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Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
2.
Jonathan Ive
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Sir Jonathan Paul Jony Ive, KBE, is a British industrial designer who is currently the Chief Design Officer of Apple Inc. While working for a firm in London he was asked by Apple, then a struggling company. He took the design to Apple and was hired immediately, Ive oversees the Apple Industrial Design Group and also provides leadership and direction for Human Interface software teams across the company. Ive is the designer of many of Apples products, including the MacBook Pro, iMac, MacBook Air, Mac mini, iPod, iPod Touch, iPhone, iPad, iPad Mini, Apple Watch, Ive has received a number of accolades for his work. In 2003 he was the winner of the Design Museums Designer of the Year Award. In 2006, he was appointed as a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering. In a 2004 BBC poll Ive was ranked the most influential person in British culture, Ive was born in Chingford, London, England. His father, Michael Ive, was a silversmith who lectured at Middlesex Polytechnic, Ive attended the Chingford Foundation School, then Walton High School in Stafford. During his high school years, Ive was passionate about cars, Ive studied industrial design at Newcastle Polytechnic. Items from his student portfolio, such as a hearing aid design, were exhibited at the Design Museum in London, Ive had been interested in drawing and making anything he could think of. Since he was a teenager, he was unsure of what area to specialise in after leaving Newcastle, after meeting with various design experts, he was drawn to product design. He was given employment at London design agency Roberts Weaver group, Ive graduated with a first class Bachelor of Arts degree in 1989. Ive explained that his discovery of the Apple Mac, after having a problem with computers during his later student years, was a turning point. Fearing he was inept, he felt the Apple user experience was a departure from the computer design at that time and was particularly impressed by the intuitive mouse-driven system. Ive was unhappy working for clients whom he disliked and who didnt possess the same principles, Apple was a Tangerine client that Ive appreciated and he had been acting in a consultancy role for the computer firm while at Tangerine, creating the initial PowerBook designs. Apple had actually been attempting to recruit him as an employee for two years without success. Ive worked as a consultant for Apples Chief of Industrial Design at the time, Robert Brunner and he designed the second generation of the Newton, the MessagePad 110, taking him by Taipei for the first time. Shortly before Jobss return to Apple, Ive nearly resigned from the company, jon Rubinstein, Ives boss at the time, managed to retain Ive as an employee by explaining that Apple was going to make history following the revival of the company
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Rector (academia)
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A rector is a term used in non-English-speaking countries for a university chancellor. In the sphere of academia, it is the highest academic official of universities and in certain other institutions of higher education. The term and office of a rector are called a rectorate, the title is used widely in universities in Europe. And is very common in Latin American countries and it is also used in Brunei, Turkey, Russia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Israel and the Middle East. In some universities, the title is phrased in an even loftier manner and this term is generally not used in English-speaking countries. In England and elsewhere in Great Britain, the head of a university is referred to as a chancellor. This pattern has been followed in the Commonwealth, the United States, in Scotland, many universities are headed by a chancellor, with the Lord Rector designated as an elected representative of students at the head of the university court. The head of a university in Germany is called a president, rector magnificus or rectrix magnifica, in Dutch universities, the rector magnificus is the most publicly prominent member of the board, responsible for the scientific agenda of the university. In the Netherlands, the rector is, however, not the chair of the university board, the chair has, in practice, the most influence over the management of the University. In some countries, including Germany, the position of teacher in secondary schools is also designated as rector. In the Netherlands, the rector and conrector are used commonly for high school directors. This is also the case in some Maltese secondary schools, in the Scandinavian countries, the head of a university or a gymnasium is called a rektor. In Sweden and Norway, this term is used for the heads of primary schools. For example, in Portugal, the rector of the University of Coimbra, the heads of Czech universities are called the rektor. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the universitys affairs unless prohibited by law, the rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the President of the Czech Republic. The nomination must be agreed by a majority of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret, the term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms. The rector appoints vice-rectors, who act as deputies to the extent the Rector determines, Rectors salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education
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Paul Thompson (rector)
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Dr Paul Warwick Thompson FRSA is rector of the Royal College of Art in London, England. Paul Thompson was educated at Bryanston School, the University of Bristol, Thompson worked as a scriptwriter and researcher for the Design Council 1987–88. He then joined the Design Museum as Curator of Contemporary Design, during 2001–09, Thompson was Director of the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum in New York City, USA. In 2009, he took up his current post at the Royal College of Art and he is a Trustee of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and on the Board of Visitors of the Ashmolean Museum at the University of Oxford. He is a member of the Wellcome Collection Programme Advisory Committee at the Wellcome Trust and he is an Adjunct Professor at Imperial Colleges Institute for Global Health Innovation and co-directs the Helix Centre with Professor Lord Ara Darzi. The Helix Centre is a research centre based in St Marys Hospital
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London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
6.
