competition and the ETNIES backyard jam, held largely on both coasts of the United States. The popularity of the sport has increased due to its relative ease, at the games, Latvian Māris Štrombergs and Anne-Caroline Chausson of France were crowned the first Olympic champions in Mens and Womens BMX Racing, respectively
33.
Velocipede
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Velocipede is a human-powered land vehicle with one or more wheels. The most common type of today is the bicycle. It is ultimately derived from the Latin velox, veloc- swift + pes, among the early velocipedes there were designs with one, two, three, four, and even five wheels. Some two-wheeled designs had pedals mounted on the front wheel, while three- and four-wheeled designs sometimes used treadles, the earliest usable and much-copied velocipede was created by the German Karl Drais and called a Laufmaschine, which he first rode on June 12,1817. He obtained a patent in January 1818 and it was made entirely of wood and metal and despite the condition of the roads at the time was sometimes ridden for long distances. The Michaux company was the first to mass-produce the velocipede, from 1857 to 1871 and that French design was sometimes called the boneshaker, since it was also made entirely of wood, then later with metal tires. That in combination with the roads of the day made for an extremely uncomfortable ride. These velocipedes also became a fad, and indoor riding academies, similar to roller rinks, during the 1870s advances in metallurgy led to the development of the first all-metal velocipedes. The pedals were attached directly to the front wheel, which became larger and larger as makers realised that the larger the wheel. Solid rubber tires and the spokes of the large front wheel provided a much smoother ride than its predecessor. This type of velocipede was the first one to be called a bicycle and they enjoyed a great popularity among young men in the 1880s who could afford them. While young men were risking their necks on the wheels, ladies and dignified gentlemen such as doctors. Many innovations for tricycles eventually found their way into the automobile, such as rack and pinion steering, the differential, and band brakes, the forerunners to drum brakes. Boneshaker is a name used from about 1869 up to the present time to refer to the first type of bicycle with pedals. Boneshaker refers to the extremely uncomfortable ride, which was caused by the stiff wrought-iron frame and it fell out of favor after the summer of 1869, and was replaced in 1870 with the type of bicycle called ordinary, high-wheel, or penny-farthing. Few original boneshakers exist today, most having been melted for scrap metal during World War I and those that do surface from time to time command high prices, typically up to about $5,000 US. The construction of the boneshaker was similar to the horse, wooden wheels with iron tires. The boneshaker also had a brake – a metal lever that pressed a wooden pad against the rear wheel
34.
City bicycle
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A European city bike, or simply city-bike, is a bicycle designed for frequent short, moderately paced rides through relatively flat urban areas. It is a form of utility bicycle commonly seen around the world, City bikes may be individually owned or operated as part of a public bike sharing scheme. The European city bike is designed for utility cycling with a range of loads, clothing. The result is a bicycle optimized for daily personal short-distance transportation over flat terrain. A traditional European city bike provides hop-on-and-go ability, with no gearing-up process, generally as they are more suitable for urban environments, they focus more on comfort and practicality instead of speed or efficiency. They normally have a curved, roughly planar aligned and elevated handlebar. They have fewer gears and they often are heavier than road bicycles and they might have the top central frame bar diagonally aligned for allowing easy mounting in and out and they might have a back or front frame for transport of items. The saddle is larger compared with other bicycles and the majority is provided with chain. The Dutch term Stadsfiets is a starting point for defining the nature of the design. The Dutch words fiets and stadsfiets mean bicycle and city bicycle, German and Dutch versions of the European city bike are similar, though there are differences. The English roadster is similar in design, appearance, and intended use, the primary differences are that the continental bicycles tend to have a higher handlebar position for a more upright riding posture, and are more likely to have rod-actuated drum brakes. Because of Great Britains cultural and trading influence in its former colonies, contemporary city bikes are increasingly found in many European cities, including Amsterdam and Copenhagen. Newer German models, on the hand, tend to incorporate a less is more philosophy. Traditional European city bikes are optimized for short-distance, frequent transportation over flat terrain in urban settings, however, such bikes are also used in hilly Switzerland, including Basel and Bern, where 23% and 15% of daily trips are made by bicycle respectively. A steel-frame European city bike with hub gear, chain case, instead, European city bikes are often locked and stored outside businesses or residences, even during inclement weather. For easier carrying and storage, makers of European city bikes provide features similar to city bikes on folding bicycles, in the Netherlands, many modern city bikes are also available with an aluminum alloy frame, significantly reducing weight to partly overcome the practical difficulties with a heavier bike. The latter frequently employ lightweight frames and wide ranges for use on higher-speed roadways as well as steep terrain. To save weight, some city or commuter bikes do not usually possess many accessories, adding only fenders, a rack
35.
