1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Winnipeg
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Winnipeg is the capital and largest city of the province of Manitoba in Canada. It is located near the centre of North America and is 110 kilometres from the U. S. border. It is also the place of the confluence of the Red, the city is named after the nearby Lake Winnipeg, the name comes from the Western Cree words for muddy water. The region was a centre for aboriginal peoples long before the arrival of Europeans. French traders built the first fort on the site in 1738, a settlement was later founded by the Selkirk settlers of the Red River Colony in 1812, the nucleus of which was incorporated as the City of Winnipeg in 1873. As of 2011, Winnipeg is the seventh most populated municipality in Canada, being located very far inland, the local climate is extremely seasonal even by Canadian standards with average January lows of around −21 °C and average July highs of 26 °C. Known as the Gateway to the West, Winnipeg is a railway, Winnipeg was the first Canadian host of the Pan American Games. It is home to professional sports franchises, including the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, the Winnipeg Jets, Manitoba Moose. Winnipeg lies at the confluence of the Assiniboine and the Red River of the North and this point was at the crossroads of canoe routes travelled by First Nations before European contact. Winnipeg is named after nearby Lake Winnipeg, the name is a transcription of the Western Cree words for muddy or brackish water. Estimates of the date of first settlement in this area are varied, in 1805, Canadian colonists observed First Nations peoples engaged in farming activity along the Red River. The practice quickly expanded, driven by the demand by traders for provisions, the rivers provided an extensive transportation network linking northern First Peoples with those to the south along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. The Ojibwe made some of the first maps on birch bark, sieur de La Vérendrye built the first fur trading post on the site in 1738, called Fort Rouge. French trading continued at this site for decades before the arrival of the British Hudsons Bay Company after France ceded the territory following its defeat in the Seven Years War. Many French and later British men who were trappers married First Nations women, their mixed-race children hunted, traded and they gradually developed as an ethnicity known as the Métis because of sharing a traditional culture. Lord Selkirk was involved with the first permanent settlement, the purchase of land from the Hudsons Bay Company, the North West Company built Fort Gibraltar in 1809, and the Hudsons Bay Company built Fort Douglas in 1812, both in the area of present-day Winnipeg. The two companies competed fiercely over trade, the Métis and Lord Selkirks settlers fought at the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816. In 1821, the Hudsons Bay and North West Companies merged, Fort Gibraltar was renamed Fort Garry in 1822 and became the leading post in the region for the Hudsons Bay Company
3.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
4.
Trans-Canada Air Lines
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Trans-Canada Air Lines was a Canadian airline that operated as the countrys flag carrier. Its corporate headquarters were in Montreal, Quebec and its first president was Gordon Roy McGregor. In English-language contexts, the airline operated as TCA from 1937 to 1965, with heavy involvement from C. D. An air-mail contract with Canada Post was one of the methods by which TCA was financed, the creation of TCA was partly by CNR management who wanted to expand the company into the new field of passenger aviation, and was partly by government direction. Prior to TCA, no national airline existed in Canada. With war looming, and other nations experiencing major increases in the creation of passenger airlines, the CNR was the countrys largest corporation at the time and proved an effective vehicle for the government to create a national airline. TCA was also in competition with passenger trains operated by parent CNR. In response to CNRs creation of TCA, arch-rival Canadian Pacific Railway created Canadian Pacific Air Lines in 1942, between 1943 and 1947, TCA operated the Canadian Government Trans-Atlantic Air Service to provide trans-Atlantic military passenger and postal delivery service using Avro Lancastrian aircraft. The record crossing was completed non-stop in 12,26 hours, CGTAS ushered in the era of commercial air travel across the North Atlantic. After the war, the Lancastrians became part of TCA and carried paying passengers until they were replaced by Douglas DC-4s. Starting in 1945, TCA acquired 30 twin-engined ex-military Douglas DC-3s for use on Canadian internal services, a fleet of Merlin-powered Canadair North Stars was delivered from 1947 and these commenced services to several European countries, including the United Kingdom and to cities in the USA. The last of the North Stars was sold in 1961, the last Super Constellations were disposed of in 1963. A large fleet of Vickers Viscount turboprop airliners was built up from late 1954, the Viscount was followed by the larger Vickers Vanguard turboprop. TCA was the airline in North America to operate the Vanguard in scheduled passenger service. In 1953 with the development of ReserVec, TCA became the first airline in the world to use a computer system with remote terminals. The airlines Winnipeg maintenance shops and its first trial flight of the Viscount was documented in the 1955 film, the airline acquired a fleet of Douglas DC-8 jet airliners powered by Rolls Royce Conways, the first being received on 25 May 1960. The DC-8 quickly replaced the slower Super Constellations on TCAs scheduled services to Europe, in 1978, Air Canada was divested by parent CNR and became a separate Crown corporation. Air Canada was privatized in 1989, TCA operated a network of 160 routes to destinations including, St
5.