Research university
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Such universities can be recognized by their strong focus on innovative research and the prestige of their brand names. From the late 20th century to the present, U. S. research universities have dominated most international college and university rankings
7.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
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Art
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In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art
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Design
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Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object, system or measurable human interaction. Design has different connotations in different fields, in some cases, the direct construction of an object is also considered to use design thinking. Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, functional, economic, and it may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identities, business processes, and even methods or processes of designing. Thus design may be a substantive referring to an abstraction of a created thing or things. It is an act of creativity and innovation, here, a specification can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product, and primitives are the elements from which the design object is composed. With such a broad denotation, there is no language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject, the person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas usually specifying which area is being dealt with. A designers sequence of activities is called a process while the scientific study of design is called design science. Another definition of design is planning to manufacture an object, system, thus the word design can be used as a noun or a verb. In a broader sense, the design is an applied art, while the definition of design is fairly broad, design has a myriad of specifications that professionals utilize in their fields. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, the prevailing view has been called The Rational Model, Technical Problem Solving and The Reason-Centric Perspective. The alternative view has been called Reflection-in-Action, Evolutionary Design, co-evolution, the Rational Model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, two German engineering design theorists. The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, according to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is at the center of the process, each stage has many associated best practices. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, the Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to The Rational Model. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers, like the Rational Model, the Action-Centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. Designers context-dependent experience and professional judgment take center stage more than technical rationality, at least two views of design activity are consistent with the Action-Centric Perspective
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Somerset House
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Somerset House is a large Neoclassical building situated on the south side of the Strand in central London, overlooking the River Thames, just east of Waterloo Bridge. The building, originally the site of a Tudor palace, was designed by Sir William Chambers in 1776, the East Wing forms part of the adjacent Strand campus of Kings College London. In the sixteenth century, the Strand, the bank of the Thames between the City of London and the Palace of Westminster was a favoured site for the mansions of the nobility. In 1539 Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, obtained a grant of land at Chester Place, outside Temple Bar, when his nephew the boy-king Edward VI came to the throne in 1547, Seymour became Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector. Pauls Cathedral which were demolished partly at his behest as part of the ongoing Dissolution of the Monasteries and it was a two storey house built around a quadrangle with a gateway rising to three stories and was one of the earliest examples of Renaissance architecture in England. It is not known who designed the building, before it was finished, however, Somerset was overthrown, attainted by Parliament and in 1552 was executed on Tower Hill. Somerset Place then came into the possession of the Crown and his royal nephews half-sister the future Queen Elizabeth I lived there during the reign of her half-sister Queen Mary I. The process of completion and improvement was slow and costly, as late as 1598 Stow refers to it as yet unfinished. In the 17th century, the house was used as a residence by queens consort, during the reign of King James I, the building became the London residence of his wife, Anne of Denmark, and was renamed Denmark House. She commissioned a number of additions and improvements, some to designs by Inigo Jones. In particular, during the period between 1630 and 1635 he built a Chapel where Henrietta Maria of France, wife of King Charles I and this was in the care of the Capuchin Order and was on a site to the south-west of the Great Court. A small cemetery was attached and some of the tombstones are still to be built into one of the walls of a passage under the present quadrangle. Royal occupation of Somerset House was interrupted by the English Civil War and they failed to find a buyer, though a sale of the contents realised the very considerable sum of £118,000. Use was still found for it however, part of it served as an Army headquarters, General Fairfax being given official quarters there, lodgings were also provided for certain other Parliamentary notables. It was in Somerset House that Oliver Cromwells body lay in state after his death in 1658, however she returned to France in 1665 before it was finished. It was then used as a residence by Catherine of Braganza. During her time it received a certain notoriety as being, in the popular mind, Somerset House was refurbished by Sir Christopher Wren in 1685. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, Somerset House entered on a period of decline, being used for grace
11.
Richard Burchett
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Richard Burchett was a British artist and educator on the fringes of the Pre-Raphaelite movement, who was for over twenty years the Headmaster of what later became the Royal College of Art. Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, Queen Victorias daughter, Burchett published collections of his lectures as text-books for the South Kensington system of art education, which he helped to devise. Burchett was born in Brighton on 30 January 1815 and he gave evidence to this in 1846-7, by which time he had become a master at the school, remaining on the staff until his death in 1875, from 1852 as Headmaster. He married twice, and had several children, what appear to be a son and grandson are recorded exhibiting paintings in London. Ebenezer Stanley Burchett worked at South Kensington and then was Head Master of the Bedford Park School of Arts & Crafts, in 1870 Richard Burchett is described as formerly of 43 Brompton Square, but now of 8 Bedford Road, Clapham. Burchett was in bad health for the last years of his life. He had only been in the School for 133 days in 1872, in 1870, he began proceedings for bankruptcy, which were still not concluded by his death. Scott says he took to a sort of farming at considerable expense and he began to get into deep water, and into the hands of 20 per cent money-lenders. Still he fought bravely with his difficulties, and even when his salary was placed under trustees. His venture was ill-timed, hitting a period of agricultural depression and his will was probated at less than £200, and Frayling records that a letter from his widow asking for a pension was found unanswered in the school files thirteen years later. Obituaries were published in the Athenaeum, the Art Journal, Burchett exhibited five works, apparently all large history paintings, at the Royal Academy between 1847, including The Death of Marmion, famous in its day according to Hugh Thomas) and 1873. These are rather described as in the Pre-Raphaelite style by the DNB. He exhibited a work at the British Institution in 1855, superstition, you see, turns them into caitiffs. Academy as the exponent of the same would like to crush out of existence. This small painting, which closely approaches a Pre-Raphaelite landscape style, shows a half-harvested cornfield, with tools. But the only figures visible are two clearly middle-class women, no part of the same party as the artist, one sitting against a stook reading a book. Any georgic or realist focus on agriculture is absent his cornfield is just part of a landscape where middle-class people take their leisure, the corn is no more or no less useful than the beaches which we imagine to be in the distance of this brilliantly coloured painting. Here too a more subtle hint of religious feeling is found, there are a number of public paintings by Burchett, with help of his students, commissioned through the school