Cruiser bicycle
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Cruisers are popular among casual bicyclists and vacationers because they are very stable and easy to ride, but their heavy weight and balloon tires tend to make them rather slow. They are designed for use primarily on paved roads, moderate speeds/distances, one of the first uses of the term “cruiser” for motobikes may have been in the WW2 era, by Mead Cycle Co. The Crusader “Cruiser” model was the high-end men/boy’s bicycle, and included additional features, such as front headlight, rear rack, and most importantly, the motobike tank. The low-end model, was the crusader “chaser, ” and the ladies’ the crusader “clipper” and ‘cutter” models to complete the theme in the product naming scheme. Art work of U. S. Navy Cruiser ships were depicted in the Mead Cycle Co. ads, so cruiser may have originated as one model name used by one distributor of the motorbike style of bicycles. The term beach-ranger never really caught on, Schwinn, like others, copied what they saw going on in Europe. Both Sears and Montgomery Ward had bicycles in 1932 that had balloon tires in the USA, and the streamline movement in bicycles was really pioneered by Sears and Huffman. The resulting bicycles could endure abuse that could damage others, in 1934, Schwinn successfully re-styled the B-10E, renaming it the Aero Cycle. While the Aero Cycle featured no technical improvements over the original B-10E, its frame, faux gas tank. Modern cruiser bicycles retain these design elements, cruisers were popular throughout the 1930s and 40s and gained greater postwar success. Their combination of weight, single speed mechanicals, and wide tires made the bicycles primarily suited to flat terrain. They were popular with paperboys and bicycle couriers, the Huffy RadioBike® featured an electron-tube radio built into the tank and an antenna and battery pack on the rear carrier. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, bicycles imported from Great Britain and Continental Europe became popular, especially lighter and these models featured three-speed gearing, taller wheels, narrower tires and lighter weight and greater hill-climbing ability. By the late 1950s, U. S. manufacturers such as Schwinn began producing their own version of the English racer, by 1972, a new wave of lightweight derailleur-equipped bicycles led a wave of new consumer interest in recreational bicycling, resulting in the bike boom. Derailleur-equipped sport bikes or ten speeds inspired by European racing bicycles soon dominated the adult market, while largely obsolete by the late 1960s, the cruiser remained popular for utility and recreational use at the beach, where they soon earned the title of beach cruisers. The term beach cruiser started in 1976 at Recycled Cycles in Newport Beach when Larry McNeely coined the phrase, secondhand cruisers found new life on Americas coastlines as practical transportation for beach bums and surfers. Schwinn registered the trademark Schwinn Cruiser® with the U. S, patent and Trademark Office in November 1979, at or near the end of the bike boom. TRAC International Corporation of Atlanta, Georgia, registered the trademarks Beach Cruiser® and Street Cruiser® with the USPTO in December 1983, the release of the 1985 film Pee-wees Big Adventure highlighted the main characters cross-country search for his lost custom-built heavily-accessorized horn-tank bicycle
36.