History of aviation in Canada
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The history of aviation in Canada begins with the first manned flight in a balloon at Saint John, New Brunswick in 1840. Development of the industry in Canada was shaped by the interplay of Canadian national ambitions, national and international politics, economics. Experimental aviation started in Canada with the test flights of Bells Silver Dart in 1909, the experimental phase gave way to use of aircraft in warfare and many Canadians served in the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force during the First World War. After the war, aircraft turned from a novelty into a vital transportation tool, particularly useful in exploration. Canadians who had served with the RAF put their acquired skills to peacetime use. Aviation was applied to the task of tying together far-flung communities in the North, Aircraft were as important to opening up the North as the railway was to opening the West in the previous century. Between the wars many small airlines were founded, including the ancestors of Air Canada, with growth in passenger. World War II forced more technological development and brought Canadian industry into the vanguard of aircraft manufacture, Canadian airspace and facilities provide training for more than one hundred thousand Commonwealth aircrew, and the wartime facilities supported growing commercial aviation. The Jet Age brought air travel into the lives of many Canadians, deregulation of airlines with less government control brought forth new competitors to the prewar airlines. Thin operating margins and aggressive competition led to periodic booms and failures, today aviation is an integral part of the Canadian economy. Scheduled airline passenger service, air mail and air freight connect Canadian cities and cities around the world, general aviation provides medical evacuation, air photography, and support for resource development. In August 1840 at Saint John, New Brunswick, Louis Anselm Lauriat became the first person to complete a balloon ascent in Canada, free balloon and dirigible balloon exhibitions were popular attractions in the first years of the 20th century. The first power-driven dirigible flight in Canada was completed by C. K. Hamilton at Montreal in 1906, the British airship R100 visited Canada in August 1930, overflying both Montreal and Toronto, a mooring mast was constructed and used only for this one occasion. After the crash of the R101, British airships no longer crossed the ocean, periodically, lighter-than-air vehicles and hybrid airships are promoted for use in remote northern areas, on the basis of lower cost of operation than conventional aircraft. While vehicles such as Skyhook and Zeppelin NT regularly obtain press coverage, alexander Graham Bell had organized the Aerial Experiment Association for the development of aviation, which was funded by his wife Mabel Gardiner Hubbard from sale of some of her real estate. AEA member Frederick Walker Baldwin was the first Canadian to pilot an aircraft in 1908, McCurdy and Baldwin in August 1909 demonstrated the Silver Dart and the Baddeck No.1, a second aircraft built in Canada, to Canadian military authorities at Camp Petawawa. Both aircraft were damaged during the demonstrations and so did not impress the military authorities, McCurdy later flew a record-setting over water flight from Florida nearly to Cuba in 1910. A trial flight to transport newspapers from Montreal to Ottawa in 1913 ended in a crash, many man-carrying kites, gliders, and powered aircraft were constructed by individual private experimenters in Canada before outbreak of war
6.
Manitoba
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Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada. It is one of the three provinces and Canadas fifth-most populous province with its estimated 1.3 million people. Manitoba covers 649,950 square kilometres with a varied landscape. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years, in the late 17th century, fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Ruperts Land and owned by the Hudsons Bay Company. In 1869, negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada. The rebellions resolution led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 that created the province, Manitobas capital and largest city, Winnipeg, is Canadas eighth-largest census metropolitan area. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, four of the provinces five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg. The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree, the name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit, a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba. It may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie, the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies. Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name, and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 and it adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast, and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline. The Port of Churchill is Canadas only Arctic deep-water port and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia, Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Hudson Bay is the worlds second-largest bay, Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed, once known as Ruperts Land. It was a area of the Hudsons Bay Company, with many rivers. The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, Manitobas major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipegs east side are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg. This basins rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers
7.
Bush plane
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They are used where ground transportation infrastructure is inadequate or does not exist. None of these traits are mandatory - merely that they are commonly seen features of bush planes, the undercarriage is designed to be fitted with floats, skis or wheel/skis to permit operation from water or snow. A high wing is likely to be damaged during loading or unloading than a low wing. A failure is less critical as a broken tailwheel is easily repaired and wont prevent the aircraft from flying. Very large, low-pressure tundra tires may be fitted to enable the pilot to operate from broken ground and its not uncommon for a bush pilot to land from unprepared surfaces. Years in brackets are of first flight, Bush flying Anderson, Frank W. Downs, Art. The Death of Albert Johnson - Mad Trapper of Rat River, surrey, BC, Heritage House Publishing Co. Bush Pilots - Canadas Wilderness Daredevils, Frank Barr - Bush pilot in Alaska and the Yukon. Edmonds, WA, Alaska Northwest Publishing Co, the Bush Pilots - A pictoral history of a Canadian phenomenon. Toronto, ON, McClelland & Stewart Inc, keith, Ronald A. Bush Pilot with a briefcase. Bent Props and Blow Pots - A Pioneer Remembers Northern Bush Flying, the Firebirds - How bush flying earned its wings. Austin Airways - Canadas Oldest Airline
8.