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Marlborough House
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It was built for Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, the favourite and confidante of Queen Anne. For over a century it served as the London residence of the Dukes of Marlborough, the Duchess wanted her new house to be strong, plain and convenient and good. The architect Christopher Wren and his son of the name designed a brick building with rusticated stone quoins that was completed in 1711. The house was taken up by the Crown in 1817, Marlborough House was primarily used by members of the Royal Family, especially dowager queens and by Prince Albert Edward of Wales and his wife Alexandra. Queen Adelaide, widow of William IV, was given the use of Marlborough House from 1831 until her death in 1849. From 1853 to 1861 Prince Albert, the consort of Queen Victoria, arranged for the building to be used by the National Art Training School, later the Royal College of Art. From 1861-1863, the building was enlarged to designs by Sir James Pennethorne, who added a range of rooms on the north side. This was done for the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, and his wife the Princess of Wales, Alexandra of Denmark, after Edward VII died in 1910, Alexandra reverted to Marlborough House as her London home, until her death in 1925. A late Art Nouveau-Gothic memorial fountain by Alfred Gilbert in the Marlborough Road wall of the house commemorates her, in 1936 Marlborough House became the London residence of their sons widow, Queen Mary. Mary survived George by 17 years, in the grounds of the house remains her pet cemetery. A thatch-roofed rotating summer house built for her still is in place, a plaque to commemorate Queen Mary was unveiled by the Queen in 1967 in the exterior wall closest to the corner with the Mall. The nearly cubical saloon retains wall-paintings by Louis Laguerre of the Battle of Blenheim, a cupola inserted in the ceiling is surrounded by paintings by Orazio Gentileschi for the Queens House, Greenwich,1636. There are paired staircases flanking the saloon, with further battle pieces by Laguerre, most of the interiors have been altered. Marlborough House is usually open to the public for Open House Weekend each September, the house is also open for group tours by prior arrangement. Visiting Information at The Commonwealth Secretariat Virtual tour Flickr images tagged Marlborough House
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South Kensington
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South Kensington is an affluent district of West London in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and the City of Westminster. It is a built-up area 2.4 miles west- south-west of Charing Cross and it is hard to define boundaries for South Kensington, but a common definition is the commercial area around the South Kensington tube station and the adjacent garden squares and streets. Although the postcode SW7 mainly covers South Kensington, some parts of Knightsbridge are also covered, neighbouring the equally affluent centres of Knightsbridge, Chelsea and Kensington, South Kensington covers some of the most exclusive real estate in the world. It is home to numbers of French expatriates, but also Spanish, Italian, American. There are several French bookshops and cafes in the area and is sometimes referred to as Paris’s 21st arrondissement. Two London Underground stations are located in South Kensington, South Kensington, the area was largely undeveloped until the mid-19th century, being an agricultural area supplying London with fruit and vegetables. The area is the subject of Donovans song Sunny South Kensington, Kensington, California was given that name in 1911 by Robert Brousefield, an American surveyor who at an ealier time lived in the British South Kensington. Notable residents have included, Sir Henry Cole, campaigner, educator and first director of the South Kensington Museum, charles Booth, pioneer of social research, lived at 6 Grenville Place. George Wallis, FSA, artist, museum curator and art educator and his children, including Whitworth Wallis and Rosa Wallis. Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, actor-manager, lived at 31 Rosary Gardens. Sir J M Barrie, playwright and novelist, author of Peter Pan, virginia Woolf, writer, and her sister Vanessa Bell, painter and interior designer, lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate until 1904. Francis Bacon, Irish-born British artist, lived at 17 Queensberry Mews and 7 Reese Mews, benny Hill, comedian, lived at 1 &2 Queens Gate. Nicholas Freeman, OBE, controversial Leader of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, lived in Harrington Gardens, dennis Gabor, electrical engineer and physicist, most notable for inventing holography,1971 Nobel Prize in Physics. Peter Finch, English-born distinguished Australian actor, won 5 BAFTA acting awards and he was the first person to win a posthumous Academy Award in an acting category
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Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
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Normal school
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A normal school is a school created to train high school graduates to be teachers. Most such schools are now denominated teachers colleges, the first public normal school in the United States was founded in Concord, Vermont, by Samuel Read Hall in 1823 to train teachers. In 1839, another school was established in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It operates today as Framingham State University, in the United States teacher colleges or normal schools began to evolve from their initial mission of training teachers to add programs in the sciences, engineering, technology, health, and business. They started to become universities in the 1940s. For instance, Southern Illinois University was formerly Southern Illinois Normal College, the University is now a system of two campuses of more than 34,000 students, but still issues most of its baccalaureate degrees in education. Further, the town of Normal, Illinois was named from the name of Illinois State University. Many famous state universities, such as the University of California, such a list includes Emporia State University in Emporia, Kansas, which was established as Kansas State Normal School in 1863, and which by 1889 had become the largest normal school in the Nation. In Canada, such institutions were typically assimilated by a university as the latters Faculty of Education and it requires at least three, but usually four, years of prior undergraduate study. The term normal school originated in the early 16th century from the French école normale, the French concept of an école normale was to provide a model school with model classrooms to teach model teaching practices to its student teachers. The children being taught, their teachers, and the teachers of the teachers were often together in the same building, although a laboratory school, it was the official school for the children—primary or secondary. In Finland, normal schools are under national university administration, whereas most schools are administered by the local municipality, Teacher aspirants do most of their compulsory trainee period in normal schools and teach while being supervised by a senior teacher. In France, a system developed since the Revolution, primary school teachers were educated at départemental écoles normales. Nowadays all teachers are educated in École supérieure du professorat et de léducation, the Écoles Normales Supérieures in France and the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in Italy no longer specialize in teacher training. In the United Kingdom, teacher training colleges were once separate institutions, the University of Chester traces its roots back to 1839 as the earliest training college in the United Kingdom. Others were established by religious institutions and were single-sex until World War II, since then, they have either become multi-discipline universities in their own right or merged with another university to become its faculty of education. The latter was one of the last institutions to retain the word Normal in its name, in Lithuania, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, former Vilnius Pedagogical University is the main teachers training institution, established in 1935. The terminology is still preserved in the translations of such schools in China since the early 20th century
16.