Cycle rickshaw
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The cycle rickshaw is a small-scale local means of transport, it is also known by a variety of other names such as bike taxi, velotaxi, pedicab, bikecab, cyclo, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw. As opposed to rickshaws pulled by a person on foot, cycle rickshaws are human-powered by pedaling, another type of rickshaw is the auto rickshaw. They are a type of tricycle designed to carry passengers on a for-hire basis, Cycle rickshaws are widely used in major cities around the world, but most commonly in cities of South, Southeast and East Asia. The first cycle rickshaws were built in the 1880s, and they were first used widely in 1929 in Singapore, six years later they outnumbered pulled rickshaws. By 1950 cycle rickshaws were found in south and east Asian country. By the late 1980s there were an estimated 4 million cycle rickshaws in the world, the vehicle is generally pedal-driven by a driver, though some are equipped with an electric motor to assist the driver. The vehicle is usually a tricycle, though some models exist. Some cycle rickshaws have gas or electric motors, the configuration of driver and passenger seats varies. Generally the driver sits in front of the passengers to pedal the rickshaw, there are some designs, though, where the cyclist driver sits behind the passengers. In many Asian countries, like India and China, the seat is located behind the driver, while in Indonesia, Malaysia. In the Philippines, the seats are usually located beside the driver in a side car. Similarly, in the trishaw in Singapore and the sai kaa in Burma the passengers sit alongside the driver, the cycle rickshaw is a small-scale local means of transport, it is also known by a variety of other names, such as, velotaxi and bikecab. Cyclo is used in Vietnam and Cambodia, Pedicab is used in the United Kingdom and United States. In Buffalo, New York, this type of vehicle is known as a bike taxi, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw are non-English names used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Cycle rickshaws are used in Asian countries, but also in countries outside Asia, such as large European, Cycle rickshaws used outside Asia often are mechanically more complex, having multiple gears, more powerful brakes, and in some cases electrical motors to provide additional power. In Madagascar rickshaws, including cycle rickshaws or cyclo-pousse, are a form of transportation in a number of cities. Rickshaws are known as pousse-pousse, meaning push-push, reportedly for the pulled rickshaws that required a person to push the vehicles up hills. Cycles are more common in the areas, like Toamasina
37.
Cyclo-cross bicycle
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A cyclo-cross bicycle is a bicycle specifically designed for the rigors of a cyclo-cross race. Cyclo-cross bicycles roughly resemble the racing bicycles used in road racing, the major differences between the two are the frame geometry, and the wider clearances that cyclo-cross bikes have for their larger tires and mud and other debris that they accumulate. Frame materials are selected with an aim to produce a lightweight, yet stiff, low weight is prized for ease of carrying while running. A cyclo-cross racer may lift or carry his/her bike as many as 30 times in one 60 minute race, aluminum frames were popular in cyclo-cross bicycles long before they became commonplace on the road. Today the most popular material is aluminium with carbon fiber being popular at a professional level, cyclo-cross frames require clearance for slightly wider tires and the debris and mud that is picked up by them. They are typically simple, often eschewing bridges between the rear stays. Compact geometry frames with sloping top tubes are less common than on road due to the need to carry the bicycle easily on the shoulder. Top tube routed derailleur cables help combat the build-up of mud, some specialist cyclo-cross bikes also have a higher bottom bracket to aid clearance over rough ground, extra clearance could prevent toe clips from dragging while re-mounting after an obstacle. This is less common as clipless pedals have become the norm for cyclo-cross, typically, the frame geometry is a bit more relaxed than that of a road bike, not as upright in the seat tube, which allows for more stability in soft ground. Gearing is typically lower, with most common setups using a 46-36 or 48-38 chainring combination with a 12-25 to 12-30 cassette, some riders opt to use a single chainring in the front while retaining multiple sprockets in the rear cassette. Wheels are of the road racing type fitted with knobby tires. A second set of levers on the tops, called top mount or interrupter brake levers, are favored by some competitors. The top tubes of cyclocross bike frames typically have an ovalized or flattened bottom profile to provide greater comfort when riders need to shoulder, in general, with a change of tires and gearing a cyclo-cross bike can double as a perfectly adequate road racing machine. However, most cyclo-cross racers prefer clipless mountain bike pedals for their easy dual-sided entry, additionally, mountain biking shoes provide better traction while running than typical road style shoes thanks to flexibility in the sole and pronounced tread patterns. Mini-Vs are gaining in popularity as they have both the cable pull, and some of the increased power of traditional linear-pull brakes over cantilever brakes. While disc brakes are heavier than cantilever brakes, the trade off is that they allow for later, tire choice is very important in cyclo-cross racing. Tubular tires are very popular, even more so than in road racing. This is, in part, due to their ability to be used at low pressure without increasing the risk of pinch flats, low pressure is desirable because it increases contact patch area which can increase traction on soft surfaces
38.