Flight deck
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The flight deck of an aircraft carrier is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. On smaller naval ships which do not have aviation as a primary mission, the official U. S. Navy term for these vessels is air-capable ships. The first flight decks were inclined wooden ramps built over the forecastle of warships, eugene Ely made the first fixed-wing aircraft take-off from a warship from USS Birmingham on 14 November 1910. Ely told a reporter, It was easy enough, I think the trick could be successfully turned nine times out of ten. On 9 May 1912, Commander Charles Samson became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway when he flew his Short S.27 off of HMS Hibernia, which was steaming at 10.5 kn. Because the take-off speed of aircraft was so low, it was possible for an aircraft to make a very short take off when the launching ship was steaming into the wind. The landing arrangements on Furious were highly unsatisfactory, in order to land, aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure. Furious was therefore returned to dockyard hands to have a 300 ft deck added aft for landing, the central superstructure remained, however, and turbulence caused by it badly affected the landing deck. Because of her flight deck, Argus had no fixed conning tower. Rather, exhaust gases were trunked down the side of the ship, the lack of a command position and funnel was unsatisfactory, and Argus was used to experiment with various ideas to remedy the solution. A photograph in 1917 shows her with a canvas mock-up of an island superstructure. This became the aircraft carrier arrangement and was used in the next British carriers, Hermes. Being large and fast they were suited to this role. Because the military effectiveness of aircraft carriers was then unknown, early ships were equipped with cruiser-calibre guns to aid in their defense if surprised by enemy warships. In ships of this configuration, the deck was the strength deck and an integral part of the hull. Such ships were still being built into the late 1940s, classic examples being the U. S. Navys Essex, however, in 1936, the Royal Navy began construction of the Illustrious class. In these ships, the deck was the strength deck, an integral part of the hull. The flight deck as the deck was adopted for later construction
9.
Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck
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The Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck was a Canadian jet interceptor/fighter serving during the Cold War both in NATO bases in Europe and as part of NORAD. The CF-100 was the only Canadian-designed fighter to enter production, serving primarily with the Royal Canadian Air Force and Canadian Armed Forces. For its day, the CF-100 featured a short run and high climb rate. In the early 1950s, Canada needed an interceptor able to patrol the vast areas of Canadas north. Design of the XC-100 to meet a Royal Canadian Air Force specification for a fighter was initiated at Avro Canada in October 1946. Chief Engineer Edgar Atkins work on the CF-100 was subsequently passed to John Frost who, along with Avros Chief Aerodynamacist Jim Chamberlin, the CF-100 Mark 1 prototype,18101, emerged from the factory, painted gloss black overall with white lightning bolts running down the fuselage and engines. The CF-100 prototype flew its maiden flight on 19 January 1950 with Gloster Aircraft Company Chief Test Pilot Squadron Leader Bill Waterton at the controls, the Mark 1 was powered by two Rolls-Royce Avon RA3 turbojets with 28.9 kN thrust each. The second prototype, serial number 18102, was powered by Rolls-Royce Avons. Five pre-production Mk 2 test aircraft were produced, all fitted with Orenda 2 engines, one was fitted with dual controls, the first production version, designated Mk 3, incorporated the APG-33 radar and was armed with eight.50 in Browning M3 machine guns. The Mk 3CT and Mk 3DT were again dual control versions supplied to operational training units, a CF-100 arrived at Eglin AFB, Florida, in mid-January 1955 for cold-weather tests in the climatic hangar. Tests were to begin in February, in March 1956, four CF-100 Canucks were sent to Eglin AFB for comparative armament trials, and flown by USAF crews. In September 1950, the RCAF ordered 124 Mk 3s, the first entering service in 1953 and these were armed with eight. 50-caliber machine guns. The definitive rocket-armed Mk 4A was based on the prototype Mk 4, the nose housed the much larger APG-40 radar with wingtip pods, each containing up to 29 Mk 4/Mk 40 Mighty Mouse Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket in addition to the guns. As the last 54 of an order for the Mk 3 were changed into the Mk 4 in 1954, the Mk 4B version had more powerful Orenda 11s. Five versions, or marks, were produced, ending, from 1955 onwards, with the high-altitude Mk 5 that featured a 1.06 m -longer wingtip and enlarged tailplane, along with removal of the machine guns. A projected transonic swept-wing CF-103 was built in form in 1951. The Canuck was affectionately known in the RCAF as the Clunk because of the noise the front landing gear made as it retracted into its well after takeoff. Its less-attractive nickname was the Lead Sled, a reference to its controls and general lack of maneuverability
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