George Clausen
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Sir George Clausen RA, was an English artist working in oil and watercolour, etching, mezzotint, dry point and occasionally lithographs. George Clausen was born in London on 18 April 1852, the son of a decorative artist of Danish descent, from 1867 to 1873, he attended the design classes at the South Kensington Schools in London with great success. He then worked in the studio of Edwin Long RA, and subsequently in Paris under Bouguereau and he was an admirer of the naturalism of the painter Jules Bastien-Lepage about whom he wrote in 1888 and 1892. His pictures excel in rendering the appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight and his Girl at the Gate was acquired by the Chantrey Trustees and is now at the Tate Gallery. Clausen was a member of the New English Art Club in 1886. In 1895 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, as Professor of Painting at the Royal Academy he gave a memorable series of lectures to the students of the Schools, published as Six Lectures on Painting and Aims and Ideals in Art. Clausen was a war artist during World War I. During the war his daughters fiancé was killed, this event may have inspired his painting, Clausen also contributed six lithographs on the theme Making Guns for the Government published print portfolio Britains Efforts and Ideals. Selected works Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Clausen, George, the Etchings and Lithographs of George Clausen, R. A. The Print Collectors Quarterly 1921 July Vol 8, No, notes to Catalogue of Etchings by George Clausen The Print Collectors Quarterly 1921 Dec Vol 8, No. Contemporary British Artists, George Clausen Publisher, Ernest Benn Ltd,1923 Sir George Clausen, Catalogue of an exhibition held in Bradford, London, Bristol and Newcastle upon Tyne in 1980. 153 Painting by or after George Clausen at the Art UK site Works by Clausen in the Imperial War Museum collection
17.
Christopher Dresser
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Dresser was born in Glasgow, Scotland, of a Yorkshire family. At age 13, he began attending the Government School of Design, Somerset House and he received training in design and took botany as his specialization. He lectured on the new subject of Art Botany to complete his studies before his appointment in 1855 as Professor of Artistic Botany in the Department of Science and Art, South Kensington. He wrote a series of articles appeared in the Art Journal in 1857, Botany as Adapted to the Arts. In 1858 he sold his first designs, from this early date his design work widened to include carpets, ceramics, furniture, glass, graphics, metalwork, including silver and electroplate, and textiles printed and woven. He claimed to have designed as much as any man at the International Exhibition London 1862, in effect Dresser set the agenda adopted by the Arts and Crafts movement at a later date. In 1873 he was requested by the American Government to write a report on the design of household goods. He was commissioned by Messrs Tiffany of New York to form a collection, whilst in Japan, in four months in 1876/1877 Dresser travelled about 2000 miles in Japan, recording his impressions in Japan, its Architecture, Art and Art-Manufactures. He represented the South Kensington Museum whilst in Japan, and was received at court by the Emperor and he was requested by the Japanese Government to write a report on Trade with Europe. His pioneering study of Japanese art is evident in much of his work which is considered typical of the Anglo-Japanese style, between 1879 and 1882, as Art Superintendent at the Linthorpe Art Pottery in Linthorpe in Middlesbrough he designed over 1,000 pots. If his ceramic work from the 1860s onwards is considered, he must be amongst the most influential designers of any period. Much of his work remains to be identified, although wallpaper designs for American. A significant Dresser collection is held by the Dorman Museum in Middlesbrough, a Heritage Lottery Fund funded project draws attention to this. Some of Dresser’s metalwork designs are still in production, such as his oil and vinegar sets and toast rack designs, alberto Alessi goes so far as to say Dresser knew the techniques of metal production better than any designer who has come to Alessi. One of his Old Hall designs is thought to have inspired Alan Garners 1967 novel The Owl Service, inside the Victorian Home, a Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. New York, W. W. Norton,2004, Christopher Dresser, a Pioneer of Modern Design. 1993 Snodin, Michael and John Styles, Design & The Decorative Arts, Britain 1500–1900. V & A Publications, Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum, Smithsonian Institution, London 2004, beresford C2010 Christopher Dresser 1834-1904 from www. christopherdresser. co. uk
18.
Luke Fildes
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Sir Samuel Luke Fildes KCVO RA was an English painter and illustrator born in Liverpool and trained at the South Kensington and Royal Academy schools. He was the grandson of the political activist Mary Fildes, at the age of seventeen Fildes became a student at the Warrington School of Art. Fildes moved to the South Kensington Art School where he met Hubert von Herkomer, all three men became influenced by the work of Frederick Walker, the leader of the social realist movement in Britain. Fildes shared his grandmothers concern for the poor and in 1869 joined the staff of The Graphic newspaper, Fildes shared Thomas belief in the power of visual images to change public opinion on subjects such as poverty and injustice. Thomas hoped that the images in The Graphic would result in acts of charity. Fildes illustrations were in the style popular in France and Germany during the era. He worked in a social realist style, compatible with the direction of The Graphic. The picture produced by Fildes showed a line of homeless people applying for tickets to stay overnight in the workhouse, Fildes illustrations also appeared in other mass-circulation periodicals, Sunday Magazine, The Cornhill Magazine, and The Gentlemans Magazine. He also illustrated a number of books in addition to Dickens Edwin Drood, Fildes soon became a popular artist and by 1870 he had given up working for The Graphic and had turned his full attention to oil painting. He took rank among the ablest English painters, with The Casual Ward, The Widower, The Village Wedding, An Al-fresco Toilette, and The Doctor, now in Tate Britain. He also painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many portraits, among them portraits commemorating the coronation of King Edward VII. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1879, and a Royal Academician in 1887, and was knighted by King Edward VII in 1906. In 1918, he was appointed as Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order by King George V. Fildes produced a number of caricatures for Vanity Fair under the nom de crayon ELF. He and Henry Woods were regarded as leaders of the Neo-Venetian school, in 1874 Luke Fildes married Fanny Woods, who was also an artist and the sister of Henry Woods. Fildes first son, Philip, died of tuberculosis in 1877, the image of the doctor at his sons side during the ordeal left a lasting memory of professional devotion that inspired Fildes 1891 work The Doctor. His later son, Sir Paul Fildes, was an eminent scientist, a blue plaque marks Fildess former house, Woodland House, in Melbury Road, Kensington, next to William Burgess Tower House. His home was owned by film director Michael Winner. He is buried in Brookwood Cemetery, in 1949 Fildes painting The Doctor was used by the American Medical Association in a campaign against a proposal for nationalised medical care put forth by President Harry S. Truman
19.