Downhill bike
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A downhill bike is a full suspension bicycle designed for downhill cycling on particularly steep, rocky trails. Unlike a typical mountain bike, durability and stability are the most important design features, compared to lighter, downhill bikes are primarily intended for high speed descent, and downhill riders will usually push, or shuttle via chairlifts or motorized vehicles, to the trailhead. Downhill bikes are very similar to freeride bikes due to large strong frames. These bikes will also have very slack head angles, long wheelbases. Downhill frames are also overbuilt to handle the stress of riding over rocky terrain, drops, adjustable head tube angles are also available to adapt the bike to the owners preferred style of riding. Will typically have 7–10 inches of suspension travel, and be designed around a 7–8-inch suspension fork. The suspension sag is also higher than cross-country bikes for a more supple ride at higher speeds. Other innovations include the use of OnePointFive head tube standard, which uses a 1.5 in wide steerer tube, instead of the more conventional 1.125 in diameter, for added stiffness and strength. Most downhill bikes use dual crown forks which allow travel at the front(usually 203 mm or 8 in. Drawbacks though, are increased weight and reduced turning circle, downhill bikes usually have hydraulic disc brakes. Downhill bikes usually have a guide to prevent accidental chain deraillment. Some manufacturers are experimenting with internal gearboxes for improved reliability, downhill bikes have very thick and big tires in order not to lose traction in bad terrain. Downhill bikes are made of aluminum alloys or carbon fiber. Outline of cycling A Brief History of the Mountain Bike by Jobst Brandt
39.
Downhill mountain biking
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Downhill mountain biking is a genre of mountain biking practiced on steep, rough terrain that often features jumps, drops, rock gardens and other obstacles. Downhill bikes are heavier and stronger than other mountain bikes and feature front and rear suspension with over 8 inches or of travel, to glide quickly over rocks, in competitive races, a continuous course is defined on each side by a strip of tape. Depending on the format, riders have a single or double attempt to reach the line as fast as possible, while remaining between the two tapes designating the course. Riders must choose their line by compromising between the shortest possible line and the line that can be traveled at the highest speed. Riders start at intervals, often seeded from slowest to fastest, riders are timed with equipment similar to that used in downhill skiing. The 1st downhill time-trial race took place in Fairfax, California on October 21,1976 on a fireroad now referred to as Repack Road, the bikes used were based on cruiser bicycles that had Drum brake or a single rear coaster brake that worked by pedalling backwards. A mechanism came into operation causing a conical metal brake shoe to be wound on a thread into a metal hub. To prevent a metal to metal brake from snatching it was filled with grease. Heavy use of the brake during the descent would cause the brake to over heat, melting the grease till it drained from the hub, ten riders descended 1,300 feet of Repack in about 5 minutes. 125-inch-wide balloon tires from Germany. As mountain biking grew enormously during the 80s, downhill riders continued to use either rigid or limited suspension travel bicycles, some of these innovations included dual crown suspension forks and disc brakes, as well as very elaborate frame suspension designs. Later, riders from all disciplines of cycling began focusing on downhill, particularly, many BMX racers made the crossover, including champions such as Daniel Solano, and Brian Lopes. Their influence is seen in the difficulty of many courses. The coming of age for downhill biking was its inclusion at the first UCI Mountain Bike Championship, held in 1990 in Durango, many ski areas are converted into biking venues in the summer however there are also many other hills with Downhill Mountain Bike trails built on them. Bikers ride gondolas, trams or chair lifts to the point at the top of the mountains. Another method commonly referred to as Shuttling, uses motorized vehicles to transport riders to the top of the hill. Normally utility vehicles or 4WDs are driven up off-road tracks to the top of the courses, however, some tracks provide access to ordinary cars - such as Kuranda Downhill in Cairns, which runs down the Smithfield side of the Macalister Range and uses the road as access. Urban Downhill race courses are beginning to set a new trend in the off season of the Summer sport, there are also forms of urban indoor downhill events that take place in indoor/outdoor malls with jump features and technical formats for spectating. Most often the theme has been aimed at creating tracks through city streets, Urban racing has taken a large rise in notoriety as well as developing a larger fan base in the southern hemispheres
40.