Kate Greenaway
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Catherine Kate Greenaway was an English childrens book illustrator and writer. Her drawings gave rise to a fashion in young childrens clothing in the 1880s and 1890s, Greenaway spent much of her childhood at Rolleston, Nottinghamshire. She studied at what is now the Royal College of Art in London and her first book, Under the Window, a collection of simple, perfectly idyllic verses about children, was a bestseller. Greenaways paintings were reproduced by chromoxylography, by which the colours were printed from hand-engraved wood blocks by the firm of Edmund Evans, through the 1880s and 1890s, her only rivals in popularity in childrens book illustration were Walter Crane and Randolph Caldecott. As well as illustrating books Greenaway produced a number of bookplates, the influence of childrens clothes in portraits by British painter John Hoppner may have provided her some inspiration. Liberty of London adapted Kate Greenaways drawings as designs for actual childrens clothes, the style was often used by painter Maude Goodman in her depictions of children. Greenaway was elected to membership of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1889 and she lived in an Arts and Crafts style house she commissioned from Richard Norman Shaw in Frognal, London, although she spent summers in Rolleston. Greenaway died of breast cancer in 1901, at the age of 55 and she is buried in Hampstead Cemetery, London. The Kate Greenaway Medal, established in her honour in 1955, is awarded annually by the Chartered Institute of Library, robert W. Schuster and Rodney K
20.
Gertrude Jekyll
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Gertrude Jekyll was an influential British horticulturist, garden designer, artist and writer. She created over 400 gardens in the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States, Jekyll has been described as a premier influence in garden design by English and American gardening enthusiasts. Jekyll was born at 2 Grafton Street, Mayfair, London, the fifth of the seven children of Captain Edward Joseph Hill Jekyll, an officer in the Grenadier Guards, and his wife Julia Hammersley. Her younger brother, Walter Jekyll, was a friend of Robert Louis Stevenson, in 1848 her family left London and moved to Bramley House, Surrey, where she spent her formative years. Jekyll is remembered for her designs and subtle, painterly approach to the arrangement of the gardens she created. In works like Colour Schemes for the Flower Garden she put her imprint on modern uses of warm and her theory of how to design with colour was influenced by painter J. M. W. Turner and by impressionism, and by the colour wheel. Later in life, Jekyll collected and contributed a vast array of plants solely for the purpose of preservation to numerous institutions across Britain. This pure passion for gardening was started at South Kensington School of Art, where she fell in love with the art of planting. At the time of her death, she had designed over 400 gardens in Britain, Europe, Jekyll was also known for her prolific writing. She penned over fifteen books, ranging from Wood and Garden and her most famous book Colour in the Flower Garden, to memoirs of her youth. Jekyll did not want to limit her influence to teaching the practice of gardening, but to take it a step further to the study of gardening. Her concern that plants should be displayed to best effect even when cut for the house, Jekyll later returned to her childhood home in the village of Bramley, Surrey to design a garden in Snowdenham Lane called Millmead. She was also interested in traditional cottage furnishings and rural crafts and her book Old West Surrey records many aspects of 19th-century country life, with over 300 photographs taken by Jekyll. From 1881, when she laid out the gardens for Munstead House, built for her mother by John James Stevenson, more than half were directly commissioned, but many were created in collaboration with architects such as Lutyens and Robert Lorimer. Most of her gardens are lost, Jekyll was awarded the Victoria Medal of Honour of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1897 and the Veitch Memorial Medal of the society in 1929. Also in 1929, she was given the George Robert White Medal of Honor of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the monument was designed by Edwin Lutyens. Eberle, Iwona, Eve with a Spade, Women, Gardens, review, The Unknown Gertrude Jekyll, Queen of the mixed border
21.
Graphic design
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Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
22.
Industrial design
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Industrial design is a process of design applied to products that are to be manufactured through techniques of mass production. This distinguishes industrial design from craft-based design, where the form of the product is determined by the creator at the time of its creation. The role of a designer is to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, function, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability. The division of labour that underlies the practice of design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. The emergence of industrial design is linked to the growth of industrialisation and mechanisation that began with the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. The first use of the industrial design is often attributed to the industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers, Industrial designs origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. The earliest use of the term may have been in The Art Union, the Practical Draughtsmans Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the work explains, that it wants to offer a course of mechanical, engineering. The study of those types of drawing, according to Armengaud. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the drawing education in France, the United Kingdom. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of the countrys first industrial design programs at Carnegie Institute of Technology. Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design, information design, except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, educational programs in the U. S. Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a school or university. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study, the study results in a Bachelor of Industrial Design, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Fine Arts. Afterwards, the programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design, Master of Fine Arts. Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment, generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships
23.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
24.
Kensington Gore
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Kensington Gore is the name of two thoroughfares on the south side of Hyde Park in central London, England. The streets connect the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal College of Art, the area is named after the Gore estate which occupied the site until it was developed by Victorian planners in the mid 19th century. A gore is a narrow, triangular piece of land, Gore House was the residence of political reformer, William Wilberforce between 1808 and 1821. The three-acre estate was occupied by the Countess of Blessington. In May 1851, the house opened as a restaurant by the chef Alexis Soyer, after the exhibition and on the advice of Prince Albert, Gore House and its grounds were bought by the Exhibitions Royal Commission to create the cultural quarter known as Albertopolis. In 1871, the Royal Albert Hall was completed on the site of the former house and it was opened by Queen Victoria. In 1892, The Gore Hotel was opened by sisters, Miss Ada and Ms Cooke, the 50-bedroom luxury hotel has featured in many music videos and photo shoots, such as for Beggars Banquet by The Rolling Stones. The streets are bounded to the north by Kensington Road (the A315}, the nearest tube station is South Kensington to the south. LondonTown. com information Kensington Turnpike Trust Drawings — Kensington Gore
25.
Battersea
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Battersea is a largely residential inner-city district of south London in the London Borough of Wandsworth, England. It has Battersea Park, one of southwest Londons main parks, noted for the long-awaited bringing of the London Underground in the 21st century, two main railway lines cross here at what was the countrys busiest station. Elsewhere in Battersea are a growing proportion of private architecturally-acclaimed riverside, parkside, in 2001, Battersea had a population of 75,651 people. Landmarks include New Covent Garden Market and the Royal Academy of Dance, Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common border parts of this large district, which traditionally also includes Nine Elms. Railway stations in Battersea are in fare zone 2, Battersea is mentioned in Anglo-Saxon times as Badrices īeg = Badrics Island and later Patrisey. As with many former parishes beside major rivers some land was reclaimed by draining marshland, the original village nucleus is marked by St. Marys Church, which is on a site that has featured churches since the 9th century. The settlement appears in the Domesday Book as Patricesy, held by St Peters Abbey and its Domesday Assets were,18 hides and 17 ploughlands of cultivated land,7 mills worth £42 9s 8d per year,82 acres of meadow, woodland worth 50 hogs. The former parish of Battersea included, in a detached part, the borough dates from the London Government Act of 1899, and includes the greater part of the original ecclesiastical parish of St. Mary Battersea. Penge was a district, over which the tenants of Battersea Manor had common of pasture. At the end of the 18th century, above 300 acres of land in the parish of Battersea were occupied by some 20 market gardeners, who rented from five to near 60 acres each. Bridges erected across the Thames encouraged growth, Putney Bridge, a mile to the west, was built in 1729, inland from the river, the rural agricultural community persisted. Between these were numerous wharfs for shipping, in 1929, construction started on Battersea Power Station, being completed in 1939. Factories have been demolished and replaced with apartment buildings. Some of the council owned properties have been sold off and several working mens pubs have become more fashionable bistros. Battersea neighbourhoods close to the railway have some of the most deprived local authority housing in the Borough of Wandsworth, an area which saw condemned slums after their erection in the Victoria era. Battersea was radically altered by the coming of railways, over the next 22 years five other lines were built, across which all trains from Londons Waterloo and Victoria termini would as today travel. An interchange station was built in 1863 towards the north west of the area, taking the name of a fashionable village a mile and more away, the station was named Clapham Junction, a campaign to rename it Battersea Junction fizzled out as late as the early twentieth century. The area was served by a vast music hall – The Grand – opposite the station as well as a theatre next to the town hall
26.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
27.
H. T. Cadbury-Brown
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Henry Thomas Cadbury-Brown RA was a British architect. He was educated at the Architecture Association where he was influenced by the architecture of Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius, after graduating he worked for architect Ernő Goldfinger and became his lifelong friend. He went on to set up his own successful practice and his involvement with the Modern Architecture Research Group led to friendships with other modernist architects and opportunities for work including the 1951 Festival of Britain. He is probably best known for his input into the Royal College of Art. Cadbury-Brown was born at Sarratt in Hertfordshire and boarded at Westminster School, from his childhood he was known as Jim after a family friend who had died in the war. Although there was pressure for him to join the Navy, friends suggested architecture as he had shown an aptitude for maths. At the behest of the architect F. R. Yerbury he enrolled into the Architecture Association in 1930 and his first design projects were quite traditional, but after his introduction to the work of Le Corbusier by a friend his work became much more modern. The German magazine Moderne Bauformen exposed him to German modernism and the work of Walter Gropius and he respected the simplicity of the German designs and their grounding in realism rather than the intectualism of other modernists. In 1934 as a fourth-year student Cadbury-Brown met Ursula and Ernő Goldfinger and was delighted by their furniture, after graduating he spent a year working at Goldfingers office and became an admirer of his work and lifelong friend. He learnt first-hand about the composition of materials and detailing and assisted with the design of Goldfingers Willow Road house and his first solo project came in 1937 when he won a competition to design two travel centres for the Big Four British railway companies. The buildings, one in Queensway and the other in the Strand, were praised by one of the competition assessors for their simplicity and practicality, on the back of this commission Cadbury-Brown set up his own office in Clarges Street, London. In 1938 he designed an exhibition stand at the Design and Industries Association at the British Industries Fair at Olympia and his friendship with Ralph Tubbs, whom he had met two years earlier upon joining the MARS Group, led to more work. They collaborated with another to design a bandstand in Weymouth for the MARS Group exhibition at the New Burlington Galleries and they went on to share offices and to design a display for the British Pavilion at the 1939 Worlds Fair. Like many of the designers at the MARS Group exhibition, Cadbury-Brown would later be chosen by Hugh Casson to help some of the pavilions at the Festival of Britain. Also through this association with the group, he received work from Frederick Gibberd to design eighty houses in Mark Hall South as part of the Harlow New Town project. In 1947 the sixth meeting of CIAM was hosted by MARS in Bridgwater, Somerset, MARS at that time was under the leadership of the architectural critic J M Richards who set the theme of the conference to architecture that appealed to the Common Man. This combination of architecture with sculpture, painting and populism was of great interest to Cadbury-Brown, when war broke out he was already an officer with the Territorial Army, in which he served as a major with the Royal Artillery. During his service he noted that he it made all the way from Normandy to Germany without firing a shot, whilst working on designs for the Festival of Britain, Cadbury-Brown met his wife Elizabeth Romeyn Elwyn, who was born in the United States on 28 March 1922
28.
Hugh Casson
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Sir Hugh Maxwell Casson CH KCVO PRA RDI was a British architect, interior designer, artist, and writer and broadcaster on 20th-century design. He was the director of architecture at the 1951 Festival of Britain on Londons South Bank and he was the nephew of actor, Sir Lewis Casson. Casson studied at Eastbourne College in East Sussex, then St Johns College, Cambridge, before the Second World War, he divided his time between teaching at the Cambridge School of Architecture and working in the London office of his Cambridge tutor, architect Christopher Nicholson. He wrote the book New Sights of London in 1938 for London Transport, championing modern architecture within reach of London and he does not mince his words, commented the Architect and Building News on the cover. During the war, he worked in the Camouflage Service of the Air Ministry, for example, the Modernist design of the Royal Festival Hall was led by a 39-year-old, Leslie Martin. Cassons Festival achievements led to his being knighted in 1952, after the war, and alongside his Festival work, Casson went into partnership with young architect Neville Conder. This latter project lasted some 30 years, a close friend of the British royal family, Casson designed the interior of the royal yacht Britannia and is also credited with having taught Charles, Prince of Wales to paint in watercolours. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1970, and was its President from 1976 to 1984, in 1978, he was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Corresponding member. In the 1980s Casson became a presenter, with his own series, Personal Pleasures with Sir Hugh Casson. Casson supplied watercolour illustrations for a new edition of Sir John Betjemans verse autobiography Summoned by Bells, in the 1985 New Years Honours List, Casson was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour. The Victoria & Albert Museum houses Cassons archives, and materials can be consulted at Blythe House,23 Blythe Road, the Royal Academy awards The Hugh Casson Drawing Prize annually for an original work on paper in any medium, where the emphasis is clearly on drawing. Casson is commemorated by Private Eye′s Sir Hugh Casson Award, recognising the Worst New Building of the Year in the Nooks, eulogy, Hugh Casson 1910–1999 by Peter Davey, in Architectural Review, October 1999. Archives of Sir Hugh Casson and Margaret Macdonald Casson, official website for Sir Hugh Casson Works by Sir Hugh Casson at Thompsons Gallery
29.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
30.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
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Haworth Tompkins
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Haworth Tompkins was formed in 1991 by architects Graham Haworth and Steve Tompkins. The practice employs circa 55 people, the Shed, London Temporary auditorium for the National Theatre on the South Bank. North Wall, Oxford New theatre for St Edwards School, Young Vic Theatre, London Refurbishment of Bill Howells 1970s auditorium with new studios, foyer and back-of-house facilities for the Young Vic theatre. The Egg, Bath Childrens Theatre for the Theatre Royal, in an existing Grade II listed building in the heart of Bath, student Housing, Newington Green, London Accommodation for students in land-locked site in Newington Green, London. Transformation of the odl headquarters building of the China Inland Mission, Extension to Hayward Gallery, London Extension and refurbishment of the Hayward Gallery including new pavilion structure with artist Dan Graham. Herbert Art Gallery and Museum, Coventry Extension and refurbishment for Coventry City Council adjacent to Coventry Cathedral, loch Promenade, Douglas, Isle of Man High-quality offices in the centre of Douglas with new landscaped square. Iroko Housing, London New terraced housing development with central courtyard for Coin Street Community Builders on Londons South Bank, Royal Court Theatre, London Rebuilding of existing Royal Court Theatre in Sloane Square with new front of house facilities, offices, dressing rooms and technical facilities. 2005 Bath & North East Somerset Design Quality Award -The Egg Theatre,2003 ABTT Prague Quadrennial Gold Award for Theatre Design. Best Residential Building -Iroko Housing Co-op,2002 Evening Standard awards – most promising newcomer. Time Out Live Awards – Most Inspiring Venue – Almeida Kings Cross, RIBA award for architecture -Iroko Housing Co-op. Housing Design Award -Iroko Housing Co-op, Building of the Year, Royal Fine Art Commission -Iroko Housing Co-op. 2001 Building Awards, Young Architect of The Year, outstanding Young UK Architect, Royal Fine Art Commission Awards. English Partnerships Regeneration Award – Coin Street Iroko Housing Co op, iStructE award – Royal Court Theatre. 2000 RIBA Award –Royal Court Theatre, Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, Conservation and Restoration Award – Royal Court Theatre. Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, Accessibility Award – Royal Court Theatre, USITT Award – Royal Court Theatre. Civic Trust Award –Doc Martens, Cobbs Lane, concrete Society Award – Royal Court Theatre. FX Award Shortlist – Royal Court,1998 Civic Trust Award – Offices, St. Helier, Jersey. 1996 Structural Steel Award –Doc Martens, Cobbs Lane,1995 RIBA Regional Award –Doc Martens
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Mortimer Sackler
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Mortimer David Sackler was an American physician and entrepreneur. With his brothers, Arthur and Raymond, he used his fortune from the industry to become a prominent philanthropist. The son of Isaac and Sophie sackler Polish Jewish immigrant Brooklyn grocer, Mortimer attended Erasmus Hall High School in his native Brooklyn, after World War II began, he completed his degree at the Middlesex Hospital School of Medicine in London. During the Korean war, he was an army psychiatrist in Denver, Colorado, before joining his brothers, the three became a moving force in the research and clinical outpatient department at Creedmore, which would become the Creedmore Institute for Psychobiologic Studies. During the 1950s the brothers undertook pioneering research into how alterations in bodily function can affect mental illness and this work contributed to a move away from treatments such as electric shock and lobotomy towards pharmaceutical solutions or psychoanalysis. The brothers acquired small pharmaceutical companies and worked on reviving them, from 1952 they turned Purdue Pharma into a large privately owned business with products including OxyContin. Using his fortune from pharmaceuticals he became a donor to charitable causes across the world. In 1995, Sackler was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II in recognition of his services to education, the foundations donations include the Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science at the University of Sussex. Passionate gardener Theresa Sackler bought the right to name a new rose cultivar at a charity auction in 2002, the Independent, Obituary The Times, Obituary Dame Theresa Sackler profile, checkcompany. co. uk, accessed 16 June 2016
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James Dyson
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Sir James Dyson OM CBE FRS FREng is a British inventor, industrial designer and founder of the Dyson company. He is best known as the inventor of the Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, according to the Sunday Times Rich List 2016, his net worth is £5 billion, up from £3 billion in 2013. Dyson was born in Cromer, Norfolk, one of three children, Dyson attended Greshams School, a boarding school in Holt, Norfolk, from 1956 to 1965, when his father died of cancer. He excelled at long running, I was quite good at it, not because I was physically good. He spent one year at the Byam Shaw School of Art, Dyson helped design the Sea Truck in 1970 while studying at the Royal College of Art. His first original invention, the Ballbarrow, was a version of a wheelbarrow using a ball instead of a wheel. This was featured on the BBCs Tomorrows World television programme, Dyson stuck with the idea of a ball, which his brother had thought of, inventing the Trolleyball, a trolley that launched boats. He then designed the Wheelboat, which could travel at speeds of 64 kilometres per hour on land and water. In the late 1970s, Dyson had the idea of using cyclonic separation to create a vacuum cleaner that would not lose suction as it picked up dirt. He became frustrated with his Hoover Juniors diminishing performance, the dust bag kept becoming clogged with loads of dust thus reducing suction, the cyclone idea came from a sawmill that used cyclone technology. Partly supported by his wifes salary as an art teacher, and after five years and many prototypes, Dyson launched the G-Force cleaner in 1983. However, no manufacturer or distributor would handle his product in the UK, as it would disturb the valuable market for replacement dust bags, manufactured in bright pink, the G-Force sold for the equivalent of £2,000. It won the 1991 International Design Fair Prize in Japan and he obtained his first US patent on the idea in 1986. After failing to sell his invention to the manufacturers, Dyson set up his own manufacturing company. In June 1993, he opened his research centre and factory in Malmesbury, at that time, the UK market for disposable cleaner bags was £100 million. The slogan say goodbye to the bag proved more attractive to the public than a previous emphasis on the suction efficiency that its technology delivers. Ironically, the step change in domestic vacuum cleaner design had been the introduction of the disposable bag – users being prepared to pay extra for the convenience. In early 2005, it was reported that Dyson cleaners had become the leaders in the United States by value
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Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
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Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
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Anodizing
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Anodizing is an electrolytic passivation process used to increase the thickness of the natural oxide layer on the surface of metal parts. The process is called anodizing because the part to be treated forms the anode electrode of an electrical circuit, anodizing increases resistance to corrosion and wear, and provides better adhesion for paint primers and glues than bare metal does. Anodizing is also used to prevent galling of threaded components and to make films for electrolytic capacitors. Anodic films are most commonly applied to aluminium alloys, although processes also exist for titanium, zinc, magnesium, niobium, zirconium, hafnium. Carbon flakes or nodules in iron or steel with carbon content may cause an electrolytic potential. Ferrous metals are commonly anodized electrolytically in nitric acid or by treatment with red fuming nitric acid to form hard black ferric oxide and this oxide remains conformal even when plated on wire and the wire is bent. Anodizing changes the texture of the surface and the crystal structure of the metal near the surface. Thick coatings are normally porous, so a process is often needed to achieve corrosion resistance. Anodized aluminium surfaces, for example, are harder than aluminium but have low to moderate wear resistance that can be improved with increasing thickness or by applying suitable sealing substances. Anodic films are much stronger and more adherent than most types of paint and metal plating. This makes them likely to crack and peel from aging and wear. Anodizing was first used on a scale in 1923 to protect Duralumin seaplane parts from corrosion. This early chromic acid–based process was called the Bengough–Stuart process and was documented in British defence specification DEF STAN 03-24/3 and it is still used today despite its legacy requirements for a complicated voltage cycle now known to be unnecessary. Variations of this soon evolved, and the first sulfuric acid anodizing process was patented by Gower. Sulfuric acid soon became and remains the most common anodizing electrolyte, oxalic acid anodizing was first patented in Japan in 1923 and later widely used in Germany, particularly for architectural applications. Anodized aluminium extrusion was an architectural material in the 1960s and 1970s. The phosphoric acid processes are the most recent major development, so far only used as pretreatments for adhesives or organic paints, aluminium alloys are anodized to increase corrosion resistance and to allow dyeing, improved lubrication, or improved adhesion. However, anodizing does not increase the strength of the aluminium object, aluminium alloys typically form a thicker oxide layer, 5–15 nm thick, but tend to be more susceptible to corrosion
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
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Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
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Communication
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Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
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Imperial College London
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Imperial College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area comprised of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall, the Imperial Institute was opened by his wife, Queen Victoria, who laid the foundation stone in 1888. Imperial College London was granted a charter in 1907. In the same year, the joined the University of London. The curriculum was expanded to include medicine after merging with several medical schools. In 2004, Queen Elizabeth II opened the Imperial College Business School, Imperial is organized through faculties for Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Business. The main campus is located in South Kensington, the universitys emphasis is on emerging technology and its practical application. Imperials contributions to society include the discovery of penicillin, the development of fibre optics, Imperial is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world. In 2017, it ranked 8th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 9th in the QS World University Rankings, in 2015, Imperial was also ranked the most innovative university in Europe, and in 2017 as the 5th most international university in the world. Staff and alumni include 15 Nobel laureates,2 Fields Medalists,70 Fellows of the Royal Society,82 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering, and 78 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences. The Great Exhibition in 1851 was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Fuller and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The Great Exhibition made a surplus of £186,000 used in creating an area in the South of Kensington encouraging culture and education for everyone. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area composed of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall. Several royal colleges and the Imperial Institute merged to form what is now Imperial College London, as a result of a movement earlier in the decade, many politicians donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also supported by Prince Albert, who persuaded August Wilhelm von Hofmann to be the first professor, William Henry Perkin studied and worked at the college under von Hofmann, but resigned his position after discovering the first synthetic dye, mauveine, in 1856. It is considered the highest honour given in the chemical industry. The Royal School of Mines was established by Sir Henry de la Beche in 1851, developing from the Museum of Economic Geology and he created a school which laid the foundations for the teaching of science in the country, and which has its legacy today at Imperial. The Royal College of Science was established in 1881, the main objective was to support the training of science teachers and to develop teaching in other science subjects alongside the Royal School of Mines earth sciences specialities