Fatbike
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Fatbikes are built around frames with wide forks and stays to accommodate the wide rims required to fit these tires. The wide tires can be used with inflation pressures as low as 340 hPa to allow for a ride over rough obstacles. A rating of 550–690 hPa is suitable for the majority of riders, fatbikes are also called fat bikes, or snow bikes. In several US states and provinces, fatbike-dedicated groomed winter trails have been created, although early versions of fat-tired bikes were probably built on a limited basis as long ago as the early 1900s, the first modern versions were not developed until the 1980s. An early example is the custom three-wheeled in-line longtail-style bike with fat tires and he rode it from Zinder in Niger to Tamanrasset in Algeria, and later rode a similar bike in 1986 across the Sahara using fat tire prototypes from Michelin. In the late 1980s, Alaskan frame builders began experimenting with custom components, steve Baker, with Icycle Bicycles in Anchorage, was welding together two rims and even three rims and built several special frames and forks that could accommodate two or three tires together. In 1989, Dan Bull, Mark Frise, Roger Cowels and Les Matz, rode the 1, simultaneously, in New Mexico, Ray Molina had commissioned Remolino 3.1 in rims,3.5 in tires, and frames to fit them. He wanted the bikes for his tour business in the soft sands of the Mexican and Southwest arroyos. Mark Gronewald, owner of Wildfire Designs Bicycles in Palmer, Alaska met Molina at the 1999 Interbike convention in Las Vegas, in late 1999, Gronewald and another Alaskan frame builder, John Evingson, collaborated to design and build several bikes using Molina’s rims and tires. Gronewald and Evingson then began producing their own lines of fat-tired bikes in 2000. Rims and tires were imported to Alaska where Wildfire and Evingson began making small, handmade production runs, Gronewald coined the trademark Fat Bike in 2001 and used it as the model name for his bikes. Gronewald originally worked with Palmer Machinery for welding and later contracted frame building to Mike DeSalvo at DeSalvo Cyles of Ashland, Gronewald continued to sell his original fatbikes until 2011. Gronewalds design featured an 18 mm offset wheel and frame built to full range gearing, since he was using standard hubs. Wildfire and Evingson bikes were used in the Iditarod Trail races beginning in 2000, also that year, Mike Curiak from Colorado set a record on the Iditarod Trail in the IditaSport Extreme race to Nome on a modified Marin bike with Remolino rims and tires. Surly Bikes released the Pugsley frame, in 2005, and began producing Large Marge 65 mm rims, the Pugsley frame, rim and tire offerings made fatbikes commercially available in local bike shops worldwide. The Pugsley bikes also featured the offset wheel and frame build, Rakower was involved with technical support aspects of the Iditabike race, which started in 1987. Since 2002 the race continued on the trail under the name Iditarod Trail Invitational. Many riders on the Iditarod Trail used a Geax tire with the snow cat rim, soon after, Rakower decided to design a 44 mm rim from scratch and had it produced
41.
Flat bar road bike
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A flat bar road bike, also called a fitness bike, is a hybrid bike optimized for road usage or a road bike with a flat handlebar in place of a drop bar. Frame construction and geometry borrow significantly from conventional road design, the frame is constructed to a light or middleweight standard with a shape that promotes an aggressive, aerodynamic posture suited to riding at higher speeds. There is no suspension for either wheel, though the front fork may use carbon or steel to quell vibration. Wheel size is almost universally 700c with a width of 28mm to 32mm, the drivetrain of a flat bar bike often borrows features from multiple bike styles, pairing the trigger-shifting approach of mountain bikes with the taller cassette ratios of road bikes. The brakes of purpose-built flat-bar designs tend to be linear-pull, a mechanism nonexistent in road bikes, disc brake penetration in road cycling continues to increase, however, with flat bar and cyclocross bikes leading the curve. Relative to more upright hybrids, flat bar road bikes are lighter and more efficient to pedal. Drop bar bikes will have aerodynamic advantages above about 15 MPH. Conventional hybrids will have a measure of off-road capability lacking in entirety from flat bar bikes, for efficient speed with the familiarity and stability of a flat bar, however, the flat bar road bike is an optimal compromise
